Hiberno-English

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HibernoEnglish (from Latin Hibernia: "Ireland") or Irish

English[2] is the set of English dialects natively written and Hiberno-English
spoken within the island of Ireland (including both the Republic Irish English
of Ireland and Northern Ireland).[3] Native to Republic of Ireland, United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
English was brought to Ireland as a result of the Norman
Region Ireland (Republic of Ireland and
invasion of Ireland of the late 12th century. Initially, it was
Northern Ireland); Great Britain
mainly spoken in an area known as the Pale around Dublin, with
(diaspora)
mostly Irish spoken throughout the rest of the country. By the
Tudor period, Irish culture and language had regained most of Native 4.3 million in the Republic of Ireland
the territory lost to the colonists: even in the Pale, "all the speakers and the United Kingdom (2012
common folk for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit, European Commission)[1]
and of Irish language".[4] However, the Tudor conquest and 275,000 L2 speakers of English in
colonisation of Ireland in the 16th century marked a revival in Ireland (European Commission 2012)
the use of English. By the mid-19th century, English was the Language Indo-European
majority language spoken in the country.[a] It has retained this family
Germanic
status to the present day, with even those whose first language is West Germanic
Irish being fluent in English as well. Anglo-Frisian
Anglic
English
Hiberno-English uses British English spelling and mostly British Hiberno-English
pronunciation standards but with many uniquely Irish elements
as well. Modern Hiberno-English has some features influenced Writing Latin
by the Irish language, and it also tends to be linguistically system
conservative, retaining older features no longer documented in Language codes
the accents of England and North America.
ISO 639-3 None (mis)
Phonologists today often divide Hiberno-English into four or Glottolog None
five overarching classes of dialects or accents:[6][7] Ulster IETF en-IE
accents, West and South-West Region accents (including, for
example, the Cork accent), various Dublin accents, and a
relatively recent supraregional accent.

Contents
1 Ulster English
1.1 Notable lifelong native speakers
2 West and South-West Irish English
2.1 Notable lifelong native speakers
3 Dublin English
3.1 Local Dublin English
3.1.1 Notable lifelong native speakers
3.2 New Dublin English
3.2.1 Notable lifelong native speakers
4 Supraregional southern Irish English
5 Overview of pronunciation and phonology
 6 Vocabulary
6.1 Loan words from Irish
6.2 Derived words from Irish
6.3 Derived words from Old and Middle English
6.4 Other words
7 Grammar and syntax
7.1 From Irish
7.1.1 Reduplication
7.1.2 Yes and no
7.1.3 Recent past construction
7.1.4 Reflection for emphasis
7.1.5 Prepositional pronouns
7.1.6 To be
7.2 From Old and Middle English
7.3 Other grammatical influences
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 Further reading
13 External links

Ulster English
Ulster English (or northern Irish English) here refers collectively to the varieties of the Ulster province,
including Northern Ireland and neighbouring counties outside of Northern Ireland, which has been influenced by
Ulster Irish as well as the Scots language, brought over by Scottish settlers during the Plantation of Ulster. Its main
subdivisions are mid Ulster English as well as Ulster Scots English, the latter of which is more directly and
strongly influenced by the Scots language. All Ulster English has more obvious pronunciation similarities with
Scottish English than other Irish English dialects.

Ulster varieties distinctly pronounce:

An ordinarily grammatically structured (i.e. non-topicalized) declarative sentences, often, with a rising
intonation at the end of the sentence (the type of intonation pattern that other English speakers usually
associate with questions).[8]
// as lowered, in the general vicinity of [~~ ].
// as fronted and slightly rounded, more closely approaching [].
/u/ and // both in the general vicinity of [].
/a/ with a backed on-glide and fronted off-glide, putting it in the vicinity of [~].
/a/ as [~], particularly before voiceless consonants.
/e/ as [e], though nowadays commonly [e] or even [] when in a closed syllable.
/o/, almost always, as a slightly raised monophthong [o(:)].
A lack of happy-tensing; with the final vowel of happy, holy, money, etc. as [e].
Syllable-final /l/ occasionally as "dark []", though especially before a consonant.

Notable lifelong native speakers

Christine Bleakley, Jamie Dornan, Rory McIlroy, Liam Neeson "The Northern Irish accent is the sexiest in
the UK, according to a new poll. The dulcet tones of Liam Neeson, Jamie Dornan, Christine Bleakley and
Rory McIlroy helped ensure the accent came top of the popularity charts"[9]
 John Cole "His distinctive Ulster accent"[10]
Nadine Coyle "I was born and raised in Derry and I can't change the way I talk".[11]
Daniel O'Donnell "the languid Donegal accent made famous by Daniel O'Donnell"[12]
Colin Morgan "Colin Morgan has revealed that fans of the show are often confused by his accent. The 23-
year-old... is originally from Northern Ireland"[13]

West and South-West Irish English

West and South-West Irish English here refers to broad varieties of Ireland's West and South-West Regions.
Accents of both regions are known for:

The pinpen merger[14]

The backing and slight lowering of /a/ towards [~].
The more open starting point for /r/ and // of [~] and [~], respectively.
The preservation of /o/ as monophthongal [o].
// and //, respectively, as [t()] and [d].

South-West Irish English (often known, by specific county, as Cork English, Kerry English, or Limerick
English) also features two major defining characteristics of its own: the raising of // to [] when before /n/ or /m/
(as in again or pen), and the noticeable intonation pattern of a slightly higher pitch followed by a significant drop
in pitch on stressed long-vowel syllables (across multiple syllables or even within a single one),[15] which is
popularly heard, in rapid conversation, as a kind of undulating "sing-song" pattern.[16]

Notable lifelong native speakers

Roy Keane "Cork accent"[17]

Dith S "his Kerry dialect"[18]
The Rubberbandits "Rubberbandits' strong Limerick accent... sits on a frequency like a tambourine which
can cut through any noise"[19]

Dublin English
Dublin English is highly internally diverse and refers collectively to the Irish English varieties of eastern Ireland
(the province of Leinster). Modern-day Dublin English largely lies on a phonological continuum, ranging from a
more traditional, lower-prestige, local urban accent on the one end to a more recently developing, higher-prestige,
non-local (regional and even supraregional) accent on the other end, whose most advanced characteristics only first
emerged in the late 1980s and 1990s.[20] The accent that most strongly uses the traditional working-class features
is often called local Dublin English. Most speakers from Dublin and its suburbs, however, have accent features
falling variously along the entire middle as well as newer end of the spectrum, which together form what is called
non-local Dublin English, spoken by middle- and upper-class natives of Dublin and the greater eastern Irish
region surrounding the city. A subset of this variety, whose middle-class speakers mostly range in the middle of the
continuum, is called mainstream Dublin English. Mainstream Dublin English has become the basis of an accent
that has otherwise become supraregional (see more below) everywhere except in the north of the country. The
majority of Dubliners born since the 1980s (led particularly by females) has shifted towards the most innovative
non-local accent, here called new Dublin English, which has gained ground over mainstream Dublin English and
which is the most extreme variety in rejecting the local accent's traditional features.[21] The varieties at either
extreme of the spectrum, local and new Dublin English, are both discussed in further detail below. In the most
general terms, all varieties of Dublin English have the following identifying sounds that are often distinct from the
rest of Ireland, pronouncing:
 /a/ as fronted and/or raised [~~e].
/a/ as retracted and/or centralised [~].
/o/ as a diphthong in the range (local to non-local) of [~o~].

Local Dublin English

Local Dublin English (or popular Dublin English) here refers to a traditional, broad, working-class variety
spoken in the Republic of Ireland's capital city of Dublin. It is the only Irish English variety that in earlier history
was non-rhotic; however, it is today weakly rhotic,[7][22] and it uniquely pronounces:

/a/ as [].
/a/ as [~e].
// as [a~].
/o/ as [~o].
// as [].
// and //, respectively, as [t()] and [d].

The local Dublin accent is also known for a phenomenon called "vowel breaking", in which the vowel sounds /a/,
/a/, /u/, and /i/ in closed syllables are "broken" into two syllables, approximating [w], [j], [uw], and [ij],
respectively.[23]

Notable lifelong native speakers

Damien Dempsey "his distinctly Dublin sounds" and "a working class Dublin accent"[24]
Imelda May "Irish celebrities who have distinctive accents such as Imelda May"[25]

New Dublin English

Evolving as a fashionable outgrowth of the mainstream non-local Dublin English, new Dublin English (also,
advanced Dublin English and, formerly, fashionable Dublin English) is a youthful variety that originally began
in the early 1990s among the "avant-garde" and now those aspiring to a non-local "urban sophistication".[26] New
Dublin English itself, first associated with affluent and middle-class inhabitants of southside Dublin, is probably
now spoken by a majority of Dubliners born since the 1980s.[20] It has replaced (yet was largely influenced by)
moribund D4 English (often known as "Dublin 4" or "DART speak" or, mockingly, "Dortspeak"), which
originated around the 1970s from Dubliners who rejected traditional notions of Irishness, regarding themselves as
more trendy and sophisticated;[27] however, particular aspects of the D4 accent became quickly noticed and
ridiculed as sounding affected, causing these features to fall out of fashion by the 1990s.[28]

This "new mainstream" accent of Dublin's youth, rejecting traditional working-class Dublin, pronounces:

// as open as [a].
/r/ may be [], with a backer vowel than in other Irish accents, though still relatively fronted.
// as high as [] or even [o], causing a re-split in the cotcaught merger that traditionally characterised
Dublin speech.
// as high as [] or even [o].
/o/ as the Londonian diphthong [].
/r/ and /r/ as both possibly rounded [], perhaps causing a furfair merger.
/r/ and /r/ as possibly merged, as well as /w/ and /hw/ as possibly merged, leading to potential horse
hoarse and witchwhich mergers.

Notable lifelong native speakers

 Saoirse Ronan "the 'Dub' accent in which she speaks"[29]
Andrew Scott "his soft-as-rain Dublin accent"[30]

Supraregional southern Irish English

Supraregional southern Irish English (sometimes, simply, supraregional Irish English or supraregional
Hiberno-English) here refers to a variety crossing regional boundaries throughout all of the Republic of Ireland,
except the north. As mentioned earlier, mainstream Dublin English of the early- to mid-1900s is the direct
influence and catalyst for this variety.[31] Most speakers born in the 1980s or later are showing fewer features of
the twentieth-century mainstream supraregional form and more characteristics of an advanced supraregional
variety that aligns clearly with the rapidly spreading new Dublin accent (see more above, under "Non-local Dublin
English").[32]

Ireland's surparegional dialect pronounces:

// as quite open [a].

/a/ along a possible spectrum [a~~], with innovative [] particularly more common before voiced
consonants,[22] notably including /r/.
/a/ as starting fronter and often more raised than other dialects: [a~~].
/r/ may be [], with a backer vowel than in other Irish accents, though still relatively fronted.
// as [].
/r/ as [], almost always separate from [o], keeping words like war and wore, or horse and hoarse,
pronounced distinctly.
// as [].
/o/ as a diphthong, approaching [o], as in the mainstream United States, or [], as in mainstream
England.
// as higher, fronter, and often rounder [~].

Overview of pronunciation and phonology

The following charts list the vowels typical of each Irish English dialect as well as the several distinctive
consonants of Irish English.[6][7] Phonological characteristics of overall Irish English are given as well as
categorisations into five major divisions of Hiberno-English: northern Ireland (or Ulster); West & South-West
Ireland; local Dublin; new Dublin; and supraregional (southern) Ireland. Features of mainstream non-local Dublin
English fall on a range between "local Dublin" and "new Dublin".

Pure vowels (Monophthongs)

The defining pure vowels of Irish English:

The following pure vowel sounds are defining characteristics of Irish English:

The vowel //, as in cut or run, is typically centralised in the mouth and often somewhat more rounded than other
standard English varieties, such as Received Pronunciation in England or General American in the United States.
Most Irish English varieties make some distinction between the "broad" a and "flat" a of Received
Pronunciation, whereas General American, for example, makes no distinction.
There is inconsistency regarding the lotcloth split and the cotcaught merger; certain Irish English dialects have
these phenomena while others do not.
Any and many are pronounced to rhyme with nanny, Danny, etc. by very many speakers, i.e. with each of these
words pronounced with [].[33]
All pure vowels of various Hiberno-English dialects:

English West & Local New Supraregional

Ulster Example words
diaphoneme South-West Ireland Dublin Dublin Ireland
flat // [~a] [] [a] [~a] add, land, trap
// and broad // [~] [~a] [a]1 bath, calm, dance
conservative // [] [] [~~]4 [] lot, top, wasp
divergent // [~] [a~] [] [] dog, loss, off
// [~] [a~] [~~o]4 [] all, bought, saw
// []2 dress, met, bread
// [] about, syrup, arena
//4 [~~ ] [] hit, skim, tip
/i/4 [i()]3 beam, chic, fleet
// [~] [] [~] [~] bus, flood, what
// [] [] book, put, should
/u/ [()] [u~u~] 3 [u] food, glue, new

Footnotes:

^1 In southside Dublin's once-briefly fashionable "Dublin 4" (or "Dortspeak") accent, the "// and broad //" set
becomes rounded as [].[28]

^2 In South-West Ireland, // before /n/ or /m/ is raised to [].[34]

^3 Due to the local Dublin accent's phenomenon of "vowel breaking", /i/ may be realised in this accent as [i] in a
closed syllable, and, in the same environment, /u/ may be realised as [u].

^4 Unstressed syllable-final /i/ or // is realised in Ulster accents uniquely as [e~].[22]

Other notes:

In some highly conservative Irish English varieties, words spelled with ea and pronounced with [i] in RP are
pronounced with [e], for example meat, beat, and leaf.
In words like took where the spelling "oo" usually represents //, conservative speakers may use /u/. This is
most common in local Dublin and the speech of north-east Leinster.

Gliding vowels (Diphthongs)

The defining diphthongs of Hiberno-English:

The following gliding vowel (diphthong) sounds are defining characteristics of Irish English:

The first element of the diphthong /a/, as in ow or doubt, may move forward in the mouth in the east (namely,
Dublin) and supraregionally; however, it may actually move backward throughout the entire rest of the country.
In the north alone, the second element is particularly moved forward, as in Scotland.
The first element of the diphthong //, as in boy or choice, is slightly or significantly lowered in all geographic
regions except the north.
 The diphthong /e/, as in rain or bay, is most commonly monophthongised to [e]. Furthermore, this often lowers
to // in words such as gave and came (sounding like "gev" and "kem").

All diphthongs of various Hiberno-English dialects:

English West & Local New Supraregional

Ulster Example words
diaphoneme South-West Ireland Dublin Dublin Ireland
/a/ [~] [~] [~]1 [~] [a~] bright, ride, try
/a/ [~] [~] []1 [a~] now, ouch, scout
/e/ [e()] [e] lame, rein, stain
// [] [~] [a~] [~o] [] boy, choice, moist
/o/ [o] [o~] [] [o~] goat, oh, show

Footnotes:' ^1 Due to the local Dublin accent's phenomenon of "vowel breaking", /a/ may be realised in that accent as
[j] in a closed syllable, and, in the same environment, /a/ may be realised as [w].

R-coloured vowels

The defining r-coloured vowels of Hiberno-English:

The following r-coloured vowel features are defining characteristics of Hiberno-English:

Rhoticity: Every major accent of Hiberno-English pronounces the letter "r" whenever it follows a vowel sound,
though this is weaker in the local Dublin accent due to its earlier history of non-rhoticity. Rhoticity is a feature
that Hiberno-English shares with Canadian English and General American but not with Received Pronunciation.
The distinction between /r/ and /r/ is almost always preserved, so that, for example, horse and hoarse are not
merged in most Irish accents.

All r-coloured vowels of various Hiberno-English dialects:

English West & Local New Supraregional

Ulster 1 1, 2 Example words
diaphoneme South-West Ireland Dublin Dublin3 Ireland
/r/ [~] [~a] [~]4 car, guard, park
/r/ [i~i] fear, peer, tier
/r/ [()] [~e]5 bare, bear, there
/r/6 [] [] or []6 []5 burn, first, learn
/r/ []7 doctor, martyr, pervade
/r/8 [~] [~] [~] for, horse, war
/r/8 [o~o] [] [] [o] four, hoarse, wore
/r/ [u~u]9 moor, poor, tour
/jr/ [ju~ju]9 cure, Europe, pure

Footnotes:

^1 In older varieties of the conservative accents, like local Dublin, the "r" sound before a vowel may be pronounced as
a tapped [], rather than as the typical approximant [ ].
^2 Every major accent of Irish English is rhotic (pronounces "r" after a vowel sound). The local Dublin accent is the
only one that during an earlier time was non-rhotic, though it usually very lightly rhotic today,[35] with a few minor
exceptions. The rhotic consonant in this and most other Irish accents is an approximant [ ].

^3 The "r" sound of the mainstream non-local Dublin accent is more precisely a velarised approximant [], while the
"r" sound of the more recently emerging non-local Dublin (or "new Dublin") accent is more precisely a retroflex
approximant [].

^4 In southside Dublin's once-briefly fashionable "Dublin 4" (or "Dortspeak") accent, /r/ is realised as [].

^5 In non-local Dublin's more recently emerging (or "new Dublin") accent, /r/ and /r/ may both be realised more
rounded as [].

^6 In local Dublin, West/South-West, and other very conservative and traditional Irish English varieties ranging from
the south to the north, the phoneme /r/ is split into two distinct phonemes depending on spelling and preceding
consonants, which have sometimes been represented as /r/ versus /r/, and often more precisely pronounced as []
versus []. As an example, the words earn and urn are not pronounced the same, as they are in most dialects of
English around the world. In the local Dublin and West/South-West accents, /r/ when after a labial consonant (e.g.
fern), when spelled as "ur" or "or" (e.g. word), or when spelled as "ir" after an alveolar stop (e.g. dirt) are pronounced
as []; in all other situations, /r/ is pronounced as [].[36] Example words include:

/r/ /r/

certain [stn] bird [bd]

chirp [tp] dirt [dt]
circle [skl] first [fst]
earn [n] murder [md]
earth [t] nurse [ns]
girl [gl] turn [tn]
germ [dm] third or turd [td]
heard or herd [hd] urn [n]
irk [k] work [wk]
tern [tn] world [wld].

In non-local Dublin, younger, and supraregional Irish accents, this split is seldom preserved, with both of the /r/
phonemes typically merged as [].

^7 In rare few local Dublin varieties that are non-rhotic, /r/ is either lowered to [] or backed and raised to [].

^8 The distinction between /r/ and /r/ is widely preserved in Ireland, so that, for example, horse and hoarse are not
merged in most Irish English dialects; however, they are usually merged in Belfast and new Dublin.

^9 In local Dublin, due to the phenomenon of "vowel breaking" [(j)u] may in fact be realised as [(j)u()].

Consonants

The defining consonants of Hiberno-English:

The consonants of Hiberno-English mostly align to the typical English consonant sounds. However, a few Irish English
consonants have distinctive, varying qualities. The following consonant features are defining characteristics of
Hiberno-English:
 H-fulness: Unlike most English varieties of England and Wales, which drop the word-initial /h/ sound in words
like house or happy, Hiberno-English always retains word-initial /h/.
The phonemes // (as in the) and // (as in thin) are pronounced uniquely in most Hiberno-English. // is
pronounced as [d] or [d], depending on specific dialect; and // is pronounced as [t] or [t ].
The phoneme /t/, when appearing at the end of word or between vowel sounds, is pronounced uniquely in most
Hiberno-English; the most common pronunciation is as a "slit fricative".
The phoneme /l/ is almost always of a "light" or "clear" quality (i.e. not velarised), unlike Received
Pronunciation, which uses both a clear and a dark "L" sound, or General American, which pronounces all "L"
sounds as somewhat dark.
Rhoticity: The pronunciation of historical /r/ is nearly universal in Irish accents of English. Like with General
American (but not Received Pronunciation), this means that the letter "r", if appearing after a vowel sound, is
always pronounced (in words such as here, cart, or surf).

Unique consonants in various Hiberno-English dialects:

West & Local

English New Supraregional Example
Ulster1 South-West
diaphoneme Dublin2 Dublin Ireland words
Ireland
this, writhe,
// [] [d] [d]
wither
dark /l/
(/l/ at the end of a
syllable ball, soldier,
[l] or [] [l] [l] or []
or between a vowel milk
and
a consonant)
prevocalic/intervocalic:
rot, shirt,
/r/3 [] [] [] or [] [] [] or []
tar
postvocalic: [] or []
[], [], or battle, Italy,
/t/ between vowels
[] [] or []4 [h] []4 [] or []4 water
/t/ in word-final cat, get,
[t] or [] [] [h] or [] []
position right
lethal,
// [] [t] [t ]
thick, wrath
awhile,
/hw/5 [w] [] [w] [] or [w] whale,
when

Footnotes:

^1 In traditional, conservative Ulster English, /k/ and /g/ is palatalised before a low front vowel.[37]

^2 Local Dublin also undergoes cluster simplification, so that stop consonant sounds occurring after fricatives or
sonorants may be left unpronounced, resulting, for example, in "poun(d)" and "las(t)".[34]

^3 Rhoticity: Every major accent of Irish English is strongly rhotic (pronounces "r" after a vowel sound), though to a
weaker degree with the local Dublin accent.[38] The accents of local Dublin and some smaller eastern towns like
Drogheda were historically non-rhotic and now only very lightly rhotic or variably rhotic, with the rhotic consonant
being an alveolar approximant, []. In extremely traditional and conservative accents (exemplified, for instance, in the
speech of older speakers throughout the coumtry, even in South-West Ireland, such as Mchel Muircheartaigh and
Jackie Healy-Rae), the rhotic consonant, before a vowel sound, can also be an alveolar tap, []. The rhotic consonant
for the northern Ireland and new Dublin accents is a retroflex approximant, []. Dublin's retroflex approximant has no
precedent outside of northern Ireland and is a genuine innovation of the past two decades. A guttural/uvular [] is
found in north-east Leinster.[39] Otherwise, the rhotic consonant of virtually all other Irish accents is the postalveolar
approximant, [].

^4 The symbol [] is used here to represent the voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative, sometimes known as a "slit
fricative",[38] whose articulation is described as being apico-alveolar.[40]

^5 Overall, /hw/ and /w/ are being increasingly merged in supraregional Irish English, for example, making wine and
whine homophones, as in most varieties of English around the world.[40]

Other phonological characteristics of Irish English include that consonant clusters ending in /j/ before /u/ are
distinctive:[41]

/j/ is dropped after sonorants and fricatives, e.g. new sounds like noo, and sue like soo.
/dj/ becomes /d/, e.g. dew/due, duke and duty sound like "jew", "jook" and "jooty".
/tj/ becomes /t/, e.g. tube is "choob", tune is "choon"
The following show neither dropping nor coalescence: /kj/ (as in cute), /mj/ (as in mute), and /hj/ (as in huge;
though the /h/ can be dropped in the South-West of Ireland).

The naming of the letter H as "haitch" is standard.

Due to Gaelic influence, an epenthetic schwa is sometimes inserted, perhaps as a feature of older and less careful
speakers, e.g. film [flm] and form [fm].

Vocabulary
Loan words from Irish

A number of Irish-language loan words are used in Hiberno-English, particularly in an official state capacity. For
example, the head of government is the Taoiseach, the deputy head is the Tnaiste, the parliament is the Oireachtas
and its lower house is Dil ireann. Less formally, people also use loan words in day-to-day speech, although this
has been on the wane in recent decades and among the young.[42]

Example loan words from Irish

Derived words from Irish

Another group of Hiberno-English words are those derived from the Irish language. Some are words in English
that have entered into general use, while others are unique to Ireland. These words and phrases are often
Anglicised versions of words in Irish or direct translations into English. In the latter case, they often give a
meaning to a word or phrase that is generally not found in wider English use.

Example words derived from Irish

Derived words from Old and Middle English

Another class of vocabulary found in Hiberno-English are words and phrases common in Old and Middle English,
but which have since become obscure or obsolete in the modern English language generally. Hiberno-English has
also developed particular meanings for words that are still in common use in English generally.

Example Hiberno-English words derived from Old and Middle English

Other words

In addition to the three groups above, there are also additional words and phrases whose origin is disputed or
unknown. While this group may not be unique to Ireland, their usage is not widespread, and could be seen as
characteristic of the language in Ireland.

Example Hiberno-English words of disputed or unknown origin

Grammar and syntax

The syntax of the Irish language is quite different from that of English. Various aspects of Irish syntax have
influenced Hiberno-English, though many of these idiosyncrasies are disappearing in suburban areas and among
the younger population.

The other major influence on Hiberno-English that sets it apart from modern English in general is the retention of
words and phrases from Old- and Middle-English.

From Irish

Reduplication

Reduplication is an alleged trait of Hiberno-English strongly associated with Stage Irish and Hollywood films.

the Irish ar bith corresponds to English "at all", so the stronger ar chor ar bith gives rise to the form "at all at
all".
"I've no time at all at all."
ar eagla go (lit. "on fear that ") means "in case ". The variant ar eagla na heagla, (lit. "on fear of
fear") implies the circumstances are more unlikely. The corresponding Hiberno-English phrases are "to be
sure" and "to be sure to be sure". In this context, these are not, as might be thought, disjuncts meaning
"certainly"; they could better be translated "in case" and "just in case". Nowadays normally spoken with
conscious levity.
"I brought some cash in case I saw a bargain, and my credit card to be sure to be sure."

Yes and no

Irish lacks words that directly translate as "yes" or "no", and instead repeats the verb used in the question, negated
if necessary, to answer. Hiberno-English uses "yes" and "no" less frequently than other English dialects as speakers
can repeat the verb, positively or negatively, instead of (or in redundant addition to) using "yes" or "no".

"Are you coming home soon?" "I am."

"Is your mobile charged?" "It isn't."

Recent past construction

Irish indicates recency of an action by adding "after" to the present continuous (a verb ending in "-ing"), a
construction known as the "hot news perfect" or "after perfect".[126][127] The idiom for "I had done X when I did
Y" is "I was after doing X when I did Y", modelled on the Irish usage of the compound prepositions i ndiaidh, tar
is, and in is: bh m tar is/i ndiaidh/in is X a dhanamh, nuair a rinne m Y.

"Why did you hit him?" "He was after giving me cheek."

A similar construction is seen where exclamation is used in describing a recent event:

"I'm after hitting him with the car!" Tim tar is a bhualadh leis an gcarr!
"She's after losing five stone in five weeks!"

When describing less astonishing or significant events, a structure resembling the German perfect can be seen:

"I have the car fixed." T an carr deisithe agam.

"I have my breakfast eaten." T mo bhricfeasta ithe agam.

This correlates with an analysis of "H1 Irish" proposed by Adger & Mitrovic,[128] in a deliberate parallel to the
status of German as a V2 language.

Reflection for emphasis

The reflexive version of pronouns is often used for emphasis or to refer indirectly to a particular person, etc.,
according to context. Herself, for example, might refer to the speaker's boss or to the woman of the house. Use of
herself or himself in this way often indicates that the speaker attributes some degree of arrogance or selfishness to
the person in question. Note also the indirectness of this construction relative to, for example, She's coming now

"'Tis herself that's coming now." Is fin at ag teacht anois.

"Was it all of ye or just yourself?" An sibhse ar fad n tusa fin a bh i gceist?

This is not limited only to the verb to be: it is also used with to have when used as an auxiliary; and, with other
verbs, the verb to do is used. This is most commonly used for intensification, especially in Ulster English.

"This is strong stuff, so it is."

"We won the game, so we did."

Prepositional pronouns

There are some language forms that stem from the fact that there is no verb to have in Irish. Instead, possession is
indicated in Irish by using the preposition at, (in Irish, ag.). To be more precise, Irish uses a prepositional pronoun
that combines ag "at" and m "me" to create agam. In English, the verb "to have" is used, along with a "with me"
or "on me" that derives from T agam. This gives rise to the frequent

"Do you have the book?" "I have it with me."

"Have you change for the bus on you?"
"He will not shut up if he has drink taken."

Somebody who can speak a language "has" a language, in which Hiberno-English has borrowed the grammatical
form used in Irish.

"She does not have Irish." Nl Gaeilge aici. literally "There is no Irish at her".
When describing something, many Hiberno-English speakers use the term "in it" where "there" would usually be
used. This is due to the Irish word ann (pronounced "oun" or "on") fulfilling both meanings.

"Is it yourself that is in it?" An t fin at ann?

"Is there any milk in it?" An bhfuil bainne ann?

Another idiom is this thing or that thing described as "this man here" or "that man there", which also features in
Newfoundland English in Canada.

"This man here." An fear seo. (cf. the related anseo = here)
"That man there." An fear sin. (cf. the related ansin = there)

Conditionals have a greater presence in Hiberno-English due to the tendency to replace the simple present tense
with the conditional (would) and the simple past tense with the conditional perfect (would have).

"John asked me would I buy a loaf of bread." (John asked me to buy a loaf of bread.)
"How do you know him? We would have been in school together." (We went to school together.)

Bring and take: Irish use of these words differs from that of British English because it follows the Irish grammar
for beir and tg. English usage is determined by direction; person determines Irish usage. So, in English, one takes
"from here to there", and brings it "to here from there". In Irish, a person takes only when accepting a transfer of
possession of the object from someone else and a person brings at all other times, irrespective of direction (to or
from).

Don't forget to bring your umbrella with you when you leave.
(To a child) Hold my hand: I don't want someone to take you.

To be

The Irish equivalent of the verb "to be" has two present tenses, one (the present tense proper or "aimsir lithreach")
for cases which are generally true or are true at the time of speaking and the other (the habitual present or "aimsir
ghnthlithreach") for repeated actions. Thus, "you are [now, or generally]" is t t, but "you are [repeatedly]" is
bonn t. Both forms are used with the verbal noun (equivalent to the English present participle) to create
compound tenses. This is similar to the distinction between ser and estar in Spanish.

The corresponding usage in English is frequently found in rural areas, especially Mayo/Sligo in the west of Ireland
and Wexford in the south-east, Inner-City Dublin along with border areas of the North and Republic. In this form,
the verb "to be" in English is similar to its use in Irish, with a "does be/do be" (or "bees", although less frequently)
construction to indicate the continuous, or habitual, present:

"He does be working every day." Bonn s ag obair gach l.

"They do be talking on their mobiles a lot." Bonn siad ag caint go minic ar a bhfin pca.
"He does be doing a lot of work at school." Bonn s ag danamh go leor oibre ar scoil.
"It's him I do be thinking of." Is air a bhonn m ag smaoineamh.

This construction also surfaces in African American Vernacular English, as the famous habitual be.

From Old and Middle English

In old-fashioned usage, "it is" can be freely abbreviated tis, even as a standalone sentence. This also allows the
double contraction tisnt, for "it is not".
Irish has separate forms for the second person singular (t) and the second person plural (sibh). Mirroring Irish,
and almost every other Indo European language, the plural you is also distinguished from the singular in Hiberno-
English, normally by use of the otherwise archaic English word ye [ji]; the word yous (sometimes written as
youse) also occurs, but primarily only in Dublin and across Ulster. In addition, in some areas in Leinster, north
Connacht and parts of Ulster, the hybrid word ye-s, pronounced "yiz", may be used. The pronunciation differs with
that of the northwestern being [jiz] and the Leinster pronunciation being [jz].

"Did ye all go to see it?" Ar imigh sibh go lir chun a fheicint?

"None of youse have a clue!" Nl ciall/leid ar bith agaibh!
"Are ye not finished yet?" Nach bhfuil sibh crochnaithe fs?
"Yis are after destroying it!" T sibh tar is a scriosadh!

The word ye, yis or yous, otherwise archaic, is still used in place of "you" for the second-person plural. Ye'r, Yisser
or Yousser are the possessive forms, e.g. "Where are yous going?"

The verb mitch is very common in Ireland, indicating being truant from school. This word appears in Shakespeare
(though he wrote in Early Modern English rather than Middle English), but is seldom heard these days in British
English, although pockets of usage persist in some areas (notably South Wales, Devon, and Cornwall). In parts of
Connacht and Ulster the mitch is often replaced by the verb scheme, while Dublin it is replaced by "on the
hop/bounce".

Another usage familiar from Shakespeare is the inclusion of the second person pronoun after the imperative form
of a verb, as in "Wife, go you to her ere you go to bed" (Romeo and Juliet, Act III, Scene IV). This is still common
in Ulster: "Get youse your homework done or you're no goin' out!" In Munster, you will still hear children being
told, "Up to bed, let ye" [lti].

For influence from Scotland, see Ulster Scots and Ulster English.

Other grammatical influences

Now is often used at the end of sentences or phrases as a semantically empty word, completing an utterance
without contributing any apparent meaning. Examples include "Bye now" (= "Goodbye"), "There you go now"
(when giving someone something), "Ah now!" (expressing dismay), "Hold on now" (= "wait a minute"), "Now
then" as a mild attention-getter, etc. This usage is universal among English dialects, but occurs more frequently in
Hiberno-English. It is also used in the manner of the Italian 'prego' or German 'bitte', for example a barman might
say "Now, Sir." when delivering drinks.

So is often used for emphasis ("I can speak Irish, so I can"), or it may be tacked onto the end of a sentence to
indicate agreement, where "then" would often be used in Standard English ("Bye so", "Let's go so", "That's fine
so", "We'll do that so"). The word is also used to contradict a negative statement ("You're not pushing hard enough"
"I am so!"). (This contradiction of a negative is also seen in American English, though not as often as "I am too",
or "Yes, I am".) The practice of indicating emphasis with so and including reduplicating the sentence's subject
pronoun and auxiliary verb (is, are, have, has, can, etc.) such as in the initial example, is particularly prevalent in
more northern dialects such as those of Sligo, Mayo and the counties of Ulster.

Sure is often used as a tag word, emphasising the obviousness of the statement, roughly translating as
but/and/well. Can be used as "to be sure", the famous Irish stereotype phrase. (But note that the other stereotype of
"Sure and " is not actually used in Ireland.) Or "Sure, I can just go on Wednesday", "I will not, to be sure." The
word is also used at the end of sentences (primarily in Munster), for instance "Sure, I was only here five minutes
ago!" and can express emphasis or indignation.
To is often omitted from sentences where it would exist in British English. For example, "I'm not let go out
tonight", instead of "I'm not allowed to go out tonight".

Will is often used where British English would use "shall" or American English "should" (as in "Will I make us a
cup of tea?"). The distinction between "shall" (for first-person simple future, and second- and third-person
emphatic future) and "will" (second- and third-person simple future, first-person emphatic future), maintained by
many in England, does not exist in Hiberno-English, with "will" generally used in all cases.

Once is sometimes used in a different way from how it is used in other dialects; in this usage, it indicates a
combination of logical and causal conditionality: "I have no problem laughing at myself once the joke is funny."
Other dialects of English would probably use "if" in this situation.

See also
Anglo-Manx Newfoundland English
Dialect Regional accents of English
English language in Europe Ulster English
Highland English Welsh English
Languages of Ireland
List of English words of Irish origin
Newfoundland English
Notes
a. According to the 1841 census, Ireland had 8,175,124 inhabitants, of whom four million spoke Gaelic.[5]

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93. Irish times 23.6.2012 (http://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-loveable-hateable-class-of-a-yoke-1.1068332?page=2)
94. Collins Dictionary online def. 15 (http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/yoke?showCookiePolicy=true)
95. Irish Independent 30.1.2013 (http://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/wagons-den-you-got-that-right-29025619.html)
96. oxford Dictionary online (http://english.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/wagon)
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98. The Irish huist (http://www.hiberno-english.com/body.php?action=search&s=whist) meaning "be quiet", is an unlikely
source since the word is known throughout England and Scotland where it derives from early Middle English whist (htt
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l.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?plen=686&startset=79646075&query=Wisht&fhit=whist&dregion=entry&dtext=dost#fhit))
99. "Sat, Mar 07, 2009 RT set to clash with Ryan over his salary" (http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2009/03
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100. "Labour's Burton says Ireland is 'banjaxed' RT News" (http://www.rte.ie/news/2010/1128/economy2.html). Raidi
Teilifs ireann. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
101. Oxford Dictionary online (http://english.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/bowsie)
102. SND: Bowsie (http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?plen=1184&startset=3796789&query=BOWSIE&fhit=bowsie&dregio
n=entry&dtext=snd#fhit)
103. Terence Patrick Dolan (2004). A dictionary of Hiberno-English: the Irish use of English (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=uPo0oB19gDUC&pg=PR10). Gill & Macmillan Ltd. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-7171-3535-6. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
104. Cf. Scots blab/bleb (http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?plen=4261&startset=2798721&query=BLAB&fhit=bleb&dregion
=entry&dtext=snd#fhit).
105. "Sat, Jan 04, 2003 Heroic stoic of the island" (http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/weekend/2003/0104/1040226952
337.html). The Irish Times. 1 January 2003. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
106. Terence Brown, The Literature of Ireland: Culture and Criticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010),
p.261; James Fenton, "Against Fakery: Kingsley Amis" in The Movement Reconsidered: Larkin, Amis, Gunn, Davie and
their Contemporaries, (Oxford: OUP, 2009), p.107
107. "The Chisellers (9780452281226): Brendan O'Carroll: Books" (http://www.amazon.com/Chisellers-Brendan-OCarroll/d
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108. Oxford dictionary online (http://english.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cod--2?rskey=PtbNiR&result=4)
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113. Oxford English Dictionary online (http://english.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gurrier)
114. SND Gurry (http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?plen=4261&startset=2798721&query=BLAB&fhit=bleb&dregion=entry
&dtext=snd#fhit)
115. "Educating Rory lays foundations for a Hollywood blockbuster" (http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/sport/2010/060
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ry&dtext=both) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131112231500/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?query=rake&
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ry&dtext=snd#fhit)
122. Dolan, Terence Patrick (2004). A Dictionary of Hiberno-English (https://books.google.com/books?id=RN0p1uienWMC
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Further reading
"Irish English and Ulster English" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140421050911/http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/i
nstitut/mitarbeiter/jilka/teaching/dialectology/d9_Ireland.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://ifla.u
ni-stuttgart.de/institut/mitarbeiter/jilka/teaching/dialectology/d9_Ireland.pdf) (PDF) on 21 April 2014.

External links
Everyday English and Slang in Ireland (http://www.irishslang.co.za/)
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