Skills Refresher: Accuracy, Precision, Significant Digits and Rounding

In all measurements there is uncertainty. Car speedometers, temperature thermometers, lab balances- using any
measuring device results in a measurement and an error, even if the error is not expressed. This is important in
scientific investigations, because knowing accuracy and precision can help the investigator choose the correct
measurement devices, properly analyze the data, and ultimately discover the causes of phenomena and problems.
Accuracy vs. Precision
These terms are often used interchangeably, but in fact they mean different things.
Precise measurement: repeated measurements of the same subject/situation are very similar. A measure of random
error, precision is determined by repeated measures of the same parameter.
Accurate measurement: measurements are very close to the "true" value. A
measure of systematic error, accuracy is determined by comparison with
measures of a known or true value. The true value of a measure can never be
known exactly, but can be estimated by averaging several measurements of the
same subject/situation, preferably using different measurement methods
performed by different people.
The figure at right illustrates the difference between these terms, where the goal
is to hit the centre of the target. Targets A and B show more precise results than
targets C and D because the five results are closer to each other (less random
error, more repeatable). Targets A and C show more accurate results than targets
B and D, because they are closer to the centre (in this case the 'true' value).
Uncertainty and Error in Measurement
Two factors contribute to uncertainty and error in measurement:
Physical limitation of the measuring device: measuring the height of an object, it is not possible to measure
more accurately than the finest graduation on the measuring device. The measurement will result in a number,
but the object is not exactly the measured height because of this limitation.
Proper use of the measuring device: using the device improperly can result in error in measurement (e.g., was
the ruler measure viewed at an angle or straight on? Was the balance calibrated?)
Types of Error
Systematic (Determinant) Error
Example: individual plant leaves are placed in a container on a balance and weighed, but the measurement includes the
container weight and the leaf weight. The measurements are all in error by the same amount, the container weight.
Systematic error applies equally to all measurements under identical experimental conditions. It is not necessarily
present in every experiment/investigation. If present, it may be discoverable, quantifiable and sometimes
correctable without repeating the measurements. Every effort should be made to avoid systematic error by
reviewing measurement procedures carefully. Undetected, systematic error renders the results potentially useless.
Random (Indeterminant) Error
Example: every balance has a limit to the reproducibility of the weight measure, due to how the balance is constructed
mechanically and how it operates. The same item will, at the limit of the device's sensitivity, appear to weigh slightly more
or less each time it is weighed. On average the weight will be overestimated as much and often as it is underestimated.
Random error is unpredictable, is a part of every measurement, and cannot be corrected. It can, however, be
quantified and expressed as part of the measurement value.
Expressing Error
Error can be managed and expressed in several ways when writing a number.
Significant Digits
The number of digits in a number can indicate a measurement's precision. For example, two different methods are
used to measure the air temperature simultaneously, resulting in measurements of 12.624 C and 12.6 C. The first
number has five significant digits, while the second number has only three, so the first number is more precise than
the second number by 100 times (2 decimal places). Usually the number of significant digits reported depends on

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the measurement with the least significant figures. If we were to average the two numbers above the resulting value
would have 3 significant figures. (You can only be as sure as your least sensitive measurement)
In science work and reporting always show the correct number of significant figures. Frequently numbers are
written ignoring the number of significant digits. For instance, when you see on the news that 78000 jobs were
created in Canada last month, is that exactly 78000? No, it is a rounded number, which is perhaps known to 3
significant digits, but because of the way it is expressed, it looks like it is more precise than it is. The number 78000
written to show 3 significant figures would be written in scientific notation: 7.80 x 104, which removes the extra
zeros from view, so they don't mislead the reader about the number's precision.
Rounding Numbers
Measurements may be rounded to less precision for several reasons:
There is always uncertainty in the last digit of any measurement because the last digit displayed is often near the limit of
the measurement device's maximum sensitivity, where random error is significant.
The high sensitivity of a measurement may be unnecessary, depending on the purpose of the measurement. For example,
to find out how long it will take to drive from Peterborough to Toronto, one does not have to measure the distance to the
nearest metre; to the nearest kilometre is more than enough precision to answer the question.
In math operations involving numbers with different numbers of significant digits, the result often must be rounded.
Rounding reduces the number of significant digits in a number, while maintaining the maximum precision. The basic
method is to round the digit that is to end the number up or down, depending on the value of the digits being eliminated:
a) 3.67 rounded to 2 sig. digs: 3.7 d) 3.75 rounded to 2 sig. digs: 3.8
b) 3.62 rounded to 2 sig. digs: 3.6 e) 4.735000 rounded to 3 sig. digs: 4.74
c) 3.65 rounded to 2 sig. digs: 3.6 f) 0.0035200 rounded to 2 sig. digs: 3.5 x 10-3
(Note: when rounding from 5, as in c, d, and e, rounding up or down results in the same change in precision, and so there can
be confusion about which way to round. The method should be consistent. Above, rounding is to the closest even number.)
When performing calculations with numbers that have different precisions, follow these rules for rounding:
1. If adding or subtracting, first convert all numbers to the same exponent value (scientific notation).
2. Perform the calculation.
3. Round the final answer to the same precision as that of the least certain number (smallest number of significant digits).
Expressing Random Error With A Written Number
Communicating random error requires the inclusion of an error term after the measurement (e.g., 2.65 0.8).
Determining random error requires repeated measures of the same subject/situation, from which can be calculated a
mean (the first number) and a standard deviation (the variation). This tells the reader a lot about the reliability of the
number (e.g., 38.1 0.2 is much more reliable than 13.9 5.9).
Uncertainty can be expressed two ways:
Absolute uncertainty expresses the error associated with a measurement in the units of the measurement, such
as 10.7 seconds 0.3 seconds.
Relative uncertainty is a unitless measure where the uncertainty is expressed as a fraction of the associated measurement
(e.g., 0.3 sec/10.7 sec = 0.03). So the above example would be expressed as 10.7 seconds 0.03. Percent relative
uncertainty is the relative uncertainty multiplied by 100 (i.e. 0.03 x 100 = 3%), and would be expressed as 10.7 3%.
When performing calculations with numbers that have an error component,
Example:
the uncertainty of the result equals the square root of the sum of the squares 4.350.24 x 8.161.189 =
of the uncertainties of each number being summed or subtracted.
4.35 x 8.16 = 35.5 (after rounding)
Follow these steps to carry the error term through the calculation: multiplying requires relative uncertainty:
1) If adding or subtracting, convert the uncertainty (if necessary) to 0.24/4.35*100 = 5.517%
absolute uncertainty. If multiplying or dividing, convert the 1.189/8.16*100 = 14.571%
uncertainty (if necessary) to relative percent uncertainty total error = sqrt(5.5172+14.5712) =
2) Calculate the uncertainty of the answer (er) using the formula: 15.58%
e r = (e a 2 + e b 2 ) , where ea and eb are uncertainties from step 1. convert back to absolute uncertainty:
3) Round the uncertainty to the same precision as that of the least 35.5*15.58%= 5.53
final result: 35.55.53
certain uncertainty,

Robert Loney, Environmental and Resource Studies Program, Trent University rev. 2010-August