Fundamentals of Well Control PDF

Section 1: Fundamentals of Well Control
PVD Training
October 24, 2012
Authored by: Pham Van Thien
PVD Training
Contents
1.1 Categories of Well Control ...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Relationship of Volume to Pressure ...................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Capacity, Volume and Displacement .................................................................................................................... 11
1.5 Formation Pressure .............................................................................................................................................. 12
1.6 Normal Formation Pressure .................................................................................................................................. 12
1.7 Abnormal Pressure ............................................................................................................................................... 13
1.8 Sub Normal Pressure............................................................................................................................................ 19
1.9 Equivalent Mud Weight ......................................................................................................................................... 19
1.10 Formation Fracture Pressure .............................................................................................................................. 20
1.11 Leak-off Tests ..................................................................................................................................................... 21
1.12 Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP) .................................................................................. 28
1.13 Casing Setting Depths ........................................................................................................................................ 28
1.14 Circulating Pump Pressure ................................................................................................................................. 30
1.15 Bottom Hole Pressure ......................................................................................................................................... 32
1.16 Equivalent Circulation Density ............................................................................................................................ 33
1.17 The U-Tube Concept .......................................................................................................................................... 33
1.18 How Primary Well Control is Effected ................................................................................................................. 35
Well barrier...................................................................................................................................................................40
IWCF PHILOCOPHY CONCEPT.................................................................................................................................47
| 1.1 Categories of Well Control 1

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1.1 Categories of Well Control

The function of Well Control can be conveniently subdivided into three main categories:
PRIMARY WELL CONTROL
SECONDARY WELL CONTROL
TERTIARY WELL CONTROL.
Primary Well Control

This is the name given to the process which maintains a hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore greater than
the pressure of the fluids in the formation being drilled, but less than formation fracture pressure. If
hydrostatic pressure is less than formation pressure then formation fluids will enter the wellbore. If the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the wellbore exceeds the fracture pressure of the formation then the
fluid in the well could be lost. In an extreme case of lost circulation the formation pressure may exceed
hydrostatic pressure allowing formation fluids to enter into the well.
An overbalance of hydrostatic pressure over formation pressure is maintained, this excess is generally
referred to as a trip margin.
Kick: An unintentional flow of formation fluids into the well bore.
Influx: the volume of fluid which has entered the well bore.
Secondary Well Control

If primary well control is lost, i.e. if the pressure of the fluids in the wellbore (i.e. mud) fail to prevent
formation fluids from entering the wellbore, the well will flow. This process is stopped by using a Blow out
Preventer (BOP) to prevent the escape of fluids from the well.
Early recognition of the failure of primary well control and the rapid shut-in of the well is the key to effective
secondary well control. By taking action quickly, the amount of formation fluid that enters the wellbore is
minimized and a blowout can be averted.
The primary consideration in Secondary Well Control is to Minimize the Influx by immediately closing the
BOP when a positive indicator of flow is encountered.
Tertiary Well Control

Tertiary well control describes the third line of defence where the formation cannot be controlled by primary
(hydrostatic) or secondary well control (equipment). A prime example of this would be an underground
blowout; however in well control this is not always used as a qualitative term.
In the event that secondary well control cannot be successfully completed due to hole conditions,
equipment failure or because an unusual well control situation exists, then Tertiary well control must be
implemented. Tertiary well control consists of applying certain emergency procedures to prevent the total
loss of the well and mitigate hazards to personnel and the environment. These procedures often lead to
partial or complete abandonment of the well.
Listed below are examples of some Unusual Well Control Operations that will probably require Tertiary
well control procedures:-
A kick is taken with the bit off bottom
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The drill pipe plugs during a kill operation
There is no pipe in the hole
Choke & kill line plugged with hydrates or cuttings.
Hole in the drill string
Lost circulation
Excessive casing pressure
Plugged and stuck off bottom
Gas percolation without gas expansion
Stripping or snubbing in the hole
Drilling relief wells
Underground Blowout
The important question to ask is, What is the well status at shut in? This determines the category of well
control.
1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure

Understanding pressure and pressure relationships is important in understanding well control.
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted by a fluid, i.e.:
Pressure =
This formula can be re-arranged to calculate the force from a given pressure and a unit area:
Force = Pressure x Area
In the oilfield, pressure is usually expressed as the pounds of force applied against a one square inch area,
i.e. pounds per square inch (psi). Therefore, when a gas is placed in a pressure tight container, it exerts a
pressure on all sides of the container. If the gas pressure equals 100 psi, then it exerts a force of 100
pounds (lbs) on each square inch of the container area. Similarly, if a liquid is placed in a can, it exerts a
pressure on the sides and bottom of the container due to the weight of the liquid, and this force is also
expressed as psi.
In well control, both of these effects are of the utmost importance.
Pressure can be expressed as absolute or gauge pressure. Absolute pressure includes atmospheric
pressure applied due to the weight of the atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi.
Some gauges, especially bottom-hole pressure gauges, are already calibrated in absolute terms, but
conventional gauges displaying units of psig indicate they have been calibrated at atmospheric pressure
and the 14.7 psi is excluded. Although this is a relatively small amount and can be ignored in most
instances, it is important when gathering data for reservoir analysis.
Fluid Pressure
A fluid is any substance that is not solid and can flow. Liquids like water and oil are fluids. Gas can also be
a fluid. Under certain conditions, salt, steel and rock can become fluid, and in fact, almost any solid can
become fluid under extreme pressure and temperature. In well control, fluids such as gas, oil, water,
completion fluids, brines, and mud are encountered.
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Fluids exert pressure caused by their density, or weight of the fluid. This is normally expressed in pounds
per gallon (ppg) or pounds per cubic foot (lbs/ft). Other abbreviations for these are lbs/gal and ppf.
As the pressure developed by a fluid is relative to the true vertical depth, it is often expressed as psi per
foot (psi/ft). This is termed the fluids pressure gradient.
The pressure gradient for a fluid is relative to the fluids weight or density. The higher the density value, the
higher the pressure gradient. To understand this relationship, it is helpful to visualize a cubic foot of fluid.
Fig 1.1 Fluid Pressure Diagram - Area definition of a cubic ft
The conversion factor 0.052 psi/ft per lb/gal is derived as follows:

A cubic foot contains 7.48 US gallons.
Therefore, a fluid weighing 1 ppg would weigh 7.48 lbs.
The pressure exerted on the base (area) is:
= 7.48 lbs/ft
1 ft = 12 in x 12 in area = 144 in, therefore the pressure per in is:
= 0.052 psi
This relationship between a fluid weight in ppg and a gradient pressure in psi/ft is always the same,
therefore: 0.052 is a constant.
Example:
The pressure gradient of a 10 ppg fluid = 10 ppg x 0.052 = 0.52 psi/ft
Example:
The weight of a fluid (fresh water) which has a gradient of 0.433 psi/ft
= 8.33 ppg

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Specific Gravity
Many fluids in the oilfield are also expressed in specific gravity (SG), as well as weight in ppg. SG can be
converted to a pressure gradient in order to calculate hydrostatic pressures.
SG is the ratio of the weight of a fluid (liquid) to the weight of fresh water. Fresh water weighs 8.33 ppg and
salt water is nominally valued at 10 ppg (sea water is nominally 8.65 ppg). Therefore the SG of salt water
is:
= 8.33 ppg = 1.2
The SG of fresh water is 1.0.

The gradient of fresh water is known to be 0.433 psi/ft
To obtain the gradient of a fluid, simply multiply its SG by 0.433 psi/ft
Example:
What is the hydrostatic pressure (HP) exerted by a true vertical 5,000 ft column of brine with an SG of
1.17?
HP of brine = 1.17 x 0.433 psi/ft x 5,000 ft = 2,533 psi
API Gravity
API gravity is another value used to express the relative weight of fluids, and was introduced by the
American Petroleum Institute to standardize the weight of oilfield fluids at a base temperature of 60F.
Water is used as the standard and assigned the value of a10 API gravity.
To convert from API gravity to specific gravity, the following formula is used:
SG =
Example:
What is the SG of 30 API oil?
SG = = 0.876
HP of brine = 0.876 x 0.433 psi/ft x 5,000 ft = 1896 psi
Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure (HP) is the pressure developed by a static column of fluid at a given True Vertical
Depth (TVD) in a well.
- Hydro means water, or fluids, which exert pressure.
- Static means motionless.
Therefore - Hydrostatic Pressureis the pressure created by a stationary column of fluid.
Note: a fluid can be either a liquid or a gas.

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The hydrostatic pressure of any fluid can then be calculated at any true vertical depth, provided the
pressure gradient of the fluid is known.
The simple equation below determines the pressure exerted by a fluid at any true vertical depth, by
multiplying the pressure gradient by the true vertical height of the column in feet.
Hydrostatic Pressure = Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) X True Vertical Depth (ft)
Fig 1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure
Note: The true vertical height or depth of the fluid column is of importance in the equation; its volume or
shape is irrelevant.
Since Pressure is measured in psi and Depth is measured in feet, it is convenient to convert mud weights
from pounds per gallon (ppg) to a pressure gradient (psi/ft).
The conversion factor is the constant: 0.052.
Fig 1.3 Measured Depth (MD) versus True Vertical Depth (TVD)
Example:
With a 500 ft TVD column of fresh water, what is the hydrostatic pressure?
HP = 0.433 psi/ft x 500 ft = 216.5 psi
Example:

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What is the hydrostatic pressure of a 6,750 ft well, filled with a 0.478 psi/ft pressure gradient fluid, which
has a TVD of 6,130 ft?
HP = 0.478 psi/ft x 6,130 ft = 2,930 psi
Example:
A 12,764 ft TVD well is filled with a 15 ppg fluid. What is the BHP?
HP = 15 ppg x 0.052 x 12,764 ft = 9,956 psi
Hydrostatic Pressure (psi) = Density (ppg) x 0.052 x True Vertical Depth (ft)
Equipped with this knowledge, it is now easy to calculate the hydrostatic pressure with two or more fluids in
a well provided the depths (TVD) of the fluid interfaces are known.
Using the HP formula, the HP for each fluid section is calculated, and the sum of the individual calculations
yields the HP at bottom.
Example:
A 10,500 ft TVD well has two fluids in the well, a 15 ppg fluid from TD to 7,125 ft, and an 8.33 ppg fluid to
surface. What is the HP at the bottom of the well?
HP of 15 ppg fluid = 15 ppg x 0.052 x (10,500 - 7,125) ft
= 15 ppg x 0.052 x 3,375 ft = 2,633 psi
HP of 8.33 ppg fluid = 8.33 ppg x 0.052 x 7,125 ft = 3,086 psi
Total HP = 2,633 psi + 3,086 psi = 5,719 psi
Gas Correction Factors

Production wells with gas in the fluids will exert a static surface pressure equal to the formation pressure
less the hydrostatic pressure in the production bore. The gas entrained in the production fluids will
segregate from the liquids as shown in Figure 1.4
In a static situation, the shut in tubing head pressure (SITP) and hydrostatic pressure together balance the
formation pressure.
As discussed earlier, gas is also a fluid and exerts a hydrostatic pressure. Being compressible, pressure
affects the density of the gas. A set of correction factors.
The correction factor, according to the TVD of the gas column and the gas gravity, is multiplied by the
SITP:
Hydrostatic Pressure (HP) = Correction factor x SITP
Example:
What is the HP of a 5,000 ft TVD column of 0.7 SG gas with a shut in tubing head pressure of 1,650 psi?
HP of gas = 1.129 x 1,650 psi
BHP = 1,863 psi
Using the calculations given in earlier sections and the gas correction factors, hydrostatic pressures in
relatively complicated systems can now be determined.
Example:
What is the differential pressure between the annulus and tubing at a circulation device installed at 8,200 ft
TVD in the tubing string?
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The following are the well conditions:
The tubing/casing annulus is filled with 10.3 ppg brine.
The well is shut in at surface with a SITHP of 600 psi.
There is a gas cap of 0.6 SG gas from 4,000 ft.
There is 32 API oil from 4,000 ft to 12,000 ft.
To help in the calculation, it is often helpful to draw a well sketch.
Fig 1.4 Example of Gas Oil Segregation

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HP of brine in annulus at circulation device = 10.3 ppg x 0.052 x 8,200 ft = 4,392 psi
HP of gas cap = 1.087 (from table) x 600 psi
HP of oil column:
Oil SG =
HP of oil column = 0.865 SG x 0.433 psi/ft x (8,200 4,000) ft.

= 1,575 psi
Total HP in tubing = HP of gas + HP of oil
= 652 psi + 1,575 psi
= 2,227 psi
Differential pressure across circulation device:
= BHP of annulus BHP of tubing
= 4,392 psi 2,227 psi
= 2,165 psi
If the circulation device were to be opened, then the opening toolstring would be exposed to 2,165 psi
differential pressure.
Note: If using wireline during the drilling operations, this pressure differential would need to be equalized
before opening the device.

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1.3 Relationship of Volume to Pressure
All fluids under pressure will change in volume as the pressure changes. As pressure increases, the
volume of the fluid will decrease, i.e. the fluid will compress. As pressure decreases, the volume will
increase, i.e. the fluid will expand. To a lesser extent, the volume of a fluid is related to its temperature.
In general, the volume of a fluid will increase with an increase in temperature, and decrease with a
decrease in temperature.
Liquids
Fluids will compress or expand differently depending on their compressibility. Liquids have a low
compressibility compared to gas.
The relative compressibility of liquids and gases is an important factor in well control.
Liquids of concern in well control include mud, saltwater, oil, and combinations of these liquids. Since the
compressibility of these liquids is low, little change in volume due to pressure or temperature changes
should be expected as these liquids are circulated from the wellbore.
Gases
Gases are very compressible and are subject to large changes in volume as they migrate to surface or are
circulated from the wellbore. The expansion of a gas bubble while circulating out a kick will cause the
casing pressure (i.e. choke pressure) to rise and the pit level to increase.
The volume of a gas bubble will roughly double each time the depth (and therefore the hydrostatic
pressure) is halved in an open well.
The relationship between the volume and pressure of a gas was experimentally investigated in the year
1660 by Robert Boyle.
BOYLE'S GAS LAW

PV = CONSTANT or P1V1 = P2V2
If V is the volume of gas (bbl), P the pressure (psi), and disregarding temperature, then the relationship of
V to P for a gas can be expressed as shown in the example below:
Example:
Calculate the volume of gas you will have downstream of the choke when you circulate out a 1 bbl gas kick
from a reservoir that has a formation pressure of 3000 psi.
Solution (using Boyles Law)
P1V1 = P2V2
Where: P1 = pressure of gas at depth 1 (3000 psi)
V1 = volume of gas at depth 1 (1 bbl)
P2 = pressure of gas at depth 2: surface (14.7 psi)
V2 = volume of gas at depth 2: surface (? bbl)
P1 (3000) x V1 (1) = P2 (14.7) x V2 (?)
P1 V1 = 3000 = P2 V2 = 14.7 (atmospheric pressure) x V2
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V2 = ; V2 = 204 bbls
Therefore the gas kick expands from 1 bbl to 204 bbls as it is circulated from the well and the bubble
pressure decreases from 3000 psi to atmospheric pressure. Additional pit capacity will be required to
contain this surface volume increase.
1.4 Capacity, Volume and Displacement

Introduction
During drilling well control operations frequent calculations of capacity and displacement must be made. A
brief review of the methods of doing this is provided below.
The Capacity Factor is defined as the volume that can be held per foot of container.
The container may be any number of things including a mud pit, an open hole, the inside of a tubing string,
or an annulus.
Capacity factors change as the dimensions of the container change. The internal capacity factor is used to
calculate internal drill string volumes and the annular capacity factor is used to calculate annular volumes.
The formulas for calculating these capacity factors are given below:
Internal Capacity Factor

CF =
where CF = Capacity Factor (bbl/ft)

ID = Internal pipe diameter (inches)
Annular Capacity Factor

CF =
where CF = Capacity Factor

ID = Diameter of hole or inside diameter of larger pipe (inches)
OD = Outside diameter of smaller pipe (inches)
Capacity is the volume of fluid held within a specific container. Internal and annular capacities are some of
the most important parameters that are calculated in a well control situation. Capacity is determined by
multiplying the height (or length) of the container by its capacity factor.
Displacement is the volume of fluid displaced by putting a solid, such as a tubing string, into a volume of
liquid, such as workover / completion fluid. Total displacement of tubing can be determined by multiplying
the length of pipe immersed times the displacement factor in (bbls/ft).
The volume of mud in the hole is always equal to the capacity of the entire hole, minus the displacement of
the pipe in the hole (assuming the pipe and annulus are full). The annular capacity between workstring
components and the casing or hole can be calculated by subtracting both the capacity and displacement of
the workstring components from the capacity of the hole.
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1.5 Formation Pressure
Some rocks contain fluids like water, oil, and gas, which are contained in tiny openings or pores. In a rock
with pores, the measurement of the ratio of the pore volume to volume of the rock material is termed
porosity. The linkage between pores is the flowpath for any fluids and is extremely important, e.g. rocks
with many large pores, which are not interconnected, will not have any flow potential to a hole drilled into
the formation, i.e. the fluids would be locked in place.
The interconnection of pores, make the rock permeable and the measurement of this factor is called -
Permeability.
Formation pressure is the pressure of the fluids contained in the pores of a formation rock, and is classified
into three categories as shown in Figure 1.5
Fig 1.5 Typical Formation Gradients
Formation pressure or pore pressure is said to be normal when it is caused solely by the hydrostatic head
of the sub-surface water contained in the formations and there is pore to pore pressure communication
with the atmosphere.
Dividing this pressure by the true vertical depth gives an average pressure gradient of the formation fluid,
normally between 0.433 psi/ft and 0.465 psi/ft The North Sea area pore pressure averages 0.452 psi/ft.
In the absence of accurate data, 0.465 psi/ft, which is the average pore pressure gradient in the Gulf of
Mexico, is often taken to be the normalpressure gradient.
Note: The point at which atmospheric contact is established may not necessarily be at sea-level or rig site level.
Prior to a well intervention, all the wells parameters are generally well known and the risk of encountering
unexpected formation pressure is small. If there is any doubt over formation pressure, a bottom-hole
pressure (BHP) survey should be conducted as the first operation in the program.
1.6 Normal Formation Pressure

Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of water extending from the surface to the
sub-surface formation. Thus, the normal formation pressure gradient in any area will be equal to the
| 1.5 Formation Pressure 12

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hydrostatic pressure gradient of the water occupying the pore spaces of the sub-surface formations in that
area.
The concentration of dissolved solids (salts) and gases in the formation water affect the magnitude of the
hydrostatic pressure gradient. Increasing the dissolved solids (higher salt concentration), increases the
formation pressure gradient, while an increase in the level of gases in solution will decrease the pressure
gradient.
For example, formation water with a salinity of 80,000 ppm sodium chloride (common salt) at a
temperature of 25C has a pressure gradient of 0.465 psi/ft, and is called brine. Fresh water (zero salinity)
has a pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft.
Temperature also has an effect as hydrostatic pressure gradients will decrease at higher temperatures due
to fluid expansion.
In formations deposited in an offshore environment, formation water density may vary from slightly saline
(0.44 psi/ft) to saturated saline (0.515 psi/ft). Salinity varies with depth and formation type. Therefore, the
average value of normal formation pressure gradient may not be valid for all depths. For instance, it is
possible that local normal pressure gradients as high as 0.515 psi/ft. may exist in formations adjacent to
salt formations where the formation water is completely salt-saturated.
The following table gives examples of the magnitude of the normal formation pressure gradient for various
areas. However, in the absence of accurate data, 0.465 psi/ft is often taken to be the normal pressure
gradient.
1.7 Abnormal Pressure

A pressure that is higher than the definition given for normal pressure is abnormal.
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Fig 1.6 Abnormal Pressures - Due to Gas Cap
The principal causes of abnormal pressures are:

Under-compaction in Shales
When first deposited, shale has a high porosity. More than 50% of the total volume of un-compacted clay-
mud may consist of water in which it is deposited. During normal compaction, a gradual reduction in
porosity accompanied by a loss of formation water occurs as the thickness and weight of the overlying
sediments increase. Compaction reduces the pore space in shale; as compaction continues, water is
squeezed out. As a result, water must be removed from the shale before further compaction can occur.
Note: Not all of the expelled liquid is water; hydrocarbons may also be flushed from the shale.
If the balance between the rate of compaction and fluid expulsion is disrupted such that fluid removal is
impeded, fluid pressures within the shale will increase. The inability of shale to expel water at a sufficient
rate results in much higher porosity than expected for the depth of burial in that area.
Fig 1.7 Normally pressured formation is faulted and moves upward

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Fig 1.8 Quality of reservoir permeability
Fig 1.9 The relationship between permeability and porosity

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Fig 1.10 Water Distribution Curves for Shale Distribution
Salt Beds
Continuous salt depositions over large areas can cause abnormal pressures. Salt is totally impermeable to
fluids and behaves plastically. It deforms and flows by recrystallisation.
Its properties of pressure transmission are more like fluids than solids, thereby exerting pressures equal to
the overburden load in all directions. The fluids in the underlying formations cannot escape as there is no
communication to the surface and thus the formations become over pressured.
Mineralization
The alterations of sediments and their constituent minerals can result in variations of the total volume of
the minerals present. An increase in the volume of these solids will result in an increased fluid pressure. An
example of this occurs when anhydrite is laid down. If it later takes on water crystallization, then its
structure changes to become gypsum, with a volume increase of around 35%.
Tectonic Causes
This is a compacting
force that is applied
horizontally in sub-
surface formations. In
normal pressure
environments water is
expelled from clays as
they are being
compacted with
increasing overburden
pressures. If, however,
an additional horizontal
compacting force
squeezes the clay
laterally and if fluids
are not able to escape at a rate equal to the reduction in pore volume, the result will be an increase in pore
pressure; See Figure 1.11

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Faulting
Faults may cause abnormally high pressures. Formation slippage may bring a permeable formation
laterally against an impermeable formation, thereby preventing the flow of fluids.
Non-sealing faults may allow fluids to move from a deeper permeable formation to a shallower formation. If
the shallower formation is sealed then it will be pressurized from the deeper zone.
In Figure 1.12 a trap has resulted from faulting in which the block on the right has moved up with respect to
the one on the left.
Fig 1.12 Fault trap
Diapirism
A salt diapirism is an upward intrusion of salt to

form a salt dome.
This up thrust disturbs the normal layering of sediments and overpressure can occur due to the folding and
faulting of the intruded formations.
Salt domes often deform. The overlying rocks to Form traps like the one shown in Figure 1.13
Fig 1.13 Salt Dome
Reservoir Structure
Abnormally high pressures can develop in normally compacted rocks. In a reservoir in which a high relief
structure contains oil or gas, an abnormally high pressure gradient as measured relative to surface will
exist, as shown in Figure 1.14.
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Figure 1.14(a) Anticline
Figure 1.14 shows how the anticline differs from a dome in that its shape is long and narrow.
Figure 1.15 Simple Structural Trap
Figure 1.16 Stratigraphic Trap
The size of the stratigraphic trap above is limited only by its hydrocarbon content, while the one on the right
is self limiting.
The various hydrocarbon traps versus their percentage of total world petroleum reserves are given in the
diagram below.

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Fig 1.15 Types of Oil Taps and Percentage of Occurrence for Each
The various hydrocarbon seals versus their percentage of total world petroleum reserves are given in the
diagram below.
Fig 1.16 Types of Seals and Percentage of Occurrence for Each
1.8 Sub Normal Pressure

Subnormal pressures occur in formations where the pressure gradient is less than normal.
These pressures are found mainly in mountainous areas, or in producing formations with limited aquifer
support where sufficient fluids have been extracted to reduce the formation pressure.
1.9 Equivalent Mud Weight

The most convenient method of describing downhole pressure is in terms of an Equivalent Mud Weight
(EMW) in ppg.
EMW is used as an expression of the downhole pressure in relation to the density (ppg) of a mud column.
EMW can therefore be used to describe a formation pressure, as well as the pressure applied by a column
of mud.
The hydrostatic pressure of the mud column acts as a result of the height of fluid between the flowline and
the point of interest in the wellbore.
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The EMW must therefore be referenced to the flowline.
It is important that the effect of flowline elevation be taken into account when describing formation pressure
in terms of an equivalent mud weight because formation pressure is often referenced to sea level.
1.10 Formation Fracture Pressure

Fracture pressure is the pressure at which fractures are initiated in a formation and the formation accepts
whole fluid from the well bore.
In order to plan to drill a well safely it is necessary to have some knowledge of the fracture pressures of the
formation to be encountered. The maximum volume of any uncontrolled influx to the wellbore depends on
the fracture pressure of the exposed formations.
If wellbore pressures were to equal or exceed this fracture pressure, the formation would break down as
fracture was initiated, followed by loss of mud, loss of hydrostatic pressure and loss of primary control.
Fracture pressures are related to the weight of the formation matrix (Rock) and the fluids (water/oil)
occupying the pore space within the matrix, above the zone of interest. These two factors combine to
produce what is known as the overburden pressure. Assuming the average density of a thick sedimentary
sequence to be the equivalent of 19.2 ppg then the overburden gradient is given by:
0.052 x 19.2 = 1.0 psi/ft
Since the degree of compaction of sediments is known to vary with depth the gradient is not constant.
| 1.10 Formation Fracture Pressure 20

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Fig 1.17
1.11 Leak-off Tests

Leak of Tests (LOT) are used to determine the fracture pressure of a formation. The test is performed by
applying incremental pressures from the surface to the closed wellbore/casing system until it can be seen
that fluid is being injected into the formation. Leak-off tests should normally be taken to this leak-off
pressure, unless it exceeds the pressure to which the casing was tested.
A typical LOT procedure is as follows:
Before starting, gauges should be checked for accuracy. The upper pressure limit should be determined.
The casing should be pressure tested before well operations commence.
| 1.11 Leak-off Tests 21

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Circulate and condition the mud and check mud density in and out.
Close BOP s.
With the well closed in, the pump is used to pump a continuous small volume at a constant rate into the
well, typically at or bbl per min. Monitor the pressure build up and accurately record the volume of mud
pumped. Plot pressure versus volume of mud pumped.
Stop the pump when any deviation from linearity is noticed between pump pressure and volume pumped.
Bleed off the pressure and establish the amount of mud, if any, lost to the formation.
Examples of leak-off test plot interpretation:

In non-consolidated or highly permeable formations fluid can be lost at very low pressures. In this case the
pressure will fall once the pump has been stopped and a plot such as that shown in Figure 1.18 a will be
obtained. Figure 1.18 b and c show typical plots for consolidated permeable and consolidated
impermeable formations, respectively.
Fig 1.18
Leal-off Test (LOT) Sub- Sea

Working example of leak-off test procedure (floating rigs)
Following is a generic example of how to determine the equivalent mud weight at which a formation will
accept fluid. This test is not designed to break down or fracture the formation. This test is normally
performed at each casing shoe.
Prior to the formation leak-off, it is prudent to have a piece of graph paper (see graph 1), pencil and
straight edge (ruler).
Utilizing the high pressure cement pumping unit, perform leak-off as follows:
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1. Upon drilling float equipment, clean out rat hole and drill 15 ft of new hole.
2. Circulate and condition hole clean. Be assured mud weight in and out are in balance for accurate
results.
3. Pull bit up to just above casing shoe. Install circulating head on DP.
4. Rig up cement unit and fill lines with mud. Test lines. Break circulation with cementing unit to ensure bit
nozzles are clear. Stop pumping when circulation is established.
5. Close pipe rams. Position and set motion compensator. Maintain a small overpull on the drillpipe (+/-
10,000 lbs). Close choke/kill valves.
Note: you may want to consider circulating the chokeline to reduce gels, and then leave the chokeline
open to a gauge for monitoring pressure during the LOT.
6. At a slow rate (i.e. 1/4 or 1/2 BPM), pump mud down DP and:
7. a. Pump 1/4 bbl - record/plot pressure on graph paper
b. Pump 1/4 bbl - record/plot pressure on graph paper.
c. Pump 1/4 bbl - record/plot pressure on graph paper.
d. Pump 1/4 bbl - record/plot pressure on graph paper.
e. Continue this slow pumping. Record pressure at 1/4 bbl increments until two points are plotted beyond leak-off.
(See examples, Graph a), b) & c) on previous page)
f. After obtaining two points beyond leak-off, stop pumping. Allow pressure to stabilize. Record this stabilized
standing pressure (normally will stabilize after 15 mins or so).
g. Bleed back pressure into cement unit tanks.
Note: Because of a drillpipe float in the drillstring, the annulus pressure will need to be bled off via the chokeline.
Record volume of bleed back.
h. Set and position motion compensator, open rams.
i. Rig down cement unit lines. Proceed with drilling operations.
j. Leak-off can be repeated after step 6 if data confirmation is required; otherwise leak-off test is complete.
Note: For 20" and 13 " csg leak-off tests, plot pressure every 1/2 bbl. Results will be the same. It should be noted
that in order to obtain the proper leak-off and pumping rate plot, it will be necessary to establish a continuous pump
rate at a slow rate in order to allow time to read the pressure and plot the point on the graph.
(Barrels pumped vs. pressure - psi), normally 1/2 BPM is sufficient time.
A pressure gauge of appropriate range (typically 0-2000 psi), with 20 or 25 increments, is recommended.
Note: In the event that the Standing Pressure is lower than the leak-off point. [The standing pressure is defined
as the point on the pressure volume plot which is characterized by a deviation between the final pump
pressure and the static pressure after the waiting time]. Use the standing pressure to calculate equivalent mud
weight. Always note volume of mud bled back into tanks.
Formation Breakdown Pressure (psi)

= hydrostatic pressure of mud in casing + applied surface pressure
= (mud wt. x constant x vertical shoe depth) + surface pressure
The formation breakdown pressure can be expressed as a GRADIENT.

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Formation Breakdown Gradient (psi/ft) = -------------------------------------------------
Vert. Shoe Depth (ft)
The formation breakdown gradient expressed as a maximum allowable mud weight:

Maximum Allowable Mud Weight (ppg) = Formation Breakdown Gradient (psi/ft) 0.052
or
Maximum Allowable Mud Weight (ppg) = ------------------------------------------------- 0.052
Vert. Shoe Depth (psi)
Alternatively, the maximum allowable mud weight can be calculated using the recorded surface pressure at
leakoff, as:
+ CMW = EMW

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Fig 1.19

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Fig 1.20

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Fig 1.21
Formation Integrity Test (FIT)

The formation integrity test (FIT) can be performed when it is not acceptable to fracture a formation. In an FIT test,
fluid is pumped into the shut-in well until a predetermined pressure is reached that is proven to be below the
pressure which would break down the formation.

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This value is usually obtained from the drilling program or well data report.
The procedure is:
1. Before starting, gauges should be checked for accuracy.
2. The casing should be pressure tested before well operations commence.
3. Drill float equipment and 15 of new formation
4. Circulate and condition the mud, check mud density in and out.
5. Pull bit into casing shoe
6. Close BOP s.
7. With the well closed in, the pump is used to incrementally raise the pressure in the well to the test pressure and
monitor the pressure to ensure that there is no leak off.
1.12 Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP)

The leak-off test was used to determine the strength of the formations below the casing shoe.
The Formation Breakdown Pressure = (an applied surface pressure + hydrostatic pressure of mud in the casing)
MASP or Maximum Allowable Surface Pressure is calculated as a percentage of the original casing burst pressure
rating. This percentage is derived from experience and the age of the well casings, i.e. if the well is old and it is
suspected there is casing corrosion or wear, the percentage will be lower than that of a more recently completed
well. In general, the pressure rating is 80% of original burst.
MASP (psi) = Casing Internal Yield x 0.80 (safety factor)
MISICP (psi) = Maximum Initial Shut-In Casing Pressure
Upon initial closure only Based on the formation breakdown @ shoe
MISICP (psi) = [EMW (ppg) present mud weight (ppg)] x 0.052 x Shoe TVD (ft)
The applied surface pressure at which leak-off occurred is the maximum allowable annular surface pressure with the
mud weight in use at that time.
Therefore MAASP is the maximum surface pressure that can be tolerated before the formation at the shoe fractures.
MAASP = (Formation Breakdown pressure at shoe Hydrostatic Pressure of mud in the casing shoe)
or rewritten as:
MAASP = (Fracture gradient Mud gradient) x True Vert. Shoe Depth
or as:
MAASP = (Max equiv. mud wt. Mud wt. in casing) x (0.052 x True Vertical shoe depth)
MAASP is only valid if the casing is full of the original mud.
If the mud weight in the casing is changed MAASP must be recalculated.
Note: MAASP is the surface pressure limit at any time, whether there is an influx in the wellbore or not. There is a
static MAASP figure when no pump is on the hole, and a dynamic MAASP figure when circulating. MAASP varies
continuously throughout a well kill.
1.13 Casing Setting Depths

The choice of setting depths for all casing strings is a vital part of the well planning process. A casing string set too
high may leave weak zones exposed in the subsequent open hole section, which are unable to support the mud
weights needed to drill to the next casing point.
| 1.12 Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP) 28

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Initial selection of the setting depths is made with reference to the anticipated lithological column, formation pressure
and fracture gradient profiles.
The final casing string setting depth prior to running the production tubing is important in relation to the packer
setting depth.
From a well control perspective, one must determine whether these tentative setting depths give adequate protection
against formation breakdown if a kick is taken.
The formation strength required will depend on whether a large volume kick back to the casing shoe is being
designed for or a limited kick.
For the latter, kick tolerance calculations will need to be made. Refer to Sect 5.5
Fig 1.22
Deep Casing Setting Depths

The selection of deeper casing setting depths will use different criteria to those used for shallow casing seats. Initial
selection of the setting depth is made with reference to the anticipated lithological column, formation pressure and
fracture gradient profiles.
| 1.13 Casing Setting Depths 29

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Once all the information has been collated from offset well data a plot similar to that shown in Figure 1.23 A can be
drawn up. By studying the geology and pressure profiles, tentative setting depths can be chosen based on the
prevention of formation breakdown by mud weights in use in the subsequent hole section. See Figure 1.23 B.
From a well control perspective, one needs to determine whether this tentative setting depth will give adequate
protection against formation breakdown when a kick is taken.
A kick tolerance factor will normally be applied.
Fig 1.23 A Fig 1.23 B
1.14 Circulating Pump Pressure

Friction is resistance to movement. The amount of friction to overcome this resistance is dependent upon a number
of factors:
Density of the body or substance
Type of substance
Roughness of the surfaces making contact
Surface area in contact
Thermal and electrical properties
Direction of movement
Velocity
The force required to overcome friction termed:
Frictional Loss or Pressure Loss
| 1.14 Circulating Pump Pressure 30

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The pressure provided by the fluid pump is the sum of all of the individual pressure losses in the circulating system.
All the pressure produced by the pump is expended in this process, overcoming friction losses between the fluid and
whatever it is in contact with it:
Pressure loss in surface lines
Pressure loss in tubing or pipe
Pressure loss across jets or motors
Pressure loss in annulus
Note: Pressure losses are independent of hydrostatic and imposed pressures.
Pressure losses in the annulus act as a back pressure on the exposed formations, and consequently, the total
pressure at the bottom of the annulus is higher with the pump on than with the pump off. This is referred to as ECD
(Equivalent Circulating Density)
Circulating bottom hole pressure = Static bottom Hole pressure + Annulus pressure losses
Fig 1.24
The total pressure on bottom can be calculated and converted to an equivalent static mud weight which exerts the
same pressure.
Equivalent Mud Wt (ppg) = (APL + Pmuda) 0.052 TVD
or
Equivalent Mud Wt E.C.D. = Mud Wt in use +
Where: APL = Annulus Pressure Loss

Pmuda = Hydrostatic Mud Pressure in Annulus
| 1.14 Circulating Pump Pressure 31

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Note: Circulating pressure will be affected if the pump rate or the properties of the fluid being circulated are
changed.
Example:-
When circulating pump pressure is 3000 psi pumping at 100 spm. The pump speed is increased to 120 spm. To
approximate the new circulating pump pressure:
Example:-
When circulating pump pressure is 3000 psi pumping at 100 spm, using a mud weight of 10 ppg.
If the mud weight in the system is changed to 12 ppg, what is the new circulating pressure?
Using formula below, the new circulating pump pressure with a 12 ppg mud can be calculated:
New Pump Pressure = Old Pump Pressure x
= 3000 psi x = 3600 psi
Note: Changing either pump speed or mud weight will affect annular pressure losses.
1.15 Bottom Hole Pressure

Bottomhole pressure in the well is equal to the sum of all pressures acting at total depth. When the hole is full and
the fluid column is stable, then bottomhole pressure is the same as the fluid hydrostatic.
We use the term Surface Pressure to describe the pressure that is exerted at the top of a column of fluid or gas.
Under static conditions, this surface pressure (or force) is exerted against all points in the wellbore, and is ordinarily
indicated at the surface by pressure gauges which are installed on either the drillpipe or (casing x drillpipe) annulus.
Under Static Conditions, the pressure at any point in the well can be determined if we know the hydrostatic and
surface pressures. We call this pressure Bottomhole Pressure, and it can be calculated using:
Bottomhole Pressure
BHP = HP + SP
Where BHP = Bottomhole Pressure (psi)
HP = Hydrostatic Pressure (psi)
SP = Surface Pressure (psi)
Example
Calculate the bottomhole pressure exerted on a 5000 ft.TVD well that is full of 10 ppg mud and has a shut-in surface pressure of
300 psi.
BHP = HP + SP
BHP = 0.052(10)(5000) + 300
BHP = 2900 psi
The pressure acting on the perforations at 5000 ft in this well is 2900 psi.
| 1.15 Bottom Hole Pressure 32

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Note: This equation one of the most commonly used formulas in drilling well control and the constant bottomhole pressure well
control methods are all based on this fundamental well control equation.
However surveys in the past have shown that the major portion of well control problems have occurred during trips.
The potential exists for the reduction of Bottomhole Pressure due to:
Loss of ECD with the pumps off
Reduction in fluid levels when pulling and not filling the hole.
Swabbing
1.16 Equivalent Circulation Density

When a well is being circulated, back pressure created by the passage of the mud up the annulus exerts an
additional pressure at any point along the annulus.
This additional pressure is expressed as Annular Pressure Loss (APL).
The fluid hydrostatic pressure plus the APL is equal to the bottomhole circulating pressure.
These annular pressure losses can be quantified, and when added to the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud,
can be expressed as a Mud Weight or Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) in ppg.
Equivalent Circulating Density is therefore the density of a static fluid column that would provide a fluid hydrostatic
pressure equal to the bottomhole circulating pressure.
The main factors effecting ECDs are:
Hole depth
Hole size
Hole condition (e.g. balling, packing off, etc)
Drillstring geometry (external)
Circulation rate
Pipe rotation
Mud weight
Mud rheology
Quantity of drilled cuttings in the annulus
1.17 The U-Tube Concept

When a fluid of uniform density is added to two vertical tubes of the same size connected horizontally at their base,
the levels will equalize in both columns. The assembly is often referred to as the U-Tube because its shape
resembles the letter U.
The U-Tube is a convenient way to represent conditions in the wellbore with pipe in the hole. The inside of the pipe
can be represented by one column of the U-Tube and the annulus by the other. The opening at the base of the U
can be thought of as the opening through the check valves on a workstring.
An understanding of static and dynamic pressures in a U-Tube system including the relationship between
bottomhole pressure, casing pressure and drillpipe pressure is necessary for effective well control during drilling
operations.
The best way to illustrate this relationship is through a drawing of the U-Tube Concept shown in Figure 1.26
The right hand side of the U-Tube is connected at the base by a horizontal tube. When fluid with consistent density
is added to the system, the fluid levels in the tubing (Column A) and annulus (Column B) will equalize. Additionally,
the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of Column A is equal to the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of Column B.
We refer to the pressure at the base of these two columns as bottomhole pressure. The opening at the base of the U
can be thought of as the opening through the nozzles in the bit. This relationship is shown mathematically below.
BHP = SIDPP + HP string = SICP + HP annulas
| 1.16 Equivalent Circulation Density 33
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In General,
BHP = HP + SP
Where BHP = Bottomhole Pressure (psi)
HP = Hydrostatic Pressure (psi)
SP = Surface Pressure (psi)
Fig 1.26 Basic U-Tube Concept

U-Tubes are fairly simple when the fluid density in both columns is the same. When both the drillpipe and casing are
full of the same fluid density, the surface pressures will be the same on the drillpipe and casing sides.
However, when fluids with different densities occupy these columns, U-Tubes are not as simple. In these instances,
although the BHP is the same, the hydrostatic and surface pressures are likely to be different.
U-Tubes are not very interesting when the same density fluid fills both columns. In these instances, the hydrostatic
pressure and surface pressure of both columns are equal. This is the case when a bit is run to the bottom of the hole
and the drillpipe and annulus are filled with the same weight drilling mud. The fluid levels remain static at the top of
the well, the surface pressure on both the casing and drillpipe side is zero, and the hydrostatic pressure on the
drillpipe side is equal to the hydrostatic pressure on the casing side.
However, U-tubes are more interesting when fluids of different densities occupy both columns. In these instances,
both the hydrostatic pressure and surface pressure of both columns are likely to be different. An example of this
occurs when a kick is taken with the bit on bottom. The well kicked because the formation pressure was greater than
the hydrostatic pressure generated by the mud in the well. When the well is shutin, the well stops flowing, and the
amount of pressure underbalance is reflected as a surface pressure on the drillpipe gauge. The fluid in the annulus
is no longer composed of drilling mud alone; it also includes lighter weight formation fluid which reduces the total
hydrostatic pressure in the annulus. Thus, the annulus side is more underbalanced than the drillpipe side and the
resultant shut-in casing pressure is higher than the shutin drillpipe pressure.
This effect is shown in Figure 1.27.
| 1.17 The U-Tube Concept 34

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Figure 1.27 U-Tube Concept - Bottomhole Pressure
Using Figure 1.27 as an example, a 10,000 ft well with 10 ppg mud has penetrated an over pressured sand with a
reservoir pressure of 5,740 psi and taken a 30 bbl kick.
Since the hydrostatic head of the 10 ppg mud is only 5,200 psi (10,000' x 10 ppg x 0.052 = 5,200 psi), the drillpipe is
under balanced by 540 psi, which is reflected on the shut-in drillpipe gauge and at the top of Column A of the U-
Tube.
The hydrostatic pressure on the annulus side is equal to the sum of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the
annulus and the hydrostatic pressure of the gas in the annulus. Since 30 barrels of annular mud has been displaced
by the lighter weight gas, there is less total hydrostatic pressure in the annulus than in the drillpipe. The hydrostatic
pressure generated by 30 barrels of mud is 140 psi more than the hydrostatic pressure generated by 30 barrels of
gas in this wellbore configuration.
Therefore, the shut-in casing pressure and the pressure at the top of Column B is 140 psi higher than the value
indicated on the drillpipe gauge.
1.18 How Primary Well Control is Effected

To ensure primary well control is effective, the following procedures and precautions must be observed.
Mud Weight
Mud into and out of the well must be weighted to ensure the correct weight is being maintained to control the well.
This task is normally carried out by the shaker man at least every thirty minutes or less, depending upon the nature
of the drilling operation and/or company policy.
The mud weight can be increased by increasing the solid content and decreased either by dilution or the use of
solids control equipment.
Tripping Procedures
Tripping in or out of the well is maintained using an accurate log called a trip sheet. A trip sheet is used to record the
volume of mud put into the well or displaced from the well when tripping.
A calibrated trip tank is normally used for the accurate measurement of mud volumes and changes to mud volumes
while tripping.
| 1.18 How Primary Well Control is Effected 35
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When tripping pipe or drill collars out of the hole, a given volume of mud is put into the well for the volume of steel
removed. If the volume required to fill the hole is significantly less than the volume of steel removed, then tripping
must be stopped to ensure the well is stable, and consideration given to going back to bottom to condition the mud
and investigate the cause of the problem.
Note: The hole must be kept full at all times.
Fig 1.28 - Typical Trip Sheet
A full opening or safety valve should be available at all times on the drill floor together with the required crossover
subs. A non-return (i.e. grey) valve should also be readily available.

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Fig 1.29 Full Opening Safety Valve Fig1.30 Non-return Type Safety Valve
Trip Margin (Safety Factor)

Trip Margin (Safety Factor) is an overbalance to compensate for the loss of ECD and to overcome the effects of
swab pressures during a trip out of the hole.
Flow Checks
Flow checks are performed to ensure that the well is stable. Flow checks should be carried out with the pumps off to
check the well with ECD effects removed. Flow checks are usually performed when a trip is going to take place at
the following minimum places:
On bottom
At the casing shoe
Before the BHA is pulled into the BOP's
Short Trips/Wiper Trips

In some circumstances prior to pulling out of the hole a short trip, 5 or 10 stands should be considered. The well is
then circulated and mud returns carefully monitored.
Pumping a Slug of Heavy Mud

This is a practice often carried out to enable the pipe to be pulled dry and the hole to be more accurately monitored
during the trip. The following equation is used to calculate the dry pipe volume for the slug pumped:
Dry Pipe Volume = Slug Volume x (Slug Weight Mud Weight - 1)
This dry pipe volume can be converted to Dry Pipe Length by dividing this volume by the internal capacity of the pipe
as illustrated in the following equation:
Dry Pipe Length = Dry Pipe Volume (bbls) Drill Pipe Capacity (bbls/ft)

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Mud Logging
A logging unit if available is extremely important particularly with respect to well control. The unit carries out some of
the following services:
Gas detection in the mud
Gas analysis
Cuttings density analysis
Recording mud densities in and out
Recording flow line temperatures
Recording penetration rates
Pore Pressure Trends
Communication
If a transfer of mud to the active system is requested the driller will be informed, the logging unit must likewise be
informed. Good communication all round is essential.
Alarms
The high and low settings for the pit level recorder and flow line recorder must be checked and are set to appropriate
values.

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Fig 1.31 - Typical mud logging system

PVD Training
WELL BARRIERS
Aim:
To fully understand Well Barrier philosophy in Drilling, Coring & Tripping operations.
Objectives:
State the Primary Barrier in normal Drilling operations
Identify Secondary Barrier elements.
Describe a Barrier envelope.
List what Barrier test documentation should contain.
Primary well barrier:

This is the first object that prevents flow from a source.
Secondary well barrier:

This is the second object that prevents flow from a source.
What are Well Barriers

Well barriers are envelopes (something that surrounds or encloses something else) of one or more
dependent WBEs (well barrier elements) to prevent fluids or gases from flowing unintentionally
from formation, into another formation or back to surface.
Well barrier(s) shall be defined prior to commencement of an activity or operation by description of

the required WBEs to be in place and the specific acceptance criteria.

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Well Barrier Element Examples:
1. Fluid Barriers
2. Casing and Cement.
3. Drill string.
4. Drilling, Wireline, Coil Tubing, Workover BOPs.
5. Wellhead.
6. Deep set tubing plug.
7. Production Parker.
8. Stab-in Safety Valves.
10. Tubing Hanger
*Barrier elements in red denote other operations in a well.

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Well Barrier Acceptance Criteria.

Well barrier acceptance criteria are technical and operational requirements that need to be fulfilled
in order to qualify the well barrier or WBE for its intended use.
Acceptance Criteria Function and number of well barriers.

The function of the well barrier and WBE shall be clearly defined.
One well barrier in place during all well activities and operations, including suspended or abandoned
wells, where a pressure differential exists that may cause uncontrolled cross flow in the wellbore between
formation zones.
Two well barriers available during all well activities and operations, including suspended or abandoned
wells, where a pressure differential exists that may cause uncontrolled outflow from the borehole/well to
the external environment.

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Pressure direction
The pressure should be applied in the flow direction. If this is impractical, the pressure can be applied
against the flow direction, providing that the WBE is constructed to seal in both flow directions or by
reducing the pressure on the downstream side of the well barrier to the lowest practical pressure (inflow
test)
Documentation of leak and function testing of well barriers
All well intergrity tests shall be documented and accepted by an authorized person. This authorized
person can be the driller, tool-pusher, drilling and well intervention supervisor or the equipment and
service providers representative.
The chart and the test documentation should contain
Type of test,
Test pressure,
Test fluid,
System or components tested,
Estimated volume of system pressurized,
Volume pumped
Swiss Cheese Model

What is Human Error?
Human error is an imbalance between what the situasion requires, what the person intends, and
what he/she actually does.
Human error happens when people:

Plan to do the right thing but with wrong outcome (e.g.,misdial a correct telephone number, give
the correct instruction but to the wrong person).
Do the wrong thing for the situation (e.g.tum an alarm off).
Fail to do anything when action is required (e.g.fail to report faulty equipment)
Why do Errors Happen?

As imperfect humans, we have inherent limitations in our abilities. We will make mistakes. To
answer the question of why do errors happen? or why did the error happen? It is necessary to
look beyond the person who made the error.
Simply put, errors happen when multiple factors come together to allow them to happen. What we
usually calkl human error is really system error. People are one part of a system that includes
all of the other parts of the organization, training, policies, and procedures. Human error is rooted
in failure of the system or the organization to prevent the error from happening, and if an error
happens, failure to prevent the error from becoming a problem.
The concept of defenses against humen error

Examples of defenses:
Checking drilling mud weights.
Challenging response procedures (being told to do something you know is wrong).
Setting alarms correctly.
Following correct testing procedures.
It is when these defenses are weakened and breached that human errors can result in incidents.

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These defenses can be portrayed diagrammatically, as several slices of Swiss cheese (and hence
the model has become known as Professor Reasons Swiss cheese model).
Some failures are latent, meaning that they have been made at some point in the past and
dormant.
This may be introduced at the time a well barrier was designed or may be associated with
management decisions and policies.
Errors made by front line personnel, such as Supervisor, Drillers etc, are active failure.
The more holes in a systems defenses, the more likely it is that errors result in the incidents or
accidents.
In certain circumstances, when all holes line up, blowouts occur.

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IWCF PHILOSOPHY & CONCEPT

IWCF PHILOSOPHY IS TO MAXIMISE WELL CONTROL WITHOUT COMPROMISING
SAFETY & ENVIROMENTAL STANDARD
3 factors govern the Success of Well control:

1. Human 2. Equipment 3. Plan & Procedures
1. Human
Fitness (Physical & Mentally)
ASK (Attitude, Skill, Knowledge)
Team Effort
Democratic approach
Communication & Coordination
Responsibility
2. Equipment
Full Inventory
Independent Inspection
Machine Suitability
Function and/ or Pressure Test
Back-up & spares
Preventive maintenance
3. Plans & Procedures

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Well plan & Consider all aspects
Back-up plans & Procedures
Procedures Tailored to Site

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Section 1: Fundamentals of Well Control

| 1.1 Categories of Well Control 1

1.1 Categories of Well Control

Primary Well Control

Secondary Well Control

Tertiary Well Control

| 1.1 Categories of Well Control 2

1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure

| 1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure 3

Fig 1.1 Fluid Pressure Diagram - Area definition of a cubic ft

The conversion factor 0.052 psi/ft per lb/gal is derived as follows:

1 ft = 12 in x 12 in area = 144 in, therefore the pressure per in is:

| 1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure 4

= 8.33 ppg = 1.2

The SG of fresh water is 1.0.

HP of brine = 0.876 x 0.433 psi/ft x 5,000 ft = 1896 psi

| 1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure 5

Fig 1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure

| 1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure 6

Gas Correction Factors

Fig 1.4 Example of Gas Oil Segregation

| 1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure 8

HP of oil column = 0.865 SG x 0.433 psi/ft x (8,200 4,000) ft.

| 1.2 Understanding Fluids and Pressure 9

BOYLE'S GAS LAW

| 1.3 Relationship of Volume to Pressure 10

1.4 Capacity, Volume and Displacement

Internal Capacity Factor

where CF = Capacity Factor (bbl/ft)

Annular Capacity Factor

where CF = Capacity Factor

| 1.4 Capacity, Volume and Displacement 11

Fig 1.5 Typical Formation Gradients

1.6 Normal Formation Pressure

| 1.5 Formation Pressure 12

1.7 Abnormal Pressure

| 1.7 Abnormal Pressure 13

Fig 1.6 Abnormal Pressures - Due to Gas Cap

The principal causes of abnormal pressures are:

Fig 1.7 Normally pressured formation is faulted and moves upward

| 1.7 Abnormal Pressure 14

Fig 1.8 Quality of reservoir permeability

Fig 1.9 The relationship between permeability and porosity

| 1.7 Abnormal Pressure 15

Fig 1.10 Water Distribution Curves for Shale Distribution

| 1.7 Abnormal Pressure 16

Fig 1.12 Fault trap

A salt diapirism is an upward intrusion of salt to

Fig 1.13 Salt Dome

Figure 1.14(a) Anticline

Figure 1.15 Simple Structural Trap

Figure 1.16 Stratigraphic Trap

| 1.7 Abnormal Pressure 18

Fig 1.16 Types of Seals and Percentage of Occurrence for Each

1.8 Sub Normal Pressure

1.9 Equivalent Mud Weight

| 1.8 Sub Normal Pressure 19

1.10 Formation Fracture Pressure

| 1.10 Formation Fracture Pressure 20

1.11 Leak-off Tests

| 1.11 Leak-off Tests 21

Examples of leak-off test plot interpretation:

Leal-off Test (LOT) Sub- Sea