The Reflection Coefficient of a Terminated Transmission Line

1/29/2009 2_3 Terminated Lossless Line.
doc 1/3
2.3 The Terminated,

Lossless Transmission Line
Reading Assignment: pp. 57-64
We now know that a lossless transmission line is completely

characterized by real constants Z 0 and .
Likewise, the 2 waves propagating on a transmission line are

completely characterized by complex constants V0+ and V0 .
Q: Z 0 and are determined from L, C, and . How do we

find V0+ and V0 ?
A: Apply Boundary Conditions!
Every transmission line has 2 boundaries
1) At one end of the transmission line.

2) At the other end of the trans line!
Typically, there is a source at one end of the line, and a load

at the other.
The purpose of the transmission line is to get power from

the source, to the load!
Lets apply the load boundary condition!
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/29/2009 2_3 Terminated Lossless Line.doc 2/3
HO: THE TERMINATED, LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE
Q: So, the purpose of the transmission line is to transfer

E.M. energy from the source to the load. Exactly how much
power is flowing in the transmission line, and how much is
delivered to the load?
A: HO: INCIDENT, REFLECTED, AND ABSORBED POWER
Lets look at several special values of load impedance, as well

as the interesting transmission line behavior they create.
HO: SPECIAL VALUES OF LOAD IMPEDANCE
Q: So the line impedance at the end of a line must be load

impedance ZL (i.e., Z ( z = z L ) = Z L ); what is the line
impedance at the beginning of the line (i.e.,
Z ( z = z L A ) = ? )?
A: The input impedance !
HO: TRANSMISSION LINE INPUT IMPEDANCE
EXAMPLE: INPUT IMPEDANCE
Q: For a given ZL we can determine an equivalent L . Is

there an equivalent in for each Zin ?
A: HO: THE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT TRANSFORMATION

1/29/2009 2_3 Terminated Lossless Line.doc 3/3
Note that we can specify a load with its impedance ZL or

equivalently, its reflection coefficient L .
Q: But these are both complex values. Isnt there a way of

specifying a load with a real value?
A: Yes (sort of)! The two most common methods are Return
Loss and VSWR.
HO: RETURN LOSS AND VSWR
Q: What happens if our transmission line is terminated by

something other than a load? Is our transmission line theory
still valid?
A: As long as a transmission line is connected to linear

devices our theory is valid. However, we must be careful to
properly apply the boundary conditions associated with each
linear device!
EXAMPLE: THE TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT
EXAMPLE: APPLYING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
EXAMPLE: ANOTHER BOUNDARY CONDITION PROBLEM

1/27/2009 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 1/8
The Terminated, Lossless

Transmission Line
Now lets attach something to our transmission line. Consider a
lossless line, length A , terminated with a load ZL.
I (z ) IL
+ +
V (z ) Z0, VL ZL

A
z
z = zL A z = zL
Q: What is the current and voltage at each and every point on

the transmission line (i.e., what is I ( z ) and V ( z ) for all points z
where z L A z z L ?)?
A: To find out, we must apply boundary conditions!
In other words, at the end of the transmission line ( z = z L )

where the load is attachedwe have many requirements that all
must be satisfied!

Requirement 1. To begin with, the voltage and current

( I ( z = z L ) and V ( z = z L ) ) must be consistent with a valid
transmission line solution:
V ( z = z L ) =V +(z = z L ) + V (z = z L )
= V0+ e j zL + V0 e + j zL
V0+ ( z = z L ) V0( z = z L )
I (z = z L ) =
Z0 Z0
V0+ j zL V0 + j zL
= e e
Z0 Z0
Requirement 2. Likewise, the load voltage and current must be

related by Ohms law:
VL = Z L I L
Requirement 3. Most importantly, we recognize that the values

I ( z = z L ) , V ( z = z L ) and IL, VL are not independent, but in fact
are strictly related by Kirchoffs Laws!
I (z = 0 ) IL
+ +
Z0 , V (z = 0 ) VL ZL

z = zL A z = zL

From KVL and KCL we find these requirements:
V ( z = z L ) =VL
I (z = z L ) = IL
These are the boundary conditions for this particular problem.
Careful! Different transmission line problems lead to

different boundary conditionsyou must access each
problem individually and independently!
Combining these equations and boundary conditions, we find

that:
VL = Z L I L
V (z = z L ) = Z L I (z = z L )
ZL
V + (z = z L ) + V (z = z L ) =
Z0
(
V + (z = z L ) V (z = z L ) )
Rearranging, we can conclude:
V (z = z L ) Z L Z 0
=
V (z = z L ) Z L + Z 0
+

Q: Hey wait as second! We earlier defined V ( z ) V + ( z ) as

reflection coefficient ( z ) . How does this relate to the
expression above?
A: Recall that ( z ) is a function of transmission line position z.

The value V
(z = zL ) V +
(z = z L ) is simply the value of function
( z ) evaluated at z = z L (i.e., evaluated at the end of the line):
V (z = zL ) ZL Z0
= ( z = z ) =
V + (z = zL )
L
ZL + Z0
This value is of fundamental importance for the terminated

transmission line problem, so we provide it with its own special
symbol ( L ) !
ZL Z0
L (z = z L ) =
ZL + Z0
Q: Wait! We earlier determined that:
Z (z ) Z 0
(z ) =
Z (z ) + Z 0
so it would seem that:
Z (z = z L ) Z 0
L = ( z = z L ) =
Z (z = z L ) + Z 0
Which expression is correct??

A: They both are! It is evident that the two expressions:
ZL Z0 Z (z = z L ) Z 0
L = and L =
ZL + Z0 Z (z = z L ) + Z 0
are equal if:

Z (z = z L ) = Z L
And since we know that from Ohms Law:
VL
ZL =
IL
and from Kirchoffs Laws:
VL V ( z = z L )
=
IL I (z = z L )
and that line impedance is:
V (z = z L )
= Z (z = z L )
I (z = zL )
we find it apparent that the line impedance at the end of the

transmission line is equal to the load impedance:
Z (z = z L ) = Z L

The above expression is essentially another expression of the

boundary condition applied at the end of the transmission line.
Q: Im confused! Just what are were we

trying to accomplish in this handout?
A: We are trying to find V ( z ) and I ( z ) when a

lossless transmission line is terminated by a
load ZL!
We can now determine the value of V0 in terms of V0+ . Since:
V ( z = z L ) V0e + j zL
L = + =
V ( z = z L ) V0+e j zL
We find:
V0 = e 2 j zL L V0+
And therefore we find:
V ( z ) = (e 2 j zL L V0+ ) e + j z
V ( z ) = V0+ e j z + (e 2 j zL L ) e + j z
V0+ j z
I (z ) = e (e 2 j zL L ) e + j z
Z0
where:
ZL Z0
L =
ZL + Z0

zL = 0
Now, we can further simplify our analysis by arbitrarily

assigning the end point zL a zero value (i.e., z L = 0 ):
I (z ) IL
+ +
V (z ) Z0 , VL ZL

A
z
z = A z = 0
If the load is located at z =0 (i.e., if z L = 0 ), we find that:
V ( z = 0 ) = V + ( z = 0 ) + V ( z = 0 )
= V0+ e j ( 0 ) + V0 e + j ( 0 )
= V0+ + V0
V0+ ( z = 0 ) V0( z = 0 )
I (z = 0 ) =
Z0 Z0
V0+ j ( 0 ) V0 + j ( 0 )
= e e
Z0 Z0
V0+ V0
=
Z0
V0+ + V0
Z (z = 0 ) = Z 0 +
V0 V0

Likewise, it is apparent that if z L = 0 , L and 0 are the same:
V ( z = 0 ) V0
L = ( z = z L ) = + = = 0
V ( z = 0 ) V0 +
Therefore if z L = 0 :
ZL Z0
L = = 0
ZL + Z0
Thus, we can write the line current and voltage simply as:
V ( z ) = V0+ e j z + 0 e + j z
for z L = 0
V0+ j z
I (z ) = e 0 e + j z
Z0
Q: But, how do we determine V0+ ??
A: We require a second boundary condition to determine V0+ .

The only boundary left is at the other end of the transmission
line. Typically, a source of some sort is located there. This
makes physical sense, as something must generate the incident
wave !

1/27/2009 Incident Reflected and Absorbed Power.doc 1/8
Incident, Reflected,
and Absorbed Power
We have discovered that two waves propagate along a
transmission line, one in each direction (V + ( z ) and V ( z ) ).
I ( z ) = I +( z ) + I (z ) IL
+ +
V (z ) =V + ( z ) +V ( z ) ZL
VL

A
z = A z = 0
The result is that electromagnetic energy flows along the

transmission line at a given rate (i.e., power).
Q: How much power flows along a transmission line, and

where does that power go?
A: We can answer that question by determining the

power absorbed by the load!

You of course recall that the time-averaged power (a real

value!) absorbed by a complex impedance ZL is:
1
Pabs = Re {VL I L }
2
Of course, the load voltage and current is simply the voltage an

current at the end of the transmission line (at z = 0 ). A happy
result is that we can then use our transmission line theory to
determine this absorbed power:
1
Pabs = Re {VL I L }
2
1
= Re {V (z = 0) I (z = 0) }
2
=
1
2 Z0 {(
Re V0+ e j 0 + 0 e + j 0 ) (V 0
+
e
j 0
0 e +j0
)}

2
V0+
=
2 Z0
{
Re 1 ( 0 0 ) 0
2
}
2
V0+
=
2 Z0
(1 ) 0
2
The significance of this result can be seen by rewriting the

expression as:
2 2 2 2 2
V0+ V0+ V0+ 0 V0+ V0
Pabs =
2 Z0
(1 ) = 2 Z
0
2
0

2 Z0
=
2 Z0

2 Z0

The two terms in above expression have a very definite physical

meaning. The first term is the time-averaged power of the
wave propagating along the transmission line toward the load.
We say that this wave is incident on the load:
2
V0+
Pinc = P+ =
2Z 0
Likewise, the second term of the Pabs equation describes the

power of the wave moving in the other direction (away from
the load). We refer to this as the wave reflected from the
load:
2 2 2
V0 LV0+ 2 V0
+
2
Pref = P = = = L = L Pinc
2Z 0 2Z 0 2Z0
Thus, the power absorbed by the load (i.e., the power delivered
to the load) is simply:
2 2
V0+ V0
Pabs = = Pinc Pref
2 Z0 2 Z0
or, rearranging, we find:
Pinc = Pabs + Pref
This equation is simply an expression of the conservation of

energy !

It says that power flowing toward the load (Pinc) is either

absorbed by the load (Pabs) or reflected back from the load
(Pref). Pabs
Pinc Pref ZL
Now lets consider some special cases:
2
1. L = 1
For this case, we find that the load absorbs no power!
(
Pabs = Pinc 1 0
2
)=P
inc (1 1 ) = 0
Likewise, we find that the reflected power is equal to the

incident:
2
Pref = L Pinc = (1 ) Pinc = Pinc
Note these two results are completely consistentby

conservation of energy, if one is true the other must also be:
Pinc = Pabs + Pref = 0 + Pref = Pref

In this case, no power is absorbed by the load. All of the

incident power is reflected, so that the reflected power is equal
to that of the incident.
Pabs = 0
Pinc Pref = Pinc L = 1
2. L = 0
For this case, we find that there is no reflected power!
2
Pref = L Pinc = ( 0 ) Pinc = 0
Likewise, we find that the absorbed power is equal to the

incident:
(
Pabs = Pinc 1 0
2
)=Pinc (1 0 ) = Pinc

Pinc = Pabs + Pref = Pabs + 0 = Pabs
In this case, all the incident power is absorbed by the load.

None of the incident power is reflected, so that the absorbed
power is equal to that of the incident.

Pabs = Pinc
Pinc Pref = 0 L = 0
3. 0 < L < 1
For this case, we find that the reflected power is greater than
zero, but less than the incident power.
2
0 < Pref = L Pinc < Pinc
Likewise, we find that the absorbed power is also greater than

zero, but less than the incident power.
(
0 < Pabs = Pinc 1 0
2
)<P
inc

0 < Pref = Pinc Pabs < Pinc and 0 < Pabs = Pinc Pref < Pinc
In this case, the incident power is divided. Some of the

incident power is absorbed by the load, while the remainder is
reflected from the load.

Pabs < Pinc
Pinc Pref < Pinc 0 < L < 1
4. L > 1
For this case, we find that the reflected power is greater than
the incident power.
2
0 < Pref = L Pinc < Pinc
Q: Yikes! Whats up with that? This result does not seem at all
consistent with your conservation of energy argument. How can
the reflected power be larger than the incident?
A: Quite insightful! It is indeed a result quite askew with our

conservation of energy analysis. To see why, lets determine the
absorbed power for this case.
(
Pabs = Pinc 1 L
2
)<0
The power absorbed by the load is negative!
This result actually has a physical interpretation. A negative

absorbed power indicates that the load is not absorbing power
at allit is instead producing power!

This makes sense if you think about it. The power flowing away
from the load (the reflected power) can be larger than the
power flowing toward the load (the incident power) only if the
load itself is creating this extra power. The load is not a power
sink, it is a power source.
Q: But how could a passive load be a power source?
A: It cant. A passive device cannot produce power. Thus, we

have come to an important conclusion. The reflection
coefficient of any and all passive loads must have a magnitude
that is less than one.
L 1 for all passive loads
Q: Can L every be greater than one?
A: Sure, if the load is an active device. In other words, the

load must have some external power source connected to it.
Q: What about the case where L < 0 , shouldnt we examine

that situation as well?
A: That would be just plain silly; do you see why?

1/31/2007 Special Values of Load Impedance 1/17
Special Values of
Load Impedance
Its interesting to note that the load ZL enforces a boundary
condition that explicitly determines neither V(z) nor I(z)but
completely specifies line impedance Z(z)!
e j z + L e + j z Z L cos z jZ 0 sin z
Z (z ) = Z0 j z = Z 0
e L e + j z Z 0 cos z jZ L sin z
Z L Z 0 + j 2 z
( z ) = L e + j 2 z = e
ZL + Z0
Likewise, the load boundary condition leaves V + ( z ) and V ( z )

undetermined, but completely determines reflection
coefficient function ( z ) !
Lets look at some specific values of load impedance

Z L = RL + jX L and see what functions Z(z) and ( z ) result!
1. Z L = Z 0
In this case, the load impedance is numerically equal to the

characteristic impedance of the transmission line. Assuming
the line is lossless, then Z0 is real, and thus:

RL = Z 0 and XL = 0
It is evident that the resulting load reflection coefficient is

zero:
Z Z0 Z0 Z0
L = L = =0
ZL + Z0 Z0 + Z0
This result is very interesting, as it means that there is no

reflected wave V ( z ) !
V ( z ) = (e 2 j zL L V0+ ) e + j z
( )
= e 2 j zL ( 0 )V0+ e + j z
=0
Thus, the total voltage and current along the transmission line
is simply voltage and current of the incident wave:
V ( z ) =V + ( z ) =V0+e j z
V0+ j z
I (z ) = I (z ) =
+
e
Z0
Meaning that the line impedance is likewise numerically equal

to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line for
all line position z:
V (z ) V0+e j z
Z (z ) = = Z 0 + j z = Z 0
I (z ) V0 e

And likewise, the reflection coefficient is zero at all points

along the line:
V (z ) 0
(z ) = + = + =0
V (z ) V (z )
We call this condition (when Z L = Z 0 ) the matched condition,

and the load Z L = Z 0 a matched load.
2. Z L = 0
A device with no impedance is called a short circuit! I.E.:
RL = 0 and XL = 0
In this case, the voltage across the loadand thus the

voltage at the end of the transmission lineis zero:
VL = Z L I L = 0 and V (z = z L ) = 0
Note that this does not mean that the current is zero!
IL = I (z = z L ) 0
For a short, the resulting load reflection coefficient is

therefore:
Z Z0 0 Z0
L = L = = 1
ZL + Z0 0 + Z0
Meaning (assuming z L = 0 ):

V0 = V0+
As a result, the total voltage and current along the

transmission line is simply:
V ( z ) =V0+ (e j z e + j z ) = j 2V0+ sin ( z )
V0+ j z 2V0+
I (z ) =
Z0
( e +e + j z
) =
Z0
cos ( z )
Meaning that the line impedance can likewise be written in

terms of a trigonometric function:
V (z )
Z (z ) = = jZ 0 tan ( z )
I (z )
Note that this impedance is purely reactive. This means that

the current and voltage on the transmission line will be
everywhere 90D out of phase.
Hopefully, this was likewise apparent to you when you

observed the expressions for V(z) and I(z)!
Note at the end of the line (i.e., z = z L = 0 ), we find that:
V ( z = 0 ) = j 2V0+ sin ( 0 ) = 0
2V0+ 2V0+
I (z = 0 ) = cos ( 0 ) =
Z0 Z0

As expected, the voltage is zero at the end of the

transmission line (i.e. the voltage across the short). Likewise,
the current at the end of the line (i.e., the current through
the short) is at a maximum!
Finally, we note that the line impedance at the end of the

transmission line is:
Z ( z = 0 ) = jZ 0 tan ( 0 ) = 0
Just as we expecteda short circuit!
Finally, the reflection coefficient function is (assuming

z L = 0 ):
V ( z ) V0+e + j z
(z ) = + = + j z = e j z
V (z ) V0 e
Note that for this case ( z ) = 1 , meaning that:
V (z ) = V + (z )
In other words, the magnitude of each wave on the

transmission line is the samethe reflected wave is just as
big as the incident wave!
3. Z L =
A device with infinite impedance is called an open circuit!

I.E.:

RL = and/or XL =
In this case, the current through the loadand thus the

current at the end of the transmission lineis zero:
VL
IL = =0 and I (z = z L ) = 0
ZL
Note that this does not mean that the voltage is zero!
VL =V ( z = z L ) 0
For an open, the resulting load reflection coefficient is:
ZL Z0 Z
L = lim = lim L = 1
Z L Z + Z Z L Z
L 0 L
Meaning (assuming z L = 0 ):
V0 =V0+

transmission line is simply (assuming z L = 0 ):
V ( z ) =V0+ (e j z + e + j z ) = 2V0+ cos ( z )
V0+ j z 2V0+
I (z ) =
Z0
(e e ) = j Z sin ( z )
+ j z

Meaning that the line impedance can likewise be written in

terms of trigonometric function:
V (z )
Z (z ) = = jZ 0 cot ( z )
I (z )
Again note that this impedance is purely reactiveV(z) and

I(z) are again 90D out of phase!
Note at the end of the line (i.e., z = z L = 0 ), we find that
2V0+
V ( z = 0 ) = 2V cos ( 0 ) =
0
+
Z0
2V0+
I (z = 0 ) = j sin ( 0 ) = 0
Z0
As expected, the current is zero at the end of the
transmission line (i.e. the current through the open). Likewise,
the voltage at the end of the line (i.e., the voltage across the
open) is at a maximum!
Finally, we note that the line impedance at the end of the

Z ( z = 0 ) = jZ 0 cot ( 0 ) =
Just as we expectedan open circuit!
Finally, the reflection coefficient is (assuming z L = 0 ):

V ( z ) V0+e + j z
(z ) = + = + j z = e + j 2z
V ( z ) V0 e
Note that likewise for this case ( z ) = 1 , meaning again that:
V (z ) = V + (z )

4. Z L = j X L
For this case, the load impedance is purely reactive (e.g. a

capacitor of inductor), and thus the resistive portion is zero:
RL = 0
Thus, both the current through the load, and voltage across
the load, are non-zero:
IL = I (z = z L ) 0 VL =V ( z = z L ) 0
The resulting load reflection coefficient is:
Z L Z 0 jXL Z 0
L = =
Z L + Z 0 jX L + Z 0

Given that Z0 is real (i.e., the line is lossless), we find that

this load reflection coefficient is generally some complex
number.
We can rewrite this value explicitly in terms of its real and

imaginary part as:
jX L Z 0 XL2 Z 02 2 Z 0 XL
L = = 2 + j 2 2
jX L + Z 0 X L + Z 02 XL + Z 0
Yuck! This isnt much help!
Lets instead write this complex value L in terms of its

magnitude and phase. For magnitude we find a much more
straightforward result!
2
2 jX L Z 0 X L2 + Z 02
L = = 2 =1
jX L + Z 0
2
X L + Z 02
Its magnitude is one! Thus, we find that for reactive loads,

the reflection coefficient can be simply expressed as:
L = e j
where
2 Z 0 XL
= tan 1 2
XL Z 0
2
We can therefore conclude that for a reactive load:

V0 = e j V0+

transmission line is simply (assuming z L = 0 ):
V ( z ) =V0+ (e j z + e + j L e + j z )
=V0+ e + j 2 e ( j ( z + 2 )
+e
+ j ( z + 2 )
)
= 2V0+ e + j 2 cos ( z + 2 )
V0+ j z
I (z ) =
Z0
( e e + j z )
V0+ + j L 2 j ( z +L 2)
=
Z0
e e ( e (
+ j z + L 2 )
)
2V0+
= j e + j L 2 sin ( z + L 2 )
Z0
Meaning that the line impedance can again be written in terms

of trigonometric function:
V (z )
Z (z ) = = jZ 0 cot ( z + 2 )
I (z )
Again note that this impedance is purely reactiveV(z) and

I(z) are once again 90D out of phase!
Note at the end of the line (i.e., z = z L = 0 ), we find that

V ( z = 0 ) = 2V0+ cos ( 2 )
2V0+
I (z = 0 ) = j sin ( 2 )
Z0
As expected, neither the current nor voltage at the end of

the line are zero.
We also note that the line impedance at the end of the

Z ( z = 0 ) = jZ 0 cot ( 2 )
With a little trigonometry, we can show (trust me!) that:
XL
cot ( 2 ) =
Z0
and therefore:
Z ( z = 0 ) = jZ 0 cot ( 2 ) = j X L = Z L
Just as we expected!
Finally, the reflection coefficient function is (assuming

z L = 0 ):
V ( z ) V0+e + j e + j z

+ j 2( z + 2)
(z ) = + = = e
V (z ) V0+e j z

Note that likewise for this case ( z ) = 1 , meaning once

again:
V (z ) = V + (z )

Q: Gee, a reactive load leads to results very similar to that

of an open or short circuit. Is this just coincidence?
A: Hardly! An open and short are in fact reactive loads

they cannot absorb power (think about this!).
Specifically, for an open, we find = 0 , so that:
L = e j = 1
Likewise, for a short, we find that = , so that:
L = e j = 1
5. Z L = RL
For this case, the load impedance is purely real (e.g. a

resistor), meaning its reactive portion is zero:
XL = 0

Thus, both the current through the load, and voltage across
the load, are non-zero:
IL = I (z = z L ) 0 VL =V ( z = z L ) 0
The resulting load reflection coefficient is:
ZL Z0 R Z0
L = =
ZL + Z0 R + Z0
Given that Z0 is real (i.e., the line is lossless), we find that

this load reflection coefficient must be a purely real value!
In other words:
R Z0
Re {L } = Im {L } = 0
R + Z0
The magnitude is thus:
R Z0
L =
R + Z0
whereas the phase can take on one of two values:
0 if Re {L } > 0 (i.e., if RL > Z 0 )

=
if Re {L } < 0 (i.e., if RL < Z 0 )


For this case, the impedance at the end of the line must be
real ( Z ( z = z L ) = RL ). Thus, the current and the voltage at
this point are precisely in phase.
However, even though the load impedance is real, the line

impedance at all other points on the line is generally complex!
Moreover, the general current and voltage expressions, as

well as reflection coefficient function, cannot be further
simplified for the case where Z L = RL .
Q: Why is that? When the load was purely imaginary

(reactive), we where able to simply our general expressions,
and likewise deduce all sorts of interesting results!
A: True! And heres why. Remember, a lossless transmission

line has series inductance and shunt capacitance only. In
other words, a length of lossless transmission line is a purely
reactive device (it absorbs no energy!).
* If we attach a purely reactive load at the end of the

transmission line, we still have a completely reactive system
(load and transmission line). Because this system has no
resistive (i.e., real) component, the general expressions for
line impedance, line voltage, etc. can be significantly
simplified.
* However, if we attach a purely real load to our reactive

transmission line, we now have a complex system, with both
real and imaginary (i.e., resistive and reactive) components.

This complex case is exactly what our general expressions

already describesno further simplification is possible!
5. Z L = RL + jX L
Now, lets look at the general case, where the load has both a
real (resitive) and imaginary (reactive) component.
Q: Havent we already determined all the general

expressions (e.g., L ,V ( z ) , I ( z ) , Z ( z ) , ( z ) ) for this general
case? Is there anything else left to be determined?
A: There is one last thing we need to discuss. It seems

trivial, but its ramifications are very important!
For you see, the general case is not, in reality, quite so

general. Although the reactive component of the load can be
either positive or negative ( < X L < ), the resistive
component of a passive load must be positive ( RL > 0 )theres
no such thing as a (passive) negative resistor!
This leads to one very important and useful result. Consider

the load reflection coefficient:

ZL Z0
L =
ZL + Z0
=
(RL + jXL ) Z 0
(RL + jXL ) + Z 0
(R Z 0 ) + jXL
= L
(RL + Z 0 ) + jXL
Now lets look at the magnitude of this value:
2
2
L = L
(R Z 0 ) + jXL
(RL + Z 0 ) + jXL
( RL Z 0 ) + X L2
2
=
(RL + Z 0 ) + XL2
2
=
(R L
2
2RL Z 0 + Z 02 ) + X L2
(R L
2
+ 2RL Z 0 + Z 02 ) + X L2
=
( RL
2
+ Z 02 + X L2 ) 2RL Z 0
(R L
2
+ Z 02 + X L2 ) + 2RL Z 0
It is apparent that since both RL and Z 0 are positive, the

numerator of the above expression must be less than (or equal
to) the denominator of the above expression.
In other words, the magnitude of the load reflection

coefficient is always less than or equal to one!

L 1 (for RL 0 )
Moreover, we find that this means the reflection coefficient

function likewise always has a magnitude less than or equal to
one, for all values of position z.
(z ) 1 (for all z)
Which means, of course, that the reflected wave will always

have a magnitude less than that of the incident wave
magnitude:
V (z ) V + (z ) (for all z)
We will find out later that this result is consistent with

conservation of energythe reflected wave from a passive
load cannot be larger than the wave incident on it.

1/29/2009 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 1/9
Transmission Line
Input Impedance
Consider a lossless line, length A , terminated with a load ZL.
I ( z ) = I +( z ) + I (z ) IL
+ +
V (z ) =V + ( z ) +V ( z ) ZL
VL

A
z = A z = 0
Lets determine the input impedance of this line!
Q: Just what do you mean by input impedance?
A: The input impedance is simply the line impedance seen at

the beginning ( z = A ) of the transmission line, i.e.:
V ( z = A )
Zin = Z ( z = A ) =
I ( z = A )
Note Zin equal to neither the load impedance ZL nor the

characteristic impedance Z0 !
Zin Z L and Zin Z 0

To determine exactly what Zin is, we first must determine the

voltage and current at the beginning of the transmission line
( z = A ).
V ( z = A ) = V0+ e + j A + 0 e j A
V0+ + j A
I ( z = A ) = e 0 e j A
Z0
Therefore:
V ( z = A ) e + j A + 0 e j A
Zin = = Z0 + j A j A
I ( z = A ) e 0 e
We can explicitly write Zin in terms of load ZL using the

previously determined relationship:
ZL Z0
L = = 0
ZL + Z0
Combining these two expressions, we get:
Zin = Z0
( ZL + Z 0 ) e + j A + (ZL Z 0 ) e j A
(ZL + Z 0 ) e + j A (ZL Z 0 ) e j A
Z L (e + j A + e j A ) + Z 0 (e + j A e j A )
= Z0
Z L (e + j A + e j A ) Z 0 (e + j A e j A )

Now, recall Eulers equations:
e + j A = cos A + j sin A
e j A = cos A j sin A
Using Eulers relationships, we can likewise write the input

impedance without the complex exponentials:
Z L cos A + j Z 0 sin A
Zin = Z 0
Z 0
cos A + j Z L sin A
Z + j Z 0 tan A
= Z0 L
Z
0 + j Z L tan A
Note that depending on the values of , Z 0 and A , the input

impedance can be radically different from the load impedance
ZL !
Special Cases
Now lets look at the Zin for some important load impedances
and line lengths.
You should commit these results to memory!
1. A =
2
If the length of the transmission line is exactly one-half

wavelength ( A = 2 ), we find that:
2
A = =
2
meaning that:
cos A = cos = 1 and sin A = sin = 0

and therefore:
Zin = Z 0
Z 0 cos A + j Z L sin A
Z ( 1) + j Z L (0)
= Z0 L
Z
0 ( 1) + j Z L (0)
= ZL
In other words, if the transmission line is precisely one-half

wavelength long, the input impedance is equal to the load
impedance, regardless of Z0 or .
Zin = Z L Z0 , ZL
A =
2
2. A =
4
If the length of the transmission line is exactly one-quarter

wavelength ( A = 4 ), we find that:
2
A = =
4 2
meaning that:
cos A = cos 2 = 0 and sin A = sin 2 = 1

and therefore:
Zin = Z 0
Z
0 cos A + j Z L sin A
Z (0) + j Z 0 (1)
= Z0 L
Z 0
(0) + j Z L (1)
(Z )
2
0
=
ZL
In other words, if the transmission line is precisely one-quarter

wavelength long, the input impedance is inversely proportional to
the load impedance.
Think about what this means! Say the load impedance is a short
circuit, such that Z L = 0 . The input impedance at beginning of
the 4 transmission line is therefore:
( Z ) ( Z )
2 2
Zin = 0
= 0
=
ZL 0
Zin = ! This is an open circuit! The quarter-wave transmission

line transforms a short-circuit into an open-circuitand vice
versa!
Zin = Z0, ZL=0
A =
4
3. Z L = Z 0
If the load is numerically equal to the characteristic impedance

of the transmission line (a real value), we find that the input
impedance becomes:
Zin = Z 0
Z
Z cos A + j Z 0 sin A
= Z0 0
Z
0 cos A + j Z 0
sin A
= Z0
In other words, if the load impedance is equal to the

transmission line characteristic impedance, the input impedance
will be likewise be equal to Z0 regardless of the transmission
line length A .
Z0 , ZL=Z0
Zin = Z 0
4. Z L = j X L
If the load is purely reactive (i.e., the resistive component is

zero), the input impedance is:

Zin = Z 0
Z
j X L cos A + j Z 0 sin A
= Z0
Z 0 cos A + j X L sin A
2
X cos A + Z 0 sin A
= j Z0 L
Z
0 cos A X L sin A
In other words, if the load is purely reactive, then the input

impedance will likewise be purely reactive, regardless of the
line length A .
Z in = j X in Z0 , ZL=jXL
Note that the opposite is not true: even if the load is purely
resistive (ZL = R), the input impedance will be complex (both
resistive and reactive components).
Q: Why is this?
A:

5. A
If the transmission line is electrically smallits length A is

small with respect to signal wavelength --we find that:
2 A
A = A = 2 0

and thus:
cos A = cos 0 = 1 and sin A = sin 0 = 0
so that the input impedance is:
Zin = Z 0
Z
Z (1) + j Z L (0)
= Z0 L
Z
0 (1) + j Z L (0)
= ZL
In other words, if the transmission line length is much smaller

than a wavelength, the input impedance Zin will always be equal
to the load impedance Z L .
This is the assumption we used in all previous circuits courses

(e.g., EECS 211, 212, 312, 412)! In those courses, we assumed
that the signal frequency is relatively low, such that the
signal wavelength is very large ( A ).

Note also for this case ( the electrically short transmission

line), the voltage and current at each end of the transmission
line are approximately the same!
V (z = A) V (z = 0) and I(z = A) I (z = 0) if A
If A , our wire behaves exactly as it did in EECS 211 !

1/29/2009 Example Input Impedance.doc 1/5
Example: Input Impedance

Consider the following circuit:
ZL =
Zin Z0 = 1 Z 0 = 1.5 2 Z 0 = 2.0
j 3 1+ j2
A= A= A=
2 4 8
If we ignored our new -wave knowledge, we might erroneously

conclude that the input impedance of this circuit is:
2
ZL =
Zin
j 3 1+ j2
Therefore:
j 3 (2 + 1 + j 2 ) 6 j9
Zin = = = 2.7 j 2.1
j 3 + 2 + 1 + j 2 3 j
Of course, this is not the correct answer!
We must use our transmission line theory to determine an

accurate value. Define Z1 as the input impedance of the last
section:
ZL =
Z1 Z 0 = 2.0
1+ j2
A=
8

we find that Z1 is :
Z1 = Z 0
= 2
( )
(1 + j 2) cos + j 2 sin
4 4 ( )
( )
2 cos + j (1 + j 2) sin
4 4 ( )
1+ j 4
= 2
j
=8 j2
Therefore, our circuit now becomes:
Zin Z0 = 1 Z 0 = 1.5 2 Z1 = 8 j 2
j 3
A= A=
2 4
Note the resistor is in series with impedance Z1. We can

combine these two into one impedance defined as Z2:
Z 2 = 2 + Z 1 = 2 + (8 j 2) = 10 j 2
Zin Z0 = 1 Z 0 = 1.5 Z 2 = 10 j 2
j 3
A= A=
2 4

Now lets define the input impedance of the middle transmission

line section as Z3:
Z3 Z 0 = 1.5 Z 2 = 10 j 2
A=
4
Note that this transmission line is a quarter wavelength

( A = ). This is one of the special cases we considered earlier!
4
The input impedance Z3 is:
Z 02
Z3 =
ZL
Z 02
=
Z2
1.52
=
10 j 2
= 0.21 + j 0.043
Thus, we can further simplify the original circuit as:
Zin Z0 = 1 Z 3 = 0.21 + j 0.043

j 3
A=
2
Now we find that the impedance Z3 is parallel to the capacitor.

We can combine the two impedances and define the result as
impedance Z4:

Z 4 = j 3 (0.21 + j 0.043)
j 3(0.21 + j 0.043)
=
j 3 + 0.21 + j 0.043
= 0.22 + j 0.028
Now we are left with this equivalent circuit:
Zin Z0 = 1 Z 4 = 0.22 + j 0.028
A=
2
Note that the remaining transmission line section is a half

wavelength! This is one of the special situations we discussed in
a previous handout. Recall that the input impedance in this case
is simply equal to the load impedance:
Zin = Z L = Z 4 = 0.22 + j 0.028
Whew! We are finally done. The input impedance of the original

circuit is:
Zin Z in = 0.22 + j 0.028

Note this means that this circuit:
0.22
Z in =
0.22 + j 0.028 j 0.028
and this circuit:
2 ZL =
Z in =
Z0 = 1 Z 0 = 1.5 Z 0 = 2.0
1+ j2
0.22 + j 0.028 j 3
A= A= A=
2 4 8
are precisely the same! They have exactly the same impedance,
and thus they behave precisely the same way in any circuit
(but only at frequency 0 !).

1/29/2009 The Reflection Coefficient Transformation.doc 1/7
The Reflection Coefficient

Transformation
The load at the end of some length of a transmission line (with
characteristic impedance Z0 ) can be specified in terms of its
impedance ZL or its reflection coefficient L .
Note both values are complex, and either one completely

specifies the loadif you know one, you know the other!
ZL Z0 1 + L
L = and ZL = Z0
ZL + Z0 1 L
Recall that we determined how a length of transmission line

transformed the load impedance into an input impedance of a
(generally) different value:
Z0 , Z in Z0 , Z L

where:
Zin = Z 0
Z
Z + j Z 0 tan A
= Z0 L
Z 0
+ j Z L tan A
Q: Say we know the load in terms of its reflection coefficient.

How can we express the input impedance in terms its reflection
coefficient (call this in )?
Z0, in = ? Z0, L
A: Well, we could execute these three steps:
1. Convert L to ZL:
1 + L
ZL = Z0
1 L
2. Transform ZL down the line to Zin :
Zin = Z 0

3. Convert Zin to in :
Zin Z 0
in =
Zin + Z 0
Q: Yikes! This is a ton of complex arithmeticisnt there an

easier way?
A: Actually, there is!
Recall in an earlier handout that the input impedance of a

transmission line length A , terminated with a load L , is:
V ( z = A ) e + j A + L e j A
Zin = = Z0 + j A
I ( z = A ) e L e j A
Note this directly relates L to Zin (steps 1 and 2 combined!).
If we directly insert this equation into:
Zin Z 0
in =
Zin + Z 0
we get an equation directly relating L to in :

Z 0 (e + L e j A ) (e + j A L e j A )
+ j A
in =
Z 0 (e + j A + L e j A ) + ( e + j A L e j A )
2 L e j A
=
2e + j A
= L e j A e j A
= L e j 2 A
Q: Hey! This result looks familiar. Havent we seen something

like this before?
A: Absolutely! Recall that we found that the reflection

coefficient function ( z ) can be expressed as:
(z ) = 0 e j 2 z
Evaluating this function at the beginning of the line (i.e., at

z = z L A ):
(z = z L A ) = 0 e
j 2 (z L A )
= 0 e j 2 zL e j 2 A
But, we recognize that:
0 e j 2 zL = ( z = z L ) = L
And so:
( z = z L A ) = 0 e j 2 zL e j 2 A
= L e j 2 A

Thus, we find that in is simply the value of function ( z )

evaluated at the line input of z = z L A !
in = ( z = z L A ) = L e j 2 A
Makes sense! After all, the input impedance is likewise simply

the line impedance evaluated at the line input of z = z L A :
Zin = Z ( z = z L A )
It is apparent that from the above expression that the

reflection coefficient at the input is simply related to L by a
phase shift of 2 A .
In other words, the magnitude of in is the same as the

magnitude of L !
j ( 2 A )
in = L e
= L (1)
= L
If we think about this, it makes perfect sense!

Recall that the power absorbed by the load in would be:
2
V0+
Pabs
in
=
2 Z0
( 1 in
2
)
while that absorbed by the load L is:
2
V0+
Pabs
L
=
2 Z0
(1 ) L
2
Z0 , Pa bi ns Z0 , Pa bL s L
Recall, however, that a lossless transmission line can absorb no

power! By adding a length of transmission line to load L , we
have added only reactance. Therefore, the power absorbed by
load in is equal to the power absorbed by L:
Pabs
in
= Pabs
L
2 2
V0+ V0+
2 Z0
(1 ) = 2 Z (1 )
in
2
0
L
2
2 2
1 in = 1 L

Thus, we can conclude from conservation of energy that:
in = L
Which of course is exactly the result we just found!
Finally, the phase shift associated with transforming the load

L down a transmission line can be attributed to the phase shift
associated with the wave propagating a length A down the line,
reflecting from load L , and then propagating a length A back up
the line:
Z0 , in = e j A
Le j A
L
= A
To emphasize this wave interpretation, we recall that by

definition, we can write in as:
V (z = z L A )
in = ( z = z L A ) = +
V (z = z L A )
Therefore:
V ( z = z L A ) = in V + ( z = z L A )
= e j A L e j A V +
(z = zL A )

1/29/2009 Return Loss and VSWR.doc 1/4
Return Loss and VSWR

The ratio of the reflected power from a load, to the incident
power on that load, is known as return loss. Typically, return
loss is expressed in dB:
P 2
R .L. = 10 log10 ref = 10 log10 L
Pinc
The return loss thus tells us the percentage of the incident

power reflected by load (expressed in decibels!).
For example, if the return loss is 10dB, then 10% of the

incident power is reflected at the load, with the remaining 90%
being absorbed by the loadwe lose 10% of the incident
power
Likewise, if the return loss is 30dB, then 0.1 % of the incident

power is reflected at the load, with the remaining 99.9% being
absorbed by the loadwe lose 0.1% of the incident power.
Thus, a larger numeric value for return loss actually indicates

less lost power! An ideal return loss would be dB, whereas a
return loss of 0 dB indicates that L = 1 --the load is reactive!

Return loss is helpful, as it provides a real-valued measure of

load match (as opposed to the complex values Z L and L ).
Another traditional real-valued measure of load match is

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR). Consider again the
voltage along a terminated transmission line, as a function of
position z :
V ( z ) = V0+ e j z + L e + j z
Recall this is a complex function, the magnitude of which

expresses the magnitude of the sinusoidal signal at position z,
while the phase of the complex value represents the relative
phase of the sinusoidal signal.
Lets look at the magnitude only:
|V ( z )| = |V0+| |e j z + L e + j z |
= |V0+||e j z ||1 + L e + j 2 z |
= |V0+||1 + L e + j 2 z |
It can be shown that the largest value of |V (z)| occurs at the

location z where:
L e + j 2 z = L + j 0
while the smallest value of |V (z)|occurs at the location z

where:
L e + j 2 z = L + j 0

As a result we can conclude that:
V ( z ) max = V0+ (1 + L )
V ( z ) min = V0+ (1 L )
The ratio of V ( z ) max to V ( z ) min is known as the Voltage
Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR):
V ( z ) max 1 + L
VSWR = 1 VSWR
V ( z ) min 1 L
Note if L = 0 (i.e., Z L = Z 0 ), then VSWR = 1. We find for this

case:
V (z ) max = V (z ) min = V0+
In other words, the voltage magnitude is a constant with

respect to position z.
Conversely, if L = 1 (i.e., Z L = jX ), then VSWR = . We find

for this case:
V (z ) min = 0 and V (z ) max = 2V0+
In other words, the voltage magnitude varies greatly with

respect to position z.

As with return loss, VSWR is dependent on the magnitude of L

(i.e, |L|) only !
|V(z)|
z =
2
|V(z)|max
|V(z)|min

1/31/2007 The Tranmission Coefficient T 1/8
Example:The Transmission
Coefficient T
Consider this circuit:
I1(z) I2(z)
+ +
V1 (z) Z 1 , 1 Z 2 , 2 V2 (z) Z L =Z 2
- -
z
z = 0
I.E., a transmission line with characteristic impedance Z1

transitions to a different transmission line at location z =0.
This second transmission line has different characteristic
impedance Z2 ( Z 1 Z 2 ) . This second line is terminated with a
load ZL = Z2 (i.e., the second line is matched).
Q: What is the voltage and current along each of these

two transmission lines? More specifically, what are
V01+ , V01 , V02+ and V02 ??
A: Since a source has not been specified, we can only

determine V01 , V02+ and V02 in terms of complex constant
V01+ . To accomplish this, we must apply a boundary
condition at z =0!

z < 0
We know that the voltage along the first transmission line is:
V1 ( z ) = V01+ e j z + V01 e + j z
1 1
for z < 0
while the current along that same line is described as:
V01+ j z V01 + j z
I1 ( z ) = e
1
e 1
for z < 0
Z1 Z1
z > 0
We likewise know that the voltage along the second

V2 ( z ) = V02+ e j z + V02 e + j z
2 2
for z > 0
V02+ j z V02 + j z
I2 ( z ) = e
2
e 2
for z > 0
Z2 Z2
Moreover, since the second line is terminated in a matched

load, we know that the reflected wave from this load must be
zero:
V2 ( z ) =V02 e j z = 0 2

The voltage and current along the second transmission line is

thus simply:
V2 ( z ) = V2+ ( z ) = V02+ e j z 2
for z > 0
V02+ j z
I2 ( z ) = I ( z ) =
+
e 2
for z > 0
2
Z2
z=0
At the location where these two transmission lines meet, the

current and voltage expressions each must satisfy some specific
boundary conditions:
I1(0) I2(0)
+ +
Z 1 , 1 V1 (0) V2 (0) Z 2 , 2 Z L =Z 2
- -
z
z = 0
The first boundary condition comes from KVL, and states that:
V1 ( z = 0 ) = V2 ( z = 0 )
V01+ e j ( 0 ) +V01 e + j ( 0 ) = V02+ e j
1 1 2 ( 0)
V01+ +V01 = V02+

while the second boundary condition comes from KCL, and states
that:
I1 ( z = 0 ) = I 2 ( z = 0 )
V01+ j ( 0 ) V01 + j ( 0 ) V0+2 j ( 0)
e 1
e 1
= e 2
Z1 Z1 Z2
V01+ V01 V02+
=
Z1 Z1 Z 2
We now have two equations and two unknowns (V01 and V02+ ) ! We
can solve for each in terms of V01+ (i.e., the incident wave).
From the first boundary condition we can state:
V01 = V02+ V01+
Inserting this into the second boundary condition, we find an

expression involving only V02+ and V01+ :
V01+ V01 V02+

=
Z1 Z1 Z2
V01+ V02+ V01+ V02+
=
Z1 Z1 Z2
2V01+ V02+ V02+
= +
Z1 Z2 Z1
Solving this expression, we find:
2Z 2 +
V02+ = V01
Z
1 + Z 2

We can therefore define a transmission coefficient, which

relates V02+ to V01+ :
V02+ 2Z 2
T0 + =
V01 Z 1 + Z 2
Meaning that V02+ =T V01+ , and thus:
V2 ( z ) = V2+ ( z ) =T V01+ e j z
2
for z > 0
We can likewise determine the constant V01 in terms of V01+ . We

again start with the first boundary condition, from which we
concluded:
V02+ = V01+ +V01
We can insert this into the second boundary condition, and

determine an expression involving V01 and V01+ only:
V01+ V01 V02+

=
Z1 Z1 Z2
V01+ V01 V01+ +V01
=
Z1 Z1 Z2
1 1 + 1 1
V =
01 + V01
Z
1 Z 2 Z
1 Z 2

Solving this expression, we find:
Z2 Z1 +
V01 = V01
Z
2 + Z 1
We can therefore define a reflection coefficient, which relates

V01 to V01+ :
V01 Z 2 Z 1
0 + =
V01 Z 2 + Z 1
This result should not surprise us!
Note that because the second transmission line is matched, its

input impedance is equal to Z1 :
Zin = Z 2 Z 2 , 2 Z L =Z 2
z
z = 0

and thus we can equivalently write the entire circuit as:
I1(z)
+
V1 (z) Z 1 , 1 Z2
-
z
z = 0
We have already analyzed this circuit! We know that:
V01 = LV01+
Z Z1 +
= 2 V01
Z
2 + Z 1
Which is exactly the same result as we determined earlier!
The values of the reflection coefficient 0 and the transmission

coefficient T0 are not independent, but in fact are directly
related. Recall the first boundary expressed was:
V01+ +V01 = V02+
Dividing this by V01+ :

V01 V02+
1+ + = +
V01 V01

Since 0 =V01 V01+ and T0 =V02+ V01+ :
1 + 0 =T0
Note the result T0 = 1 + 0 is true for this particular circuit, and

therefore is not a universally valid expression for two-port
networks!

1/29/2009 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 1/11
Example: Applying
Boundary Conditions
Consider this circuit:
I1(z1) + VL - I2(z2)
ZL IL
+ +
Z0, V1 (z1) V2 (z2) Z0,
- -
z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0
I.E., Two transmissions of identical characteristic impedance
are connect by a series impedance ZL . This second line is
eventually terminated with a load ZL = Z0 (i.e., the second line is
matched).
Q: What is the voltage and current along each of these

two transmission lines? More specifically, what are
V01+ , V01 , V02+ and V02 ??
A: Since a source has not been specified, we can only

determine V01 , V02+ and V02 in terms of complex constant
V01+ . To accomplish this, we must apply a boundary
conditions at the end of each line!

z1 < 0
We know that the voltage along the first transmission line is:
+ j z1
V1 ( z1 ) = V01+ e j z + V01 e
1
for z1 < 0
V01+ j z V01 + j z
I1 ( z 1 ) = e 1
e 1
for z1 < 0
Z0 Z0
z2 > 0
We likewise know that the voltage along the second

V2 ( z 2 ) = V02+ e j z + V02 e + j z
2 2
for z 2 > 0
V02+ j z V02 + j z
I2 ( z 2 ) = e 2
e 2
for z 2 > 0
Z0 Z0
Moreover, since the second line is terminated in a matched

load, we know that the reflected wave from this load must be
zero:
V2 ( z 2 ) =V02 e j z = 0 2

The voltage and current along the second transmission line is

thus simply:
j z2
V2 ( z 2 ) = V2+ ( z 2 ) = V02+ e for z 2 > 0
V02+ j z
I2 ( z 2 ) = I ( z 2 ) =
2
+
e 2
for z 2 > 0
Z2
z=0
At the location where these two transmission lines meet, the

current and voltage expressions each must satisfy some specific
boundary conditions:
I1(0) + VL - I2(0)
ZL IL
+ +
Z0 , V1 (0) V2 (0) Z0,
- -
z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0
The first boundary condition comes from KVL, and states that:
V1 ( z = 0 ) I L Z L = V2 ( z = 0 )
V01+ e j ( 0 ) + V01 e + j ( 0 ) I L Z L = V02+ e j ( 0 )
V01+ +V01 I L Z L = V02+

the second boundary condition comes from KCL, and states that:
I1 ( z = 0 ) = I L
V01+ j ( 0 ) V01 + j ( 0 )
e e = IL
Z0 Z0
V01+ V01 = Z 0I L
while the third boundary condition likewise comes from KCL, and
states that:
I L = I2 ( z = 0 )
V02+ j ( 0 )
IL = e
Z0
Z 0I L = V02+
Finally, we have Ohms Law:
VL = Z L I L
Note that we now have four equations and four unknowns

(V01 ,V02+ , VL ,I L ) ! We can solve for each in terms of V01+ (i.e., the
incident wave).
For example, lets determine V02+ (in terms of V01+ ). We combine

the first and second boundary conditions to determine:
V01+ +V01 I L Z L = V02+

V01+ + (V01+ Z 0I L ) I L Z L = V02+
2V01+ I L ( Z 0 + Z L ) = V02+

And then adding in the third boundary condition:
2V01+ I L ( Z 0 + Z L ) = V02+
V02+
2V +
01
Z0
( Z 0 + Z L ) = V02+
2Z 0 + Z L
2V01+ = V02+
Z 0
Thus, we find that V02+ =T0 V01+ :
V02+ 2Z 0
T0 + =
V01 2Z 0 + Z L
Now lets determine V01 (in terms of V01+ ).
Q: Why are you wasting our time? Dont

we already know that V01 = 0 V01+ , where:
ZL Z0
0 =
ZL + Z0
A: Perhaps. Humor me while I continue with our boundary

condition analysis.
We combine the first and third boundary conditions to

determine:

V01+ +V01 I L Z L = V02+

V01+ +V01 I L Z L = Z 0I L
V01+ +V01 = I L ( Z 0 + Z L )
And then adding the second boundary condition:
V01+ +V01 = I L ( Z 0 + Z L )
(V +
V01 )
V +V
+
01

01 =
01
(Z0 + ZL )
Z0
ZL 2Z 0 + Z L
V01+ = V
01
Z0 Z0
Thus, we find that V01 = 0 V01+ , where:
V01 ZL
0 + =
V01 Z L + 2Z 0
Note this is not the expression:
ZL Z0
0
ZL + Z0
This is a completely different problem than the

transmission line simply terminated by load ZL. Thus, the
results are likewise different. This shows that you must
always carefully consider the problem you are attempting
to solve, and guard against using shortcuts with
previously derived expressions that may be inapplicable.

This is why you must know why a correct answer is correct!
Q: But, isnt there some

way to solve this using our
previous work?
A: Actually, there is!
An alternative way for finding 0 =V01 V01+ is to determine the

input impedance at the end of the first transmission line:
ZL
Z0 , Zin Z0,
z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0
Note that since the second line is (eventually) terminated in a
matched load, the input impedance at the beginning of the
second line is simply equal to Z0.
ZL
Z0 , Zin2=Z0 Z0,
z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0

Thus, the equivalent circuit becomes:
ZL
Z0 , Zin Z0
z1
z1 = 0
And it is apparent that:
Zin = Z L + Z 0
As far as the first section of transmission line is concerned, it

is terminated in a load with impedance Z L + Z 0 . The current and
voltage along this first transmission line is precisely the same
as if it actually were!
I1(z1)
+
Z0 , V1 (z1) ZL + Z0
-
z1
z1 = 0

Thus, we find that 0 =V01 V01+ , where:
Z ( z1 = 0 ) Z 0
0 =
Z ( z1 = 0 ) + Z 0
=
(ZL + Z 0 ) Z 0
(ZL + Z 0 ) + Z 0
ZL
=
Z L + 2Z 0
Precisely the same result as before!
Now, one more point. Recall we found in an earlier handout that

T0 = 1 + 0 . But for this example we find that this statement is
not valid:
2(ZL + Z 0 )
1 + 0 = T0
Z L + 2Z 0
Again, be careful when analyzing microwave circuits!
Q: But this seems so

difficult. How will I
know if I have made a
mistake?
A: An important engineering tool that you must master is

commonly referred to as the sanity check.

Simply put, a sanity check is simply thinking about your result,

and determining whether or not it makes sense. A great
strategy is to set one of the variables to a value so that the
physical problem becomes trivialso trivial that the correct
answer is obvious to you. Then make sure your results likewise
provide this obvious answer!
For example, consider the problem we just finished analyzing.

Say that the impedance ZL is actually a short circuit (ZL=0). We
find that:
ZL 2Z 0
0 = =0 T0 = =1
Z L + 2Z 0 ZL = 0
2Z 0 + Z L ZL = 0
Likewise, consider the case where ZL is actually an open circuit

(ZL= ). We find that:
ZL 2Z 0
0 = =1 T0 = =0
Z L + 2Z 0 Z L =
2Z 0 + Z L Z L =
Think about what these results mean in terms of the physical

problem:
I1(z1) + VL - I2(z2)
ZL IL
+ +
Z0, V1 (z1) V2 (z2) Z0,
- -
z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0

Q: Do these results make sense? Have we passed the sanity

check?
A: Ill let you decide!

What do you think?

1/29/2009 Example Another Boundary Value Problem.doc 1/15
Example: Another
Boundary Condition Problem
Va + ( z ) Va ( z ) Vb + ( z ) Vb ( z )
Z0 , Z Z
0 Z0 , 0
2 2
A= 4
z = A z =0
The total voltage along the transmission line shown above is expressed
as:
Va + e j z + Va e + j z z < A

V (z ) =
+ j z
Vb e + Vb e + j z A<z <0
Carefully determine and apply boundary conditions at both z = 0 and

z = A to find the three values:
Va Vb + Vb
, ,
Va + Va + Va +

Solution
From the telegraphers equation, we likewise know that the current along
the transmission lines is:
Va + j z Va + j z
e e z < A
Z0 Z0

I (z ) =

Vb + j z Vb + j z
e e A<z <0
Z0 Z0
To find the values:

Va Vb + Vb
, ,
Va + Va + Va +
We need only to evaluate boundary conditions!
Boundary Conditions at z = A
Ia ( z = A ) Ib ( z = A )
IR
+ +
Z0 , Z0 ,
Va ( z = A ) Vb ( z = A )

z = A
From KVL, we conclude:
Va ( z = A ) =Vb ( z = A )

From KCL:
I a ( z = A ) = Ib ( z = A ) + IR
And from Ohms Law:
Va ( z = A ) 2Va ( z = A ) 2Vb ( z = A )
IR = = =
Z0 2 Z0 Z0
We likewise know from the telegraphers equation that:
Va ( z = A ) =Va + e j ( A ) + Va e + j ( A )
=Va + e + j A + Va e j A
And since A = 4 , we find:
2
A = =
4 2
And so:
Va ( z = A ) =Va + e + j A + Va e j A
+ j ( 2) j ( 2)
=Va + e + Va e
=Va + ( j ) +Va ( j )
= j (Va + Va )
We similarly find that:
Vb ( z = A ) = j (Vb + Vb )
and for currents:

Va + +Va
I a ( z = A ) = j
Z0
Vb + +Vb
Ib ( z = A ) = j
Z0
Inserting these results into our KVL boundary condition statement:
Va ( z = A ) =Vb ( z = A )
j (Va + Va ) = j (Vb + Vb )
Va + Va =Vb + Vb
Normalizing to (i.e., dividing by) Va , we conclude:

+
Va Vb + Vb
1 + = + +
Va Va Va
From Ohms Law:

2Va ( z = A ) 2 j (Va + Va )
IR = =
Z0 Z0
2Vb ( z = A ) 2 j (Vb + Vb )
IR = =
Z0 Z0
And finally from our KCL boundary condition:
I a ( z = A ) = Ib ( z = A ) + IR
Va + +Va Vb + +Vb
j =j + IR
Z0 Z0

After an enjoyable little bit of algebra, we can thus conclude:
Va + +Va =Vb + +Vb jIR Z 0
And inserting the result from Ohms Law:
Va + +Va =Vb + +Vb jIR Z 0

2 j (Vb + Vb )
= Vb +Vb j
+
Z0
Z
0
Z
= Vb + +Vb 2 j 2 (Vb + Vb ) 0
Z0
= Vb + +Vb 2 ( 1 ) (Vb + Vb )
= Vb + +Vb + 2Vb + 2Vb
= 3Vb + Vb
Again normalizing to Va , we get a second relationship:

+
Va Vb + Vb
1+ + =3 + +
Va Va Va
Q: But wait! We now have two equations:
Va Vb + Vb Va Vb + Vb
1 + = + + 1+ + =3 + +
Va Va Va Va Va Va
but three unknowns:

Va Vb + Vb
, ,
Va + Va + Va +
Did we make a mistake somewhere?

A: Nope! We just have more work to do. After all, there is a yet another
boundary to be analyzed!
Boundary Conditions at z =0
Ib ( z = 0 ) IL
+ +
Z
Z0, Vb ( z = 0 ) VL 0
z =0
From KVL, we conclude:
Vb ( z = 0 ) = VL
From KCL:
Ib ( z = 0 ) = I L
And from Ohms Law:

VL 2VL
IL = =
Z0 Z0
2
We likewise know from the telegraphers equation that:
Vb ( z = 0 ) =Vb + e j ( 0 ) + Vb e + j ( 0 )
=Vb + (1 ) + Vb (1 )
= Vb + + Vb
We similarly find that:

Vb + Vb
Ib ( z = 0 ) =
Z0
Combing this with the above results:
2VL
IL =
Z0
2Vb ( z = 0 )
Ib ( z = 0 ) =
Z0
Vb + Vb 2 (Vb +Vb )
+
=
Z0 Z0
From which we conclude:
Vb + Vb = 2 (Vb + +Vb ) 3Vb = Vb +
And so:
1
Vb = Vb +
3
Note that we could have also determined this using the load reflection
coefficient:
Vb ( z = 0 )
= (z = 0 ) = 0
Vb + ( z = 0 )
Where:
Vb ( z = 0 ) =Vb e + j ( 0 ) = Vb
Vb + ( z = 0 ) = Vb + e j ( 0 ) = Vb +

And we use the boundary condition:
Z L Z 0 0.5Z 0 Z 0 0.5 1
0 = Lb = = = =
Z L + Z 0 0.5Z 0 + Z 0 1.5 3
Therefore, we arrive at the same result as before:
Vb ( z = 0 )
= 0
Vb + ( z = 0 )
Vb 1
=
Vb + 3
Either way, we can use this result to simplify our first set of boundary
conditions:
Va Vb + Vb
1 + = + +
Va Va Va
Vb + Vb + 3
= +
Va Va +
Vb + 1 Vb +
= + +
Va 3Va +
4 Vb +
=
3 Va +
And:

Va Vb + Vb
1+ + =3 + +
Va Va Va
Vb + Vb + 3
=3 +
Va Va +
Vb + 1 Vb +
=3 + +
Va 3Va +
10 Vb +
=
3 Va +
NOW we have two equations and two unknowns:
Va 4 Vb + Va 10 Vb +
1 + = 1+ + =
Va 3 Va + Va 3 Va +
Adding the two equations, we find:
Va Va 4 Vb + 10 Vb +
1 + + 1 + + = + +
Va Va 3 Va 3 V
+
a
14 Vb +
2=
3 Va +
3 Vb +
=
7 Va +
And so using the second equation above:
Va 10 Vb +
= 1
Va + 3 Va +
10 3
= 1
3 7
3
=
7
And finally, from one of our original boundary conditions:
Vb Vb + Va
= 1 + +
Va + Va + Va
3 3
= 1 +
7 7
1
=
7
And so now we summarize the fruit of our labor:
Va 3 Vb + 3 Vb 1
= = =
Va +
7 Va +
7 Va + 7
Yes it is! Its time for a sanity check!!!
The first of our boundary condition equations:
Va Vb + Vb
1 + = + +
Va Va Va
3 3 1
1 =
7 7 7
4 4
=
7 7
And from the second:

Va Vb + Vb
1+ + =3 + +
Va Va Va
3 3 1
1+ = 3
7 7 7
10 10
=
7 7
Notice that we can also verify the result:
Va 3
=
Va + 7
By using the equivalent circuit of:
Va + ( z ) Va ( z )
Z Z
Z0, 0 Z0 , 0
2 2
A= 4
z = A z =0
Specifically, we can determine the input impedance of this circuit:
Z
Zin Z0 , 0
2
A= 4
z = A z =0

Since the transmission line is the special case of one quarter wavelength,
we know that:
Z 02
Zin = = 2.0Z 0
0.5Z 0
And so the equivalent circuit is
Va + ( z ) Va ( z )
Z0, Z 0 Z = 2Z
in 0
2
z = A
Where the two parallel impedances combine as:
Z0
0.5Z 0 2Z 0 = = 0.4Z 0
2.5
And so the equivalent load at z = A is 0.4Z 0 :
Va + ( z ) Va ( z )
Z0, 0 .4 Z 0
z = A

Now, the reflection coefficient of this load is:
0.4Z 0 Z 0 0.6 3
La = = =
0.4Z 0 + Z 0 1.4 7
Q: Wait a second! Using your fancy

boundary conditions to solve the problem,
you earlier arrived at the conclusion:
Va 3
=
Va + 7
But now we find that instead:
Va 3
= La =
Va + 7
Apparently your annoyingly pretentious

boundary condition analysis introduced
some sort of sign error !
A: Absolutely not! The boundary condition analysis is perfectly correct,

and:
Va 3
=
Va + 7
is the right answer.
The statement:
Va 3
= La =
Va + 7
is erroneous!

Q: But how could that possibly

be? You earlier determined that:
Vb 1
= Lb =
Vb + 3
So why then is:
Va
La ????
Va +
A: In the first case, load Lb is located at position z = 0 , so that:

Vb + ( z ) Vb ( z )
Vb ( z = 0 ) Vb
Lb = + =
Vb ( z = 0 ) Vb +
Z0, Lb
z =0
Note this result can be more compactly stated as a boundary condition

requirement:
Vb + j (0) Vb
Lb = ( z = 0 ) = + e = +
Vb Vb

For the second case, the load Lb is located at position z = 0 , so that:
Va ( z = A ) Vb e j A Vb j 2 A
Va ( z )
+
Va ( z ) La = + = = e
Va ( z = A ) Vb +e + j A Vb +
Z0, La
z = A
Note this result can be more compactly stated as a boundary condition

requirement:
Vb j 2 A
La = ( z = A ) = + e
Vb
From the equation above we find:
Vb 3 + j 3
= La e + j 2 A
= e = +
Vb + 7 7
Thats precisely the

same result as we
determined earlier using
our boundary conditions!
Our answers are good!

The Reflection Coefficient of a Terminated Transmission Line

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

The Reflection Coefficient of a Terminated Transmission Line

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

1/29/2009 2_3 Terminated Lossless Line.

2.3 The Terminated,

We now know that a lossless transmission line is completely

Likewise, the 2 waves propagating on a transmission line are

Q: Z 0 and are determined from L, C, and . How do we

A: Apply Boundary Conditions!

Every transmission line has 2 boundaries

1) At one end of the transmission line.

Typically, there is a source at one end of the line, and a load

The purpose of the transmission line is to get power from

Lets apply the load boundary condition!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

HO: THE TERMINATED, LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE

Q: So, the purpose of the transmission line is to transfer

A: HO: INCIDENT, REFLECTED, AND ABSORBED POWER

Lets look at several special values of load impedance, as well

HO: SPECIAL VALUES OF LOAD IMPEDANCE

Q: So the line impedance at the end of a line must be load

A: The input impedance !

HO: TRANSMISSION LINE INPUT IMPEDANCE

EXAMPLE: INPUT IMPEDANCE

Q: For a given ZL we can determine an equivalent L . Is

A: HO: THE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT TRANSFORMATION

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

Note that we can specify a load with its impedance ZL or

Q: But these are both complex values. Isnt there a way of

HO: RETURN LOSS AND VSWR

Q: What happens if our transmission line is terminated by

A: As long as a transmission line is connected to linear

EXAMPLE: THE TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT

EXAMPLE: APPLYING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

EXAMPLE: ANOTHER BOUNDARY CONDITION PROBLEM

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

The Terminated, Lossless

Q: What is the current and voltage at each and every point on

A: To find out, we must apply boundary conditions!

In other words, at the end of the transmission line ( z = z L )

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

Requirement 1. To begin with, the voltage and current

Requirement 2. Likewise, the load voltage and current must be

Requirement 3. Most importantly, we recognize that the values

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

From KVL and KCL we find these requirements:

These are the boundary conditions for this particular problem.

Careful! Different transmission line problems lead to

Combining these equations and boundary conditions, we find

Rearranging, we can conclude:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

Q: Hey wait as second! We earlier defined V ( z ) V + ( z ) as

A: Recall that ( z ) is a function of transmission line position z.

This value is of fundamental importance for the terminated

Q: Wait! We earlier determined that:

Which expression is correct??

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

A: They both are! It is evident that the two expressions:

are equal if:

And since we know that from Ohms Law:

and that line impedance is:

we find it apparent that the line impedance at the end of the

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

The above expression is essentially another expression of the

Q: Im confused! Just what are were we

A: We are trying to find V ( z ) and I ( z ) when a