Q1.

The main assumptions used for stresses calculations are:

The soil is assumed as:
(1) Semi-infinite in extent; i.e., x and y are infinite but the depth z has a limit value (Half-space),
(2) Isotropic; i.e., the soil has same properties in all directions,
(3) Homogeneous,
(4) Elastic and obeys Hook's law; i.e., the soil has linear stress-strain relationship.

The reasons behind those assumptions are the unique nature of soils which makes its behavior as
very complicated material due to:
Soils are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous
Anisotropic rather than isotropic
Soil is neither purely elastic nor purely plastic, so it is visco-elastic material and therefore,
its stress-strain relationship is nonlinear (i.e., not linear or straight line).

Q2.
Foundations and structures placed on the surface of the earth will produce stresses in the soil, usually
net stress. These net stresses are necessary to estimate the settlement of foundations and depend on
the load magnitude and nature, depth below the foundation and other factors. As shown in figure
below, the sources of stresses in the ground are due to:
(1) Geostatic stresses due to overburden pressure (weight of soil layers above certain level).
(2) Added stresses due to applied external loads.

(1)
(2)
1
These stresses in turn will produce on an element of soil two types of stresses:

(3) Normal stresses, and

(4) Shear stresses.

For 2-D state of stress, in the x and z directions on an element of soil these stresses are
shown in Figure (1) below, with stresses being positive as shown.

By equating forces in the x and z directions the following equations of equilibrium in two
dimensions are obtained:

.. (1a)

.. (1b)

where, X and Z are the respective body forces per unit volume.
Due to the applied loading, points within the soil mass will be displaced relative to the axes and
to one another. This requirement leads to the following relationship, known as the equation of
compatibility in two dimensions:

... (2)

The solution of this particular problem requires that the equations of equilibrium and
compatibility are satisfied for the given boundary conditions; an appropriate stressstrain
relationship is also required. In the theory of elasticity a linear stressstrain relationship is
combined with the above equations. In general, however, soils are non-homogeneous, exhibit
anisotropy and have non-linear stressstrain relationships which are dependent on stress history
and the particular stress path followed.

2
Q3.
In 1-D consolidation, there is no lateral yield of the clay soil layer and the ratio of the minor to major
k
principal effective stresses, o , remains constant. In that case, the increase of pore water pressure
due to an increase of vertical stress is equal in magnitude, i.e.:

u = .. (3)

Where, u is the increase in pore water pressure and is the increase of vertical stress.

While for actual simulation of field condition, in 3-D consolidation, any point in a clay layer
due to a given load suffers from lateral yield and therefore,
k o , does not remain constant.

For this reason, the 1-D consolidation settlement should be corrected for 3-D consolidation
using Skempton-Bjerrum Modification.

Q4.

Settlement Definition
Settlement is a term that describes the vertical displacement of a structure or footing or road or
embankment. Having determined an amount of settlement for a foundation it is then necessary to
know whether it will be acceptable or not. It should be less than the permissible or tolerable or
allowable settlement.

Types of Settlement
(i)
S
Immediate settlement ( i ): occurs due to elastic deformation of soil particles
upon load application with no change in water content.
(ii)
S
Primary consolidation settlement ( c ): occurs as the result of volume change
in saturated fine grained soils due to expulsion of water from the void spaces of the soil
mass with time.
(iii) Secondary consolidation settlement (Ssc): occurs after the completion of the
primary consolidation due to plastic deformation of soil (reorientation of the soil
particles). It forms the major part of settlement in highly organic soils and peats.

ST = Si + Sc + Ssc ......... (4)

These components occur in different types of soils with varying circumstances:

For clay: ST = Si (minimum) + Sc (major) + Ssc (small, but present to certain extent)
Therefore, for clay these settlements must be calculated.

For sand: ST = Si (major) + Sc (present but mixed with Si) + Ssc (undefined)

3
Q5.
(1) Before application of load:
Before a load is applied to the piston, the soil system represented by Trezaghis spring
mass analogy model is assumed to be in equilibrium, i.e., the drainage valve is open and
there is no excess pore water pressure, u = 0. The spring alone is carrying any previously
applied loads, such as the weight of the piston itself.

(2) After application of load with not allowed drainage (at "time t = 0"):
When a load is placed on the piston, and the valve is completely shut-off then, there is no
chance for water to escape, and the spring does not carry any of the applied load. Therefore,
the total applied pressure immediately below the piston which equals the load divided by the
area of the piston is immediately transferred to the water. Since the drainage valve is closed,
the water pressure increases to a value equal to the total applied pressure, i.e., the excess
water pressure u = p (load in spring = weight of piston).

(3) After application of load and allowed drainage:

When the valve is now opened, the water will drain to relieve the excess pressure in it. With
the escape of the water, a part of the pressure carried by the water is transferred to the spring
where it induces a stress increase analogous to an effective increase in the inter-particle stresses,
p0 , in a soil mass.

(4) After application of load and over a period of time (at "time t = x")::
The transfer of pressure from the water to the spring occurs over a period of time, however,
at any time during the process, the increased stress in the spring, p0 , plus the excess
pressure in the water, u, must equal the applied pressure, pt ,. This transfer of pressure
from the water to the spring goes on until the flow stops. At that time all of the applied
pressure, pt , will be carried by the spring, p0 , and none by the water, i.e., the excess
water pressure u = 0, and the system will have come into equilibrium under the applied load
(load in spring = applied load + weight of piston) .

Q6.
(1) Double or two-way drainage
H dr =H /2
(2) Single or one-way drainage
H dr=H
(3) Double or two-way drainage
H dr =H /2

Q7.
Virgin compression (loading).
Expansion (unloading).
Recompression (reloading). e

4
Q8. (c) The flow of water through soil is governed by Darcy's law and not Terzaghi's law.

Comment:
Terzaghi's theory was proposed for determination of the rate of 1-D consolidation for saturated clay
soils on the basis of the following assumptions:
1. The clay - water system is homogeneous.
2. Saturation is complete.
3. Compressibility of water is negligible.
4. Compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
5. The flow of water is in one direction only (that is, in the direction of compression).
6. Darcy's law is valid.
7. The coefficient of permeability is constant.

Whereas, the flow of water through soil was based on Darcy's law as shown below.

The flows entering a prism of soil in the x, y and z directions is given from Darcys law as:-

h
q x =v x A x =k x d d ....(1)
x y z

h
q y =v y A y =k y d d ....(2)
y z x

h
q z=v z A z=k z d d ....(3)
z x y
where,
q x ,q y , q z= flow entering in directions x, y, and z, respectively,
k x , k y , k z= coefficients of permeability in directions x, y, and z, respectively,
h= hydraulic head at point A.

The flows leaving the soil prism in the x, y and z directions are:-

i
( x +d i x ) A x
q x +dq x =k x

h 2h
k x ( + 2 )d y d z .......(4)
x x

h 2 h
q y + dq y =k y ( + ) d x d z ...(5)
y y2
2
h h
q z +dq z =k z ( + 2 )d x d y ....(6)
z z

5
 For steady flow through an incompressible medium, the flow entering the elementary prism is
equal to the flow leaving the elementary prism. So,

q
q
( y + dq y )+(q z + dq z) ..(7)
q x +q y + q z=( x+ dq x )+

Combining Eqs. (1 7), gives

2 2 2
h h h
k x 2 +k y 2 +k z 2 =0 ..(8)
x y z
Equation (8) represents the continuity equation for three-dimensional flow in anisotropic soil.

For two-dimensional flow in the x-z plane, Eq.( 8) becomes:

2 h 2 h
kx +k z =0 .....(9)
x2 z2

This is generally referred to as Laplaces equation which represents two families of curves; named
as "flow lines and equipotential lines" that intersecting each other at right angles to consist what
is called as the flow net.

Q9. (e) The coefficient of consolidation c v is traditionally determined using three methods;
(i) Square root time fitting method,
(ii) Log of time fitting method, and
(iii) Hyperbola method and not finite difference method.

Comment:
In finite difference method, the derivatives of Terzaghi's consolidation equation need to be
replaced by finite difference expressions that enforced only at the mesh points of the studied
region. As a result the differential equations are reduced to a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic
equations depending on the number of the unknowns which then after need to be solved by some
techniques, such as Gauss-Elimination method.

Hyperbola Method for determination of cv :

This procedure is recommended for the determination of cv, (after Sridharan and Prakash, 1985):

1. Obtain the time t and the specimen deformation

(H) from the laboratory consolidation test.

6
 2. Plot the graph of t/H against t as shown in figure
below.
3. Identify the straight line portion bc and project it
back to point d to determine the intercept D.
4. Determine the slope m of the line bc.
2
mHdr
5. Calculate c v asc:v =0. 3( )
D

Q10. Liquefaction Event in a Sandy Soil Definition

Liquefaction refers to the significant loss of strength and stiffness resulting from the generation
of excess pore water pressure in saturated, predominantly cohesionless soils, and can be
described as follows:

When a natural deposit of saturated sand that has a void ratio greater than the critical void ratio
is subjected to a sudden shearing stress (due to an earthquake or to blasting, for example), the
sand will undergo a decrease in volume. This will result in an increase of pore water pressure u.
At a given depth, the effective stress is given by the relation ' = u. If (i.e., the
total stress) remains constant and u increases, the result will be a decrease in ' . This, in
turn, will reduce the shear strength of the soil. If the shear strength is reduced to a value which
is less than the applied shear stress, the soil will fail due to. This is called soil liquefaction.

Q11. (a) As the earthquake loading occurs so quickly, .etc.

Comment:
When an earthquake loading occurs so quickly, there is no enough period of time to develop an
excess pore-water pressure even if the water was not allowed to drain away.

Q12. (b) In the direct shear test points on the failure envelope are determined by etc.
Comment:
In the direct shear test points on the failure envelope are determined by testing at least (3) samples
under different normal stresses , for each test sample a certain normal stress was applied and
the corresponding shear stress was obtained as shown below.

7
Q13.
Q
z Ab 28 000 kN
From Boussinesqs equation: .z 2
3 / 2.
Ab
where, 1 (r / z)
2 5/2
2m
rA
1m
At any corner of the area (for e.g. at point A):
3.5m A

r A =(3 .5 )2 +(1 . 0)2 =3 . 640 m

7m

z r A z Q
r/z
distribution withAdepth at a
fixed Ab
radial
(m) (m)
b z 2 distance
from the point of surface load..z (kN/m2)

1 3.640 0.0006229 17.441

3 3.640 1.213 0.0497276 154.708
10 00.364 0.3498241 97.951
Comment:
As shown in the figure above, the results of stress distribution with depth agree with that expected
since the vertical stress developed due to the applied load at the surface reached a maximum value
at certain level then will be reduced as the depth increases.

Q14.

8
 Total stress Neutral stress Effective stress
Ground level (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
G.L.

Proposed fill Hfill

W.T.
h1
Silty sand Hsand h2

Clay
Hclay

Stresses at point (A):

H f f + h1 dry (sand ) Hc
2 +h2 sat (sand )+
Total stress , (kN /m )= 2 sat ( clay )

Hc
Neutral stress , u(kN /m2 )=(h2 + )
2

H f f +h1 dry ( sand ) Hc

2 +h2 ' (sand )+ '
Effective stress , '( kN /m )= 2 (clay )

Q15.

9
 Shear stress kN/m2
Normal stress
n kN/m2 Test 1 Test 2
Dense Sand Loose Sand
35 29 23
70 58 45
105 87 67

The failure envelopes for both tests are shown in the figure below. It is clear that the failure
planes of both tests pass through the original point which means that the cohesion (c) equal to
zero kN/m2 for both and that is true for the sandy soils.

1 = 40o for dense sand.

2 = 32o for loose sand.

120

110

100 Test :1 Dense Sand

Test :2 Loose Sand
90

80 1 = 40.4
Shear stress Failure envelopes
( kN/m2) 70
2 = 31.7
60

50

40

30
c=0
20

10
Shear stress, ( kN/m2)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Q16.

10
 5m
2m

1 3
2m
1' 3'
4m
A
2' 4'
2 4

1m

1m 1' 3'
A
2' 4'

Square hole

Values of I for vertical stress below the corner of uniformly

loaded flexible rectangular area (after Fadum, 1948).

Using the Figure above the following table of results can be obtained for z = 3m

Segment m = B/z n = L/z I = f(m, n)

Rectangular footing
1 2/3 = 0.67 2/3 = 0.67 0.120
2 2/3 = 0.67 2/3 = 0.67 0.120
3 2/3 = 0.67 3/3 = 1 0.145
4 2/3 = 0.67 3/3 = 1 0.145
Square hole

1' 1/3 = 0.33 1/3 = 0.33
0.042

2' 1/3 = 0.33 1/3 = 0.33
0.042

3' 1/3 = 0.33 1/3 = 0.33
0.042

4' 1/3 = 0.33 1/3 = 0.33
0.042

z =q o . I =[ 2( I 1 + I 3 )4 I 1' ] =200 [ 2 ( 0. 120+0 . 145)4 ( 0 .042 ) ]

11
 2
=200 [ 0 .530 .168 ] =72. 4 kN /m
Q17.

(i) cv from the square root time

plot in
Time (min) Total H (mm time (min.)1/2 (m2/year):
0.25 0.160 0.5
0.50 0.208 0.707107
1.00 0.276 1
2.25 0.391 1.5
4.00 0.507 2
6.25 0.611 2.5
9 0.694 3
16 0.789 4
25 0.834 5
36 0.85 6
49 0.866 7
64 0.878 8
81 0.894 9
100 0.905 10
300 0.954 17.32051
1440 1.030 37.94733

0.0
A
0.2 Square root time method

0.4 OC = 1.15 x OB

Total 0.6
H D
(mm)
0.8

1.0

O B C
1.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
t90 =4
time (min.)

t90 =4 ,
t 90=16( min. )
2
0. 848 . H dr
cv =
t 90

12
 0. 848( 9 mm)2 (60 min ./hr )(24 hr /day )(365 day / year )(1m)2
cv =
16( min .)(1000 mm)2
2
c v =2 .256 .(m / year )
(ii) The coefficient of permeability k :

k =c v . mv .
' '
m v =( H / H o )/( 1 o )

mv =[ ( 0 . 6110. 507 )/ 18 ] /( 200100 )

5 2
mv =5 .7810 (m /kN )

(iii) The compression index C c :

e
C c= ' '
log ( 1 o )

e H
=
( 1+ e o ) H o
( e o e f ) H
=
(1+ eo ) Ho

e f = f .G s=0. 245(2 .72 )=0 . 666

( e o 0 .666 ) ( 0 . 6110. 507 )

=
1+e o 18

17 .896 eo =12 . 0992 ; e o =0 .676

eo e f 0 .6760 . 666
C c= ' '
=
log ( 1 o ) log (200100 )

C c=0 . 005

13