washback / backwash

the positive or negative impact of a test on classroom teaching

substitution

the replacing of a noun phrase or a clause by a single word in order to avoid repetition or to
make a text more cohesive

universal grammar

the theory which claims that every speaker of a language knows a set of principles which apply
to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but
only within set limits

connotation

the attitudinal meaning of a word, which may be culturally determined, such as whether it
carries a positive or negative meaning

fossilization / fossilization

a process through which an error has become a permanent feature of a learners language use
and is believed to be resistant to correction

adjacency pair

a sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers

the first utterance leads to a set of expectations about the response
based on sociolinguistic context
second utterance can be a preferred or dispreferred response
example: Fancy a coffee? Id love one!( i.e. offer acceptance) / offer non-acceptance /
greeting greeting / question answer, / invitation acceptance or nonacceptance / complaint
denial or apology / or any other acceptable example

anaphoric reference

a word or phrase that refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text
(written or spoken)
makes a text cohesive
the second word or phrase is different in some way from the first
example: Where are my keys? You left them on the kitchen table. Them refers back to keys in
the first utterance / or any other acceptable example

collocation
 two or more words that co-occur in a language more often than would be expected by chance
the more often words occur together, the stronger the collocation
collocation can be a result of grammatical rules or simply usage
examples: depend on / have a cigarette / high frequency / bitterly disappointed / completely
agree / or any other acceptable example

order of acquisition

the order in which grammar / language items are thought to be acquired

there may be a natural, predictable order for at least some morphemes/language items
order of acquisition often different from order in which language areas are introduced in
coursebooks
example: candidates should provide an example with at least one item that is thought be
acquired before another (e.g. irregular past before regular past), or an item that is early
acquired (e.g. vocabulary), or an item that is late acquired (e.g. third person s)

structural syllabus

a syllabus which is based around a series of grammatical structures

structures are sequenced according to assumed level of complexity
example: verb to be present simple present continuous

word family

a group of words that share the same root / basic form

words use different affixes / morpheme additions to make different parts of speech
example: care, careful, careless, uncaring, carer / or any other acceptable example

Assumptions

Language should be presented in context (in this case a reading text).

Learners focus on/understand the context/situation before looking at the target language itself this
will help them decode the meaning of the target language and therefore help them understand the
uses of the different forms.

Students need to read for general understanding and detail to understand a text.

A reading text used for this purpose should not be too long or challenging if it is to provide a clear
context for the target language learners should not be distracted by the text itself (which may happen
if the text is too long and/or difficult).
Learners need to engage the correct schematic (background) knowledge before reading a text (use of
pictures and prediction activity in this exercise) this mirrors what readers do in their first language it
allows for top-down processing.

Learners need to establish the general/overall idea of the text to allow them to understand the context.

Learners need to gain a more detailed understanding of a text in order to fully understand its
meaning/content this helps them, in turn, understand the context/situation in which the target
language is contained.

Learners need to be focused on language in use in order to notice it once they have noticed it, they
can begin analysing, testing hypotheses and discovering the meaning and form of the language.

Learners will notice more if they are exposed more to the target language. The questions and the text
have examples of the target language.

Learners will learn more if they engage cognitively with the language being presented through a guided
discovery activity in which they analyse and test hypotheses about meaning/use and form of the
language they noticed in the reading text.

The teacher should be a secondary presence, supporting the learners rather than providing all the
information for them. Learners will depend on the teacher as the knower unless given activities that
specifically demand they work on the language themselves.

Learners will learn more if they focus on the gap between their existing knowledge and the correct
model (hence exercise e).

Learners benefit if they use and build on their existing knowledge (hence the testing inherent in many
guided discoveries).

Pronunciation is important to complete the picture (i.e. meaning, form and pronunciation) see stress
marked in exercise 4 c).

If this activity is done in groups/pairs learners benefit from collaboratively cognitively processing the
language.

Language should be practised/manipulated by students immediately after it has been presented.

Language practised should be in a meaningful and recognisable context (the email).

The context should be similar to the one in which the language was initially presented this will aid
recognition because of its familiarity.

Learners need to be oriented to the wider text in the practice exercise content before they use the text
as a test activity.
Learners need to implement the rules of meaning/use and form in a controlled environment where
accuracy is important this allows them to discover mistakes they are making before going on to
implement the rules in more realistic communicative activities.

Learners need to justify and discuss their choices in order to further internalise the target language
cognitive engagement will help them internalise the language/rules (hence justification/discussion with
pairs).

Selection and justification of their choices will demonstrate understanding of the target language and
rules the teacher and/or learners can then decide whether clarification is needed.

The teacher should be a secondary presence, supporting the learners rather than providing all the
information for them.