Basic Control System PDF

MALAYSIA
POLYTECHNICS
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
MODULE E3145
BASIC CONTROL SYSTEM
SALMAH THUKIMAN (PJB)

NOOR FADZILLAH ABDULLAH (PJB)
E3145 BASIC CONTROL SYSTEM 1
BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS

E3145 BASIC CONTROL SYSTEM
Name : Salmah bt. Thukiman

Address : Electrical Engineering Department
Politeknik Johor Bahru
KM 10, Jalan Kong Kong
81700 Pasir Gudang
Johor Darul Takzim.
Telephone No. : 07- 2612488 ext.8010
E-mail : salmahpjb@yahoo.com.my
Qualifications : BSc Elec. Eng (Instrumentation & Control) (UTM)
Dip. Ed (MPT)
Dip. In Elec. Eng (Power)(UTM)
Cert. In Elec. Eng. (Power) (POLIMAS)
Position : Polytechnic Lecturer
Name : Noor Fadzillah bt Abdullah

Address : Electrical Engineering Department
Politeknik Johor Bahru
KM 10, Jalan Kong Kong
81700 Pasir Gudang
Johor Darul Takzim.
Telephone No. : 07-2612488 ext.8010
E-mail : noorfa77@yahoo.com.my
Qualifications : BSc Elec. Eng (Instrumentation & Control) (UTM)
Dip. Ed (MPT)
Position : Polytechnic Lecturer
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A. FORMAT 1 2 3 4
1 The pages are organized in an interesting manner.
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the input.
4 The pictures and charts are easy to read and understand.
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B. CONTENTS 1 2 3 4
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9 I understand the ideas conveyed.
10 The ideas are presented in an interesting manner.
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14 I can answer the questions in the self-assessment.
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module.
CURRICULUM GRID
The curriculum grid of this module is based on the curriculum used by

Malaysian polytechnics.
No. TOPIC UNIT Total

Hours
1 Introduction to 1 2 Hours
Control System
2 Principles of 2 3 Hours
Controllers
3 Piping and 3 3 Hours

Instrumentation
Drawing
(PNID)
Relay and
Contactor
PLC
6 Transfer 6 2 Hours
Functions
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM

1.0 The Basic Concept of Control System
1.1 Identifying the Definition and Terminology related to Control
System
1.2 Explanation of Control System Types
1.3 Examples of Application Systems (1.2) on Electrical
Equipments
UNIT 2 PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLERS

2.0 Explanation of Principles of Basic Controllers
2.1 Explanation of Basic Controllers Components
2.2 Design of Schematic Circuit for Controller Action Types
2.3 Explanation of Circuits Operations
UNIT 3 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DRAWING (PNID)

3.0 Explanation of PNID
3.1 Identifying Instruments Symbols
UNIT 4 INTRODUCTION TO RELAY AND CONTACTOR

4.0 Explanation of Relay and Contactor
4.1 Relay
4.2 Using of Relay in Traffic Light System Examples
4.3 Contactor
4.4 Comparison between Relay and Contactor
UNIT 5 INTRODUCTION TO PLC

5.0 Explanation of PLC
5.1 PLC Terminology
5.2 PLC Historical Background
5.3 Functions of PLC
5.4 Advantages of PLC
5.5 PLC Block Diagram
5.6 PLC Basic Instructions
5.7 Design and Write Programmed Ladder based on (6.6)
UNIT 6 THE TRANSFER FUNCTION

6.0 Explanation of the Transfer Function
6.1 Definition of Transfer Function
6.2 Derivation of Transfer Function from a simple Electric Circuit
6.3 Derivation of Transfer Function from Block Diagram Systems
MODULE GUIDELINES
To achieve maximum benefits in using this module, students must follow the
instructions carefully and complete all the activities.
1. This module is divided into 6 units.

2. Each page is numbered according to the subject code, unit and page
number.
E3145 / UNIT 1 / 5
Subject Unit 1 Page Number 5
3. The general and specific objectives are given at the beginning of each
unit.
4. The activities in each unit are arranged in a sequential order and the
following symbols are given:
OBJECTIVES
The general and specific objectives for each learning topic are
stated in this section.
INPUT
This section introduces the subject matter that you are going to
learn.
ACTIVITIES
The activities in this section test your understanding of the
subject matter. You have to complete this section by following
the instructions carefully.
FEEDBACK
Answers to the questions in the activity section are given here
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Self-assessment evaluates your understanding of each unit.
FEEDBACK OF SELF-ASSESSMENT
This section contains answers to the activities in the self-
assessment.
5. You have to follow the units in sequence.

6. You may proceed to the next unit after successfully completing the
unit and you are confident of your achievement.
GENERAL AIMS
This module is prepared for students in the third semester who are following
the Diploma programme in Malaysian Polytechnics. It aims to expose
students to the control system concept in each unit and to lead them towards
self-directed learning or with guidance from their lecturers.
PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE
The prerequisite for this module is at least a pass in Electrical and Electronic
Studies at the SPM level and a successful completion of module E1001 and
E2001.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1. state the basic control system concept

2. find the principles of controllers
3. simplify the PNID
4. know about relays
5. understand about contactors
6. determine the PLC
7. understand the transfer functions
TEACHING AIDS AND RESOURCES NEEDED
1. Calculator
2. Training Kit (OMRON)
REFERENCES
1. Katsuhiko Ogata (1990). Modern Control Engineering . New Jersey :

Prentice Hall
2. S.P Eugene Xarier & Joseph Cyril Babu.J (1999). Principles of Control
System. New Delhi : S.Chand & Company LTD
3. Mansor Bin Laman(1996). Amalan Bengkel Peralatan. Kuching : Unit

Teknologi Petroleum
4. Zainol Anuar (1989). Asas Kejuruteraan Kawalan. Kuala Lumpur : UTM
5. W.Bolton (2000). Programmable Logic Controllers Second Edition.

Britain : Newues
6 Roger M.Bertrand (1995). Programmable Controller Circuits.

New York : Delmer Publishers
7. Manual OMRON (1999). Beginner Guide To PLC. Omron Asia Pacific

Pte. Ltd.
8. Manual SMC International Training (1999). Introduction To PLC

Controller. SMC Pneumatic (SEA) Pte. Ltd.
9. Jubaidi Bin Razali. Pneumatik & Hidraulik. Politeknik Ungku Omar, Ipoh,
Perak.
10. Manual FESTO DIDACTIC. Electro-hydraulics Learning System for

Automation & Communication. FESTO DIDACTIC.
E3145/1/1
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM
UNIT1
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To know and to apply the concept of control system.
Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to :
Explain the basic concept of control system with general

block diagram of control system.
State the definition and terminology of control system

elements.
Classify and differentiate the two categories of control

system : open-loop and closed-loop systems.
Draw the block diagram of electrical equipments based

on control system types.
List the advantages and disadvantages of open-loop

and closed-loop control systems.
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INPUT
Control system is a
characteristic which
influences our lifes today. We
use this system in many
fields. For example, in
industries, domestic, medical,
robotics, generation of
electrical energy and so on.
1.0 THE BASIC CONCEPT OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Automatic control has played a vital role in the advance of engineering

and science. In addition to its extreme importance in space-vehicle
system, missile-guidance systems, air-craft-autopiloting systems, robotic
systems and the likes, automatic control has become an important and
integral part of modern manufacturing and industrial processes. For
example, automatic control is essential in the numerical of machine tools
in the manufacturing industries.
The controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is measured
and controlled. The manipulated variable is the quantity or condition that
is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled
variable. Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the system.
Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the
system and applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or
limit deviation of the measured value from a desired value.
In studying control engineering, we first need to define additional
terms that are necessary to describe control systems, such as plants,
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disturbances, processes, feedback control systems and etc. Then a

description of closed-loop and open-loop control systems and their
advantages and disadvantages will be given in the following sections.
1.1 IDENTIFYING THE DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGY RELATED

TO CONTROL SYSTEM
The various definitions of the system variables and components are

as mentioned below:
1.1.1 Pneumatic Control Systems
The working medium in a pneumatic control systems uses a

compressible fluid, such as air because it may be exhausted to the
atmosphere at the end of the devices work cycle, thus eliminating the need
for return lines.
1.1.2 Hydraulic Control Systems
Hydraulic control systems is the study of incompressible liquids, and

hydraulic devices use an incompressible fluid, such as oil, for their working
medium. Liquid level systems consisting of storage tanks and connecting
pipes are a class of hydraulic systems whose driving force is due to relative
difference in the liquid heights in the tanks.
1.1.3 Reference Input
It is the actual signal input to the control system.
1.1.4 Process
Any operation to be controlled. For example, chemical, economic, and

biological processes.
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1.1.5 Feedback Element
It is the unit which provides the means for feeding back to the output
quantity in order to compare it with the reference input.
1.1.6 Disturbances
A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the

value of the output of a system. If the disturbance is generated within
the system, it is called internal, while an external disturbance is
generated outside the system and is an input.
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Activity 1A
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE

NEXT INPUT!
1.1 Define the elements given below :

a) Controlled variable
b) Manipulated variable
c) Control
1.2 Define the elements given below :
a) Reference input
b) Feedback element
c) Disturbances
d) Process
e) Hydraulic Control System
f) Pneumatic Control System
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Feedback To Activity 1A
1.1 a) Controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is

measured and controlled. Controlled variable is the output of
the system.
b) Manipulated variable is the quantity or condition there is

varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the
controlled variable.
c) Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable

of the system and applying the manipulated variable to the
system to correct or limit deviation of the measured value from
a desired value.
1.2 a) Reference Input

It is the actual signal input to the control system.
b) Feedback Element
It is the unit which provides the means for feeding back to the
output quantity in order to compare it with the reference input.
c) Disturbances
A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the
value of the output of a system. If the disturbance is generated
within the system, it is called internal , while an external
disturbance is generated outside the system and is an input.
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d) Process
Any operation to be controlled. For example, chemical,
economic, and biological processes.
e) Hydraulic Control Systems

Hydraulic control systems is the studied of incompressible
liquids, and hydraulic device use an incompressible fluid, such
as oil, for their working medium. Liquid level systems consisting
of storage tanks and connecting pipes are a class of hydraulic
systems whose driving force is due to relative difference in the
liquid heights in the tanks.
f) Pneumatic Control Systems

The working medium in a pneumatic control systems using a
compressible fluid, such as air because it may be exhausted to
the atmosphere at the end of the devices work cycle, thus
eliminating the need for return lines.
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INPUT
1.2 EXPLANATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM TYPES
Two types of control

systems:
a) open-loop system
b) closed-loop system
A control system may consists of a number of components. In order

to show the functions performed by each component, in control engineering,
we commonly use a diagram called the block diagram.
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the
functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals. In a block
diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks. The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical
operation on the input signal to the block that produces the output.
Figure 1.1 shows an element of the block diagram. Such arrows are
referred to as signals.
Transfer
Function
G(S)
Figure 1.1 Element of a block diagram

(Source : Katsuhiko Ogata (1990), Modern Control Engineering)
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The advantages of the block diagram representation of a system

lies in the fact that it is easy to form the overall block diagram for the entire
system by merely connecting the blocks of the components according to the
signal flow and that it is possible to evaluate the contribution of each
component to the overall performance of the system.
Summing Point
Referring to Figure 1.2, a circle with a cross is the symbol that
indicates a summing operation. The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead
indicates whether that signal is to be added or subtracted.
Figure 1.2 Summing point

Branch point
A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes
concurrently to other blocks or summing points.
Control systems are classified into two general categories:

open-loop system
closed-loop system
The distinction is determined by the control action, which is that quantity
responsible for activating the system to produce the output.
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1.2.1 Open-loop Control System
An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is

independent of the output. Figure 1.3 shows the block diagram of an
open-loop control system (basic system) and Figure 1.4 shows the
block diagram of an open-loop control system (automobile driving
system).
Input Output
Reference Variable
Controller Process
Figure 1.3 An open-loop control systems (basic system)

(Source : S.P. Eugene Xarier & Joseph Cyril Babu.J (1999), Principles of Control System)
Input (command) Output (controlled)
Signal Variable
Accelarator pedal, links and Engine Vehicle
carburettor
Speed
Force
Figure 1.4 An open-loop control systems (Automobile driving system)

(Source : S.P. Eugene Xarier & Joseph Cyril Babu.J (1999), Principles of Control System)
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1.2.2 Closed-loop Control System
Closed-loop control systems are more commonly called feedback

control systems. Feedback is the characteristic of closed-loop control
systems which distinguishes them from open-loop systems. It is the property
of closed-loop control systems which permits the output to be compared with
the input of the system so that the appropriate control action may be formed
as a function of the output and input. In general, feedback is said to exist in a
system when closed sequence of cause-and-effect relation exists between
system variables.
Error detector
Reference Controlled
Controller Process
Input Output
Controller
Feedback
path elements
Figure 1.5 General block diagram of an automatic control system

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1.2.3 Comparison between open-loop and closed-loop control systems
Open-loop Control System
The important features of open-loop control systems are :

i. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their
calibration, which simply implies, to establish the input-output
relation to obtain a desired system accuracy.
ii. They are not generally troubled with problems of instability.
Closed-loop Control System
The important features of feedback are :

i. Reduced effects of nonlinearities and distortion
ii. Increased accuracy
iii. Increased bandwidth
iv. Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of the output to input to
variations in system characteristics.
v. Tendency towards oscillation or instability.
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1.3 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION CONTROL SYSTEMS TYPES ON

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
Examples of application of
control system on electrical
equipments : washing machine,
toaster, coffeemaker,
refrigerator, room lamp and etc.
1.3.1 Open-loop control system
1. Washing machine
Soaking, washing, and rinsing in the washer operate on a time
basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, that is,
the cleanliness of the clothes.
2. Electric coffeemaker
One possible input for automatic electric coffeemaker is the
amount of coffee used. Most coffeemakers have a dial which
can be set for weak, medium or strong coffee. This setting
usually regulates a timing mechanism. The brewing-time is
therefore another possible input. The output of any
coffeemaker can be chosen as coffee strength.
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1.3.2 Closed-loop System
1. Automatic toaster
Assume that each heating element supplies the same amount
of heat to both sides of the bread, and toast quality can be
determined by its colour. The toaster is initially calibrated for a
desired toast quality by means of the colour adjustment knob.
This setting never needs readjustment unless the toast quality
criterion changes. When the switch is closed, the bread is
toasted until the colour detector sees the desired colour. Then
the switch is automatically opened by means of the feedback
linkage, which may be electrical or mechanical.
2. Automatic Refrigerator
The input is the reference temperature and the output is the
actual refrigerator temperature.
E3145/1/15
Activity 1B

NEXT INPUT!
1.3 Many closed-loop and open-loop control system may be found in

homes. Identify the electrical equipment below and describe them of
the system is open-loop or closed-loop control systems.
a. Electrical oven
b. Blender
c. Electric automatic kettle
d. Iron
e. Lamp
1.4 State the differences between open-loop and closed-loop control

systems.
1.5 Give the two general categories of control system.

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Feedback To Activity 1B
1.3 a. Closed-loop control system

b. Open-loop control system
c. Closed-loop control system
d. Closed-loop control system
e. Open-loop control system
1.4
Open-loop control system Closed-loop control system
i. Their ability to perform i. Reduced effects of

accurately is determined by nonlinearities and
their calibration, which simply distortion
implies, to establish the
input-output relation to obtain ii. Increased accuracy
a desired system accuracy.
iii. Increased bandwidth
ii. They are not generally
troubled with problems of iv. Reduced sensitivity of the
instability. ratio of the output to input
to variations in system
characteristics.
v. Tendency towards
oscillation or instability.
1.5 a) Open-loop system

b) Closed-loop system
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KEY FACTS
1. Control system are classified into two general categories : open-loop

and closed-loop systems.
2. In control engineering, to show the function performed by each

component, we commonly use a diagram called the block diagram.
E3145/1/18
SELF-ASSESSMENT
You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment
section and check your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-
Assessment given on the next page. If you face any problems, discuss it
with your lecturer. Good luck.
Q1-1 Name the major parts of a closed-loop control system.
Q1-2
(a) Draw the block diagram of open-loop and closed-loop control
systems.
(b) List the advantages of the block diagram.
(c ) Draw the general block diagram of an automatic control system.

E3145/1/19
Feedback To Self-Assessment
Have you tried the questions????? If YES, check your answers now.
Q1-1 i. Reference input

ii. Controller
iii. Process
iv. Output
v. Feedback element
Q1-2
(a) i. Open-loop control system
Input Output
Reference Variable
Controller Process
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ii. Closed loop control system
Error detector
Controller Process
Input Output
Controller
Feedback
path elements
(b) The advantages of the block diagram representation of a system lies

in the fact that it is easy to form the overall block diagram for the entire
system by merely connecting the blocks of the components according
to the signal flow and that it is possible to evaluate the contribution of
each component to the overall performance of the system.
E3145/1/21
(c) General block diagram of an automatic control system
Error detector
Controller Process
Input Output
Controller
Feedback
path elements
E3145/2/1
PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLERS
UNIT2
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To apply the concept of principles of controllers.
Explain the basic concept of principles of controllers.
State the definition of basic controller components.
Draw the schematic circuits for controller action types.
Explain the circuits operations.

E3145/2/2
INPUT
2.0 EXPLANATION OF PRINCIPLES OF BASIC CONTROLLERS
The main component of

controller are :
a) Comparator
mechanism
b) Controller
c) Feedback mechanism
Controller is a device which receives input from two points :

(i) a value which is sent by transmitter
(ii) a value which is set by set point
The output from the controller is send to the valve controller.
Sensor
MV Output
Comparator Feedback
mechanism mechanism
SP
Supply Relay
Figure 2.0 : Block Diagram of controller

(Source : Mansor Bin Laman (1996), Amalan Bengkel Peralatan)
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Figure 2.0 shows the input controller is a signal which is sent by

transmitter. This signal is known as a transmitter signal (MV) and set point. If
the output depends on the two inputs functions well and the process is in a
stable condition, then the transmitter signal is similar to the set point. The
comparator mechanism functions as comparator of both input signals. An
error will exist if the input value is not the same. The detector will detect the
error signal and determine if there is imbalance between error signal and
feedback signals. If there is a difference, the detector will balance both of
these signals. The feedback mechanism is a mechanism which balances the
system. The feedback signal is always similar to the output signal.
The main components of controller are :

(i) Comparator mechanism. It consists of two bellows which is for
transmitter signal and set point signal. Its function is to
differentiate both the input signals.
(ii) The controller consists of a flapper and nozzle. Its function is to
detect the error signal from the different output and the
feedback signal.
(iii) The feedback mechanism consists of the feedback bellows. Its
function is to balances and stable the system. It also has an
effect towards multiple output of a controller.
2.1 EXPLANATION OF BASIC CONTROLLERS COMPONENTS
2.1.1 Bellows
The structure of a bellow is shown in Figure 2.1. It consists of a thin

metal which is formed into a wave cylinder shape. Air pressure will
depress a bellow. When air pressure is increased, bellow will extend
and displacement exists. This displacement is linked to the convenient
lever for give the pressure increase reading. This displacement force
include in mechanical force categories.
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Unknown pressure Bellows movement
Figure 2.1 : Bellows

2.1.2 Flapper Nozzle
Flapper nozzle is a displacement transducer which the displacement

into a differential pressure parameter. Figure 2.2 shows a structure of flapper
nozzle. Basically air is used as work liquid. Air will give a constant time about
0.1s. Flapper nozzle is used for measuring of displacement between load
cell. This displacement is very small.
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Fixed Resistance
Variable Resistance
s
0
Flapper Plat Measured element
Figure 2.2 : Flapper Nozzle

2.1.3 Restrictor
Accuracy of an instrument is guaranteed by manufacturers only for a

certain limit. Normally it is stated in the form of a full scale percent of that
particular instrument. Deflection from the specification is called restrictor
error.
E3145/2/6
Activity 2A

NEXT INPUT!
2.1 Explain the basic controllers components below:

(i) Bellows
(ii) Flapper nozzle
2.2 Draw the diagram of bellow and flapper nozzle.

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2.1. (i) Bellows consists of a thin metal which is formed into a wave
cylinder shape. Air pressure will depress a bellow. When air pressure
is increased, bellows will extend and displacement exists. This
displacement is linked to convenient lever for give the pressure
increase reading. This displacement force include in mechanical force
categories.
(ii) Flapper nozzle is a displacement transducer which the

displacement into a differential pressure parameter. Basically air is
used as work liquid. Air will give a constant time about 0.1s. Flapper
nozzle is used for measuring of displacement between load cell. This
displacement is very small.
2.2 (i) Bellows
Unknown pressure Bellows movement

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(ii) Flapper nozzle
Fixed Resistance
Variable Resistance
s
0
Flapper Plat Measured element

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INPUT
2.2 DESIGN OF SCHEMATIC CIRCUIT FOR CONTROLLER ACTION

TYPES
There are three types of

controller :
a) Proportional
controller
b) Integral controller
c) Derivative controller
2.2.1 Types of Controller
There are a few types of controller used to control a process either in

a form of Proportional output to the error, Proportional and Integral to the
error or Proportional and Derivative output to the first error.
Controller can be used in the form of single mode of Proportional,

Integral, or Derivative, two mode of Proportional and Integral (P+I) and
Proportional and Derivative (P+D), and three mode of Proportional, Integral
and Derivative (P+I+D).
The figures below show the design of schematic circuit for controller
action types.
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(i) Proportional Controller (P)

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(iii) Integral Controller (I)

(iv) Derivative Controller (D)

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(iv) Proportional + Integral Controller (P+I)

(v) Proportional + Integral + Derivative Controller (P+I+D)

E3145/2/13
Activity 2B

NEXT INPUT!
2.3 List the form of controllers used to control a process.
2.4 Design the schematic circuit for controller action types below.
(i) Proportional controller (P)
(ii) Integral controller (I)
(iii) Derivative controller (D)
E3145/2/14
2.3 Controller can be used in the form of

(a) Single mode of Proportional, Integral, or Derivative
(b) Two mode of Proportional and Integral (P+I) and Proportional
Derivative (P+D)
(c) Three mode of Proportional, Integral and Derivative (P+I+D).
2.4 (i)
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(ii)
(iii)
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INPUT
2.3 EXPLANATION OF CIRCUITS OPERATION
2.3.1 Proportional Controller (P)
This controller can be found in Proportional controller where the output is

always proportional to the error ( e ) signal. If the error signal is small, the control
action will also be small and if the error signal is high, the control action will also be
high. Once the controller detects an error, it will start to act. Output depends on
controller gain, k c i.e.
controller output = controller gain x error
Figure 2.4 (see INPUT 2.2) shows, when measured signal equals to the set point,
the system is stable. In other words, if the input process is equal to the output
process, a stable system is obtained. If the Proportional controller is used there will
be an offset where the measured signal will not reach the set point. Therefore if the
control valve has to be 50% opened, we need to open the control valve more than
50% to achieve stability.
2.3.2 Integral Controller (I)
Integral controller responses to the integration of error signal to time. So,

output is proportional to the area below the curve with time,
Controller output t e dt
In Figure 2.6 (see INPUT 2.2), bellows and spring are in the reverse position
compared to Proportional controller in Figure 2.5.
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2.3.3 Derivative Controller (D)
Derivative controller reacts to the rate of change but not to the change of
magnitude. Output is proportional to the derivation error signal (e) to time,
Controller output de
dt
If error is not changing or fixed there will be no output. Derivative controller is shown
in Figure 2.7 (see INPUT 2.2). Derivative controller has one limit which is known as
Derivative Limit. This limit distinguishes Proportional Controller and Derivative
Controller. In a stable condition the derivative controller does not affect the output
and it is always used in the process where temperature is involved.
As a conclusion, if we want a fast controller, then the Proportional controller

is better but offset will occur. However, if we want to reduce offset, the Derivative
controller can be used and we want to eliminate it, then the Integral controller
should used.
2.3.4 Two Mode Control System (Proportional and Integral Controller)
The Figure 2.8 (see INPUT 2.2) shows a basic concept of a two mode
control system. The comparator mechanism (which consists of two bellows) is place
on one end of lever while on the other end there are two feedback bellows. A
sensor is placed between the feedback mechanism and comparator. The operation
of a two mode control system is different from a single mode control system
because it combines the action of either both Proportional controller or Integral
controller only.
Based on Figure 2.8, two things are added to the controller i.e. Integral/
Reset bellows and Integral limit (adjustable). When measured signal is increased,
force impedance will come closer to the nozzle and thus will increase output.
Increased pressure will make proportional bellow change the position of force
impedance hence stabilize output pressure. Pressure will drop when it passes
through integration unit. This pressure will pass integration bellow and push force
impedance closer to the nozzle. So, output pressure can be increased further.
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A stable system will be achieved when measured signal is equal to the set
point and output pressure will be stable. Thus, offset can be eliminated. If a stable
system cannot be achieved, the integration limit can be adjusted. If the integration
limit is fully opened, the controller will act as an ON/OFF Controller. If integration
limit is fully closed, the controller will act as a Proportional controller only.
2.3.5 Three Mode Controller System (P+I+D)
Figure 2.9 (see INPUT 2.2), shows three mode controller system. The
operation is similar to P+I Controller but with the addition of a derivative limit. For
this system, all controllers (Proportional, Integral and Derivative) will affect the
responses. So, we need to adjust every controller to suit the process. Adjustments
need to be done individually to stabilize process and eliminate offset. To achieve
that, integral limit and derivative limit must be adjusted correctly.
2.3.6 Advantages and Disadvantages
Controllers have advantages and disadvantages. Table 2.1 below shows the
advantages and disadvantages of a single and two mode controller.
CONTROLLER ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Proportional Faster response when Offset exist

load is changing
Integral Eliminate offset Longer recovery time
Derivative Reduce offset No output when no error
Proportional + Derivative Reduce recovery time and Offset still occurs
offset
Proportional + Integral Can eliminate offset Longer recovery time
Table 2.1

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Activity 2C

NEXT INPUT!
2.5 Draw a suitable figure and explain a basic concept of a two mode
control system (Proportional and Integral controller)
2.6 Give the advantages and disadvantages of Proportional, Integral,

Derivative, Proportional + Derivative and Proportional + Integral.
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Feedback To Activity 2c
2.5
Based on Figure 2.12, two things are added to the controller i.e.
Integral/ Reset bellows and Integral limit (adjustable). When measured signal
is increased, force impedance will come closer to the nozzle and thus will
increase output. Increased pressure will make proportional bellow change
the position of force impedance hence stabilize output pressure. Pressure
will drop when it passes through integration unit. This pressure will pass
integration bellow and push force impedance closer to the nozzle. So, output
pressure can be increased further.
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A stable system will be achieved when measured signal is equal to

the set point and output pressure will be stable. Thus, offset can be
eliminated. If a stable system cannot be achieved, the integration limit can be
adjusted. If the integration limit is fully opened, the controller will act as an
ON/OFF Controller. If integration limit is fully closed, the controller will act as
a Proportional controller only.
2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages
CONTROLLER ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Proportional Faster response when Offset exist

load is changing
Integral Eliminate offset Longer recovery time
Derivative Reduce offset No output when no error
Proportional + Reduce recovery time and Offset still occurs
Derivative offset
Proportional + Can eliminate offset Longer recovery time
Integral
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KEY FACTS
1. Controller can be used in the form of single mode of Proportional,

Integral, or Derivative, two mode of Proportional and Integral
(P+I) and Proportional and Derivative (P+D), and three mode of
Proportional, Integral and Derivative (P+I+D).
2. Proportional controller (P)
Output depends on controller gain, k c i.e.
Controller output = controller gain x error
3. Integral controller (I)
Output is proportional to the area below the curve with time,
Controller output t e dt
4. Derivative controller (D)
Output is proportional to the derivation error signal (e) to time,
Controller output de
dt
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SELF-ASSESSMENT
Q2-1 State the definition of restrictor.
Q2-2 Design the schematic circuit for controller action types below.
(i) P+I
(II) P+I+D
Q2-3
(a) State the difference between two mode control system and single
mode system.
(b) Explain the operation of three mode controller system (P+I+D)

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Q2-1 Accuracy of an instrument is guaranteed by manufacturers only for a

certain limit. Normally it is stated in the form of a full scale percent of
that particular instrument. Deflection from the specification is called
restrictor error.
Q2-2 (i) P+I

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(ii) P+I+D
Q2-3
(a) The operation of two mode control system is different to single mode
control system because it combine the action of either both
Proportional controller or Integral controller only.
(b) The operation of P+I+D controller is similar to P+I Controller but with
the addition of derivative limit. For this system, all controllers
(Proportional, Integral and Derivative) will affect the response. So, we
need to adjust every controller to suit the process. Adjustment need to
be done individually to stabilize process and eliminate offset. To
achieve that, integral limit and derivative limit must be adjusted
correctly.
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E3145/3/1
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DRAWING (PNID)
UNIT3
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DRAWING

(PNID)
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand and to apply the concept of piping and

instrumentation drawing (PNID).
State the definition of PNID.
Discuss the comparison between pneumatic control

system and hydraulic control system.
Draw the instruments symbols.
Name the symbols of pneumatic system components

and hydraulic system components.
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INPUT
3.0 Explanation of PNID
Piping and instrumentation

drawing (PNID) includes the
components of pneumatic
control system and hydraulic
control system.
Piping and instrumentation drawing (PNID) includes the components

of pneumatic control system and hydraulic control system. Pneumatic control
system uses compressible fluid meanwhile the hydraulic control system uses
incompressible fluid.
The basic components of pneumatic system are : compressor , air

tank, air dryer, regulator, directional control valve and actuator. For hydraulic
system the components are : pump, motor or cylinder, oil tank and valve.
Basically, pneumatic system is widely used in the electronic, food, and

automotive industry. Below are the uses of pneumatic system :
Transferring of materials
Drilling system
Material handling (clamping, shifting, positioning, orienting)
Stamping
Packaging
Automation
Meanwhile, hydraulic system is normally used to operate :
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Back hoe
Bull dozer
CNC machine
Load loader
Die casting machine
The advantages of using pneumatic system and hydraulic system are

shown in Table 3.1 :
Pneumatic System Hydraulic System
1. Air easy to get (unlimited). 1. Flexible In power transmission ,

hydraulic power is more flexible
compared to pneumatic power.
2. Transmission air is easy to 2. Force gain a small force can be

transfer for a long distance used to control the large force.
through pipe line.
3. Storage compressed air can be 3. Component Does not need a lot

stored in air storage tank and can of moving mechanism.
be released if not needed.
4. Temperature compressed air is 4. Compact hydraulic motor size is

not sensitive to temperature smaller compared to electric
reactions that can cause burning. motor.
5. Clean air leakage does not 5. Economy hydraulic system is

cause environmental pollution. better and more profit.
6. Component pneumatic system

is easier to maintain and cheaper.
7. Speed it can work faster than

hydraulic system.
8. It responses very fast to the start

and stop commands from the
controller.
9. Air does not need a back flow.
Table 3.1 : Advantages between pneumatic system and hydraulic system

(Source : Jubaidi Bin Razali, Pneumatik & Hidraulik)
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3.1 IDENTIFYING INSTRUMENTS SYMBOLS
3.1.1 Symbols of pneumatic component

The symbols of pneumatic components found in a pneumatic system are
shown below :

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3.1.2 Symbols of hydraulic component

The symbols of hydraulic components found in a hydraulic system are
shown below :

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Activity 3

NEXT INPUT!
3.1 Explain what is meant by Piping and Instrumentation Drawing (PNID)
3.2 State the basic components of pneumatic system and hydraulic

system.
3.3 State 5 components of pneumatic system and hydraulic system.
3.4 Give 3 industries that use pneumatic system.

E3145/3/16
Feedback To Activity 3
3.1 Piping and instrumentation drawing (PNID) includes the components

of pneumatic control system and hydraulic control system. Pneumatic
control system uses a compressible fluid while the hydraulic control
system uses incompressible fluid.
3.2 The basic components of pneumatic system are : compressor , air

tank, air dryer, regulator, directional control valve and actuator. The
basic components of hydraulic system are : tank, filter, pump, valve,
motor and cylinder.
3.3 Pneumatic system components

a. Pneumatic compressor
b. Pneumatic cylinder (single acting)
c. Pneumatic cylinder (double acting)
d. Valve 2/2
e. Flow controller valve
Hydraulic system components

a. Fixed displacement hydraulic pump
b. Double acting cylinder
c. Differential cylinder
d. Pneumatic motor
e. Direction controller valve 2/2 type
3.4 a. Food industry

b. Automotive industry
c. Electronic industry
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KEY FACTS
1. Piping and instrumentation drawing (PNID) includes :

components of pneumatic control system
components of hydraulic control system
2. The basic components of pneumatic system are :

compressor
air tank
air dryer
regulator
directional control valve
actuator
3. The basic components of hydraulic system are :

pump
motor or cylinder
oil tank
valve.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT
Q3-1 Define the word PNEUMATIC and explain how this system functions.
Q3-2 State the advantages between pneumatic system and hydraulic

system.
Q3-3 State 5 advantages of pneumatic system.
Q3-4 Draw the symbols of the pneumatic components given below in the
space provided.
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION SYMBOLS
Pneumatic Fixed displacement

compressor
Pneumatic Non-return spring

cylinder
(single acting) Spring return
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One rod
Pneumatic
cylinder
(double acting)
Two rod
Closed loop double port

2/2 valve
Open loop double port

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Q3-1 The word Pneu is from Greece which means wind, matic refers to
power. Therefore pneumatic system means a system which is
operated by wind. The pneumatic system uses compressed air as a
power transfer medium. The compressed air is obtained from the
environment. Then it is compressed using electric motor.
Q3-2
Pneumatic System Hydraulic System
1. Air easy to get (unlimited). 1. Flexible In power transmission ,

hydraulic power is more flexible
compared to pneumatic power.
2. Transmission air is easy to 2. Force gain a small force can be

transfer for a long distance through used to control the large force.
pipe line.
3. Storage compressed air can be 3. Component Does not need a lot

stored in air storage tank and can of moving mechanism.
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4. Temperature compressed air is 4. Compact hydraulic motor size is

not sensitive to temperature smaller compared to electric motor.
reactions that can cause burning.
5. Clean air leakage does not cause 5. Economy hydraulic system is

environmental pollution. better and more profit.
6. Component pneumatic system is

easier to maintain and cheaper.
7. Speed it can work faster than

hydraulic system.
8. It responses very fast to the start

and stop commands from the
controller.
Q3-3 (Any five answers from this list are accepted)
1. Air easy to get unlimited.
2. Transmission air is easy to transfer for a long distance through pipe

line.
3. Storage compressed air can be stored in air storage tank and can
4. Temperature compressed air is not sensitive to temperature

reactions that can cause burning.
5. Clean air leakage does not cause environmental pollution.
6. Component pneumatic system is easier to maintain and cheaper.
7. Speed it can work faster than hydraulic system
8. It responses very fast to the start and stop commands from the
controller.

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Q3-4
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E3145/4/1
INTRODUCTION TO RELAY AND CONTACTOR
UNIT4
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To know and to apply the concept of relay and

contactor.
State the definition of relay.
Draw the symbol and diagram of relay .
Explain the type of relays.
State the definition of contactor.
Draw the symbol and diagram of contactor .
Compare between relay and contactor.

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INPUT
4.0 EXPLANATION OF RELAY AND CONTACTOR
The representation of relays and contactor in the electrical

circuit diagram is identical, as is their operating principle.
i. Relays are used to switch relatively small output and currents;

ii. Contactors to switch relatively large output and currents.
4.1 DEFINITION OF RELAY
A relay is an
electromagnetic switch. A
small current flowing
through a coil in the relay
creates a magnetic field
that pulls one switch
contact against or away
from another.
Relays are electromagnetically actuated switches. They

consist of a housing with electromagnet and movable contacts. An
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electromagnetic field is created when a voltage is applied to the coil of

the electromagnet. This results in attraction of the movable armature
to the coil core. The armature actuates the contact assembly. The
contact assembly can open or close a specific number of contacts by
mechanical means. If the flow of current through the coil is interrupted,
a spring returns the armature to its original position.
Relay can be used for various regulating, control and
monitoring functions:
i. as interfaces between control circuits and load circuits,
ii. for signal multiplication,
iii. for separation of direct current and alternating current circuits,
iv. for delaying, generating and converting signals and
v. for linking information.
4.2 THE SYMBOL AND DIAGRAM OF RELAY
A2 A1
coil
1
4
Figure 4.1: Symbol of Relay (Type SPDT-Single Pole Double Throw)

(Source : FESTO DIDACTIC, Electro-hydraulics Learning System for Automation &
Communication)
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A2 A1
coil
1
4
5
8
Figure 4.2: Symbol of Relay (Type DPDT-Double Pole Double Throw)

Communication)
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Functions of Relays Numbers
Number of Relays Description
1 2 Normally closed contact

3 4 Normally open contact
5 6 Normally closed contact, time delay
7 8 Normally open contact, time delay
1 2 4 Changeover contact
5 6 8 Changeover contact, time delay
A1 A2 The coil terminals (common)
Table 4.1 : Functions of Relays Numbers

Communication)
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Figure 4.3 : Diagram of relay

Communication)
4.3 TYPES OF RELAYS
Relay contacts are either normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC),
The term normally refers to the state in which the coil is not energized.
Relays can have many independent contacts, some NO and others NC, and
each contact can be used in a different circuit for a different task. When the
coil is energized, all NO contacts belonging to that relay close, whereas all
NC contacts open.
In most relays with multiple contacts, these are arranged in the

double-throw (also called the changeover or transfer) configuration, as
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shown in figure 4.1 and 4.2 above, where an NO and NC contact have a
common pole. Such relays are designated as:
i. SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) refer to symbol figure 4.1
ii. DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw) refer to symbol figure 4.2
The word pole refers to the number of sets of contacts and the word
throw refers to the number of positions or combinations ( open or
close ) the contacts can have.
Refer to the two types of relays above (Figure 4.1), single pole (SP) is
a single contact (common) where a normally open (NO) and normally
closed (NC) relay have a common pole.
While a double pole (DP) means that each set of contacts has a
common terminal ( 1 and 5 ) connected to both an open and a closed
set of contacts (Figure 4.2). When the coil is energized, the circuit
between common and NO is closed, and when the coil is de-
energized the circuit between common and NC is closed.
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Activity 4A

NEXT INPUT!
4.1 Explain the definition of relay.
4.2 Draw the symbol of relay.

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4.1 A relay is an electromagnetic switch. A small current flowing

through a coil in the relay creates a magnetic field that pulls one
switch contact against or away from another.
4.2
A2 A1
coil
1
4
Symbol of Relay (Type SPDT-Single Pole Double Throw)

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A2 A1
coil
1
4
5
8
Symbol of Relay (Type DPDT-Double Pole Double Throw)

E3145/4/11
INPUT
4.4 EXPLANATION OF CONTACTOR
Contactors work on the same basic principle as relays. The

typical features of contactor are:
i. double- break ( 2 break points per contact),
ii. positive-action contacts and
iii. closed arcing chambers (spark arresting chambers).
A contactor possesses several contact elements, normally

between 4 and 10. There are also different types of contactors with
various combinations of normally closed contacts, normally open
contacts, changeover contacts, delayed normally closed contacts etc.
The contacts are divided into main contact elements and auxiliary
contacts (control contacts)
i. Outputs of 4 30kW are switched via main contact
elements.
ii. The auxiliary contacts can be used to simultaneously
switch further control functions or logic operations.
iii. Contactors which only switch auxiliary contacts (control
contacts) are called contactor relays (control contactors).
iv. For the purpose of classification, contactors with main
contact elements for power switching are called power
contactors (main contactors).
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4.5 THE SYMBOL AND DIAGRAM OF CONTACTOR
14 13
Figure 4.4 : Symbol of Contactor.

Communication)
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Figure 4.5 : Diagram of Contactor

Communication)
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4.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN RELAY AND CONTACTOR
Relay Contactor
Relays possess a clapper-type Contactors possess a lifting

armature and are armature and are characterized
characterized by single contact by double contact separation.
separation
Relays are used to switch Contactor are used to switch

relatively small outputs and relatively large outputs and
currents. currents.
Table 4.2 : Comparison between Relay and Contactor

Communication)
E3145/4/15
Activity 4B

NEXT INPUT!
4.3 Draw the symbol of contactor.
4.4 State the typical features of contactor.

E3145/4/16
4.3
14 13
Figure : Symbol of Contactor
4.4 The typical features of contactor are:

i. double- break ( 2 break points per contact),
ii. positive-action contacts and
iii. closed arcing chambers (spark arresting chambers).
E3145/4/17
KEY FACTS
1. (i) Relays possess a clapper-type armature and are

characterized by single contact separation.
(ii) Relays are used to switch relatively small outputs and
currents.
2. (i) Contactors possess a lifting armature and are characterized

by double contact separation.
(ii) Contactors are used to switch relatively large outputs and
currents
E3145/4/18
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Q4-1 (a) Identify the application of relay.
(b) Draw the diagram of relay.
(c) Explain the function of normally open (NO) and normally

closed (NC) relay contacts.
(d) State the strengths and weaknesses of relay.
Q4-2 (a) Give the definition of coil in contactor.
(b) Identify the comparison between relay and contactor.

E3145/4/19
Q4-1 (a) Relay can be used for various regulating, control and
monitoring functions:
i. as interfaces between control circuits and load circuits,

ii. for signal multiplication,
iii. for separation of direct current and alternating current circuits,
iv. for delaying, generating and converting signals and
for linking information.
(b)
E3145/4/20
Diagram of relay
Q4-3 Relay contacts are either normally open (NO) or normally

closed (NC), The term normally refers to the state in which
the coil is not energized. Relays can have many independent
contacts, some NO and others NC, and each contact can be
used in a different circuit for a different task. When the coil is
energized, all NO contacts belonging to that relay close,
whereas all NC contacts open.
Q4-4
Strengths Weaknesses
Easy to change out Contact wear
Durable Moving parts (springs) limit live
expectancy from 1-3 million
cycles
Easy to test Require more power
Available with plug-in base
Miniature relays available
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Immune to noise
The strengths and weaknesses of Relay
Q4-5 The coil is manufactured in a rectangular shape with two

square holes in it. This holes provide a space for the magnet
yoke to pro-armature move to the closed position.
Q4-6
Relay Contactor
Relays possess a clapper-type Contactors possess a lifting

armature and are armature and are characterized
characterized by single contact by double contact separation.
separation
Relays are used to switch Contactors are used to switch

relatively small outputs and relatively large outputs and
currents. currents.
Comparison between Relay and Contactor

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.
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E3145/5/1
INTRODUCTION TO PLC
UNIT5
INTRODUCTION TO PLC
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To apply and integrate the concept of PLC
Identify the PLC terminology
Explain the PLC historical background
Describe the functions of PLC
Explain the advantages of PLC
Draw the PLC block diagram including processor unit,

memory, the power supply unit, input and output
interface and the programming device
Explain and draw the logic function LD, OR, AND, AND
NOT, LD NOT, OUT, TIM, CNT
Design and develop ladder program

E3145/5/2
INTRODUCTION TO PLC
INPUT
5.0 EXPLANATION OF PLC
Do you have a motorcycle?

If the answer is yes, explain
to your students of the PLC
system which is used in the
traffic light.
In todays fast-moving, highly competitive industrial world, a company

must be flexible, cost-effective and efficient if it wishes to survive. In the
process and manufacturing industries, this has resulted in a great demand
for industrial control systems in order to streamline operations in terms of
speed, reliability and product output.
Control systems such as hard-wire relay, logic and computer systems,
can and do provide effective control of industrial processes and plant.
However, each of this systems has limitations or disadvantages that may
often be overcome through the use of a Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC).
What is a Programmable Logic Controller?

A PLC is a digital electronics system which uses a programmable
memory for implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing,
timing, counting and arithmetic to control through analog or digital
input/output modules, various types of machines or processes.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
5.1 PLC TERMINOLOGY
In general, a control systems is a collection of electronic

devices and equipment which are in place to ensure the stability,
accuracy and smooth transition of a process or a manufacturing
activity. It takes any form and varies in scale of implementation, from a
power plant to a semiconductor machine. As a result of rapid
advancement of technology, complicated control tasks accomplished
with a highly automated control system, which may be in the form of
Programmable Controller (PLC) and possibly a host computer , etc.
Besides signal interfacing to the field device (such as operator
panel, motors, sensors, switches, solenoid valves and etc.),
capabilities in network communication enable a big scale
implementation and process coordination besides providing greater
flexibility in realizing distributed control system. Every single
component in a control system plays an important role regardless of
size. For instance, as shown in Figure 5.1 the PLC would not know
the happenings around it without any sensing devices. It is also
unable to activate any moving mechanism if there is no motor
installed. And if necessary, an area host computer has to be in place
to coordinate the activities in a specific area at the shop floor.
(Source :
Manual OMRON
(1999), Beginner
Guide To PLC)
Figure 5.1 : It could also be an application as small as single PLC

controlling a single or some output service
E3145/5/4
INTRODUCTION TO PLC
5.2 PLC HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
PLCs highly desireable in a

wide variety of industrial-
plant and process-control
application.
PLCs were used mainly in the motor industries in the early 1970s
where they replaced large relay panels. Not only do PLCs take up much
lesser space than the relay system, they are also more reliable in operation
over longer periods. One important point to take note is that PLCs are very
flexible in terms of modifying or changing the control sequences. It is now
possible to change or modify the control system without having to connect or
disconnect a single wire. It is simply done by changing the program
(software), using a program console or graphic programming panel attached
to the programmer logic controller.
Industry demands on PLCs are increasing rapidly and this has
encouraged manufacturers to develop whole families of microprocessors-
based systems having various level of performance. Available PLCs now
range from small self-contained units to sophisticated modular systems with
a range of add-on function modules for tasks such as analog input/output
and communications. This modular system allows the expansion or
upgrading of a control system with minimum costs and interruption.
In 1968, a group of engineers from General Motors developed the
concept of PLC with an initial specification. The PLC must be :
1) Easy to program and reprogram
2) Easy to maintain and repair
3) More reliable in an industrial environment
4) Smaller in size than its relay equivalent
5) Cost-competitive
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
5.2.1 Developments of PLC
YEARS DESCRIPTION
1968 The concept of PLC was developed
1969 A hardware CPU controller was used with logic
instructions. It comes with 1K of memory and 128 I/O
points
1974 Using several processors within a PLC with add-on
timers and counters functions. Arithmetic operations
are also included. This PLC has 12K of memory and
1024 I/O points
1976 Remote I/O systems were introduced.
1977 Microprocessor-based PLC was introduced
1980 Intelligent I/O modules were developed
1983 Small low-cost PLCs were introduced
1985 onwards With networking capabilities
Table 5.1 PLC historical background

(Source : Manual SMC International Training (1999), Introduction to PLC Controller)
E3145/5/6
INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Activity 5A

NEXT INPUT!
PART 1
Questions 1 to 5 have four options: A, B, C or D. Choose the correct
answer from the options given.
5.1 The term PLC stands for :

A Personal Logic Computer
B Programmable Local Computer
C Personal Logic Controller
D Programmable Logic Controller
5.2 Which of the following is most likely to be the voltage level used
internally in a PLC, excluding the voltage levels that might occur during
conditioning in output/input channels:
A 5V
B 24V
C 110V
D 240V
5.3 The cycle time of a PLC is the time it takes to:

A Read an input signal
B Read all the input signals
C Check all the input signals against the program
D Read all the inputs, run the program and update all outputs
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
PART 2
5.4 What is a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

E3145/5/8
INTRODUCTION TO PLC
PART 1
5.1 D
5.2 A
5.3 D
PART 2
5.4 A PLC is a digital electronics system which uses a

programmable memory for implementing specific functions
such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to
control through analog or digital input/output modules, various
types of machines or processes.
E3145/5/9
INTRODUCTION TO PLC
INPUT
5.3 FUNCTIONS OF PLC
PLCs are made to operate

for long periods of time in
adverse industrial
environment. For example,
temperature, humidity etc.
PLCs are used in many real world applications. If there are

industries present, chance are good that there is a PLC present. If you are
involved in machining, packaging, material handling, automated assembly or
countless other industries you are probably already using them. If you are
not, you are wasting money and time. Almost any application that needs
some type of electrical control has a need for a PLC.
For example, lets assume that when a switch turns on we want to turn
a solenoid on for 5 seconds and then turn it off regardless of how long the
switch is on for. We can do this with a simple external timer. But what if the
process included 10 switches and solenoids? We would need 10 external
timers. What if the process also needed to count how many times the
switches individually turned on? Thus we need a lot of external counters.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
As you can see the more bigger process you need, we have a PLC.
We can simply program the PLC to count its inputs and turn the solenoids for
the specified time.
There are so many applications where PLCs are used in the various
industries. Below is the list of applications :
i. conveyor system
ii. swimming pool
iii. traffic light system
iv. lift control system
v. food processing
vi. pick and place robot control
vii. packaging machine
viii. security control system
ix. car manufacturing plant
x. printing industries
xi. air condition control
xii. cement manufacturing
5.4 ADVANTAGES OF PLC
The following are the major advantages that can be distinguishably

realized :
i. The wiring of the system usually reduces by 80% compared

to conventional relay control system.
ii. The power consumption is greatly reduced as PLC consumes
much less power
iii. The PLC self diagnostic functions enable easy and fast
trouble shooting of the system
iv. Modification of control sequence or application can easily be
done by programming through the console or computer
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
software without changing of I/O wiring, if no additional Input

or Output devices are required.
v. In PLC system spare parts for relay and hardware timers are
greatly reduced as compared to conventional control panel.
vi. The machine cycle time is improved tremendously due to the
speed of PLC operation is a matter of milliseconds. Thus,
productivity increases.
vii. It cost much less compared to conventional system in
situations when the number of I/Os is very large and control
functions are complex.
viii. The reliability of the PLC is higher than the mechanical relays
and timers.
ix. An immediate print out of the PLC program can be done in
minutes. Therefore, hardcopy of documentation can be easily
maintained.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Activity 5B

NEXT INPUT!
5.5 State five (5) applications of PLC.
5.6 State the five (5) advantages of PLC.

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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
5.5 a) Conveyor system

b) Swimming pool
c) Traffic light system
d) Lift control system
e) Food processing
5.6
(i) The wiring of the system usually reduces by 80%

compared to conventional relay control system.
(ii) The power consumption is greatly reduced as PLC
consumes much less power
(iii) The PLC self diagnostic functions enable easy and fast
(iv) Modification of control sequence or application can
easily be done by programming through the console or
computer software without changing of I/O wiring, if no
additional Input or Output devices are required.
(v) In PLC system spare parts for relay and hardware timers
are greatly reduced as compared to conventional control
panel.
(vi) The machine cycle time is improved tremendously due to
the speed of PLC operation is a matter of milliseconds.
Thus, productivity increases.
(vii) It cost much less compared to conventional system in
situations when the number of I/Os is very large and
control functions are complex.
(viii) The reliability of the PLC is higher than the mechanical
relays and timers.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
INPUT
5.5 PLC BLOCK DIAGRAM
Typically a PLC system has five basic components. These are

the processor unit, memory, the power supply unit, input/output
interface section and the programming device. Figure 5.2 shows the
basic arrangement.
Figure 5.2 Block Diagram of PLC

(Source : Manual OMRON (1999), Beginner Guide To PLC)
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
1. The processor unit or Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the

unit containing the microprocessor. This unit interprets the input
signals and carries out the control actions, according to the
program stored in its memory and communicating the decisions
as action signals to the outputs.
2. The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains a.c
voltage to the low d.c voltage (5V) necessary for the processor
and the circuits in the input and output interface modules.
3. The programming device is used to enter the required
program into the memory of the processor. The program is
developed in the device and then transferred to the memory
unit of the PLC.
4. The memory unit is where the program is stored, that is to be
used for the control actions to be exercised by the
microprocessor. Ladder program, Timer and Counter Values
are stored in the user memory. Depending on users need,
various types of memory are available for choice : Read-Only
Memory (ROM), Random Access Memory (RAM), Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) and Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM).
5. The input and output sections are where the processor
receives information from external devices and communicates
information to external devices
In addition, PLCs consists

of three functional areas :
processing, memory and
input/output.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
PLC BASIC INSTRUCTIONS
The most important from

any PLC programming
language is that it is
easily understood and
used in a control system.
A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is based on the

use of the ladder diagrams. Writing a program is then equivalent to drawing a
switching circuit. The ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines
representing the power rails. Circuits are connected as horizontal lines, i.e
the rungs of the ladder, between these two verticals.
In drawing a ladder diagram, certain conventions are adopted:
1. The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which
circuits are connected.
2. Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process.
3. A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to bottom, Figure
5.3 shows the scanning motion employed by the PLC. The top rung is
read from left to right. Then the second rung down is read from left to
right and so on. When the PLC is in its run mode, it goes through the
entire ladder program to the end, the end rung of program being clearly
denoted, and then promptly resumes at the start. This procedure of going
through all the rungs of the program is termed a cycle.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Figure 5.3 The rung ladder

4. Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with at least
one output. The term input is used for a control action, such as closing
the contacts of a switch, used as an input to the PLC. The term output is
used for a device connected to the output of a PLC, e.g. a motor.
5. Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a switch
which is normally open until some object closes it, is shown as open on
the ladder diagram. A switch that is normally closed is shown closed.
6. A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a ladder. For
example, we might have a relay which switches on one or more devices.
The same letters and/or numbers are used to label the device in each
situation.
7. The inputs and outputs are all identified by their addresses, the notation
used depending on the PLC manufacturer. This is the address of the
input or output in the memory of the PLC. The OMRON series of PLCs
precedes input elements by an 00 and output elements by an 01 and
uses the following numbers :
Inputs 00000 - 00011 (12 possible inputs)
Outputs 01000 - 01007 ( 8 possible outputs)
Meanwhile the Mitsubishi F series of PLCs precedes input elements by an
X and output elements by a Y and uses the following numbers :
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Inputs X400 - 407 , 410 - 413 , 500 - 507, 510 - 513

(24 possible inputs)
Outputs Y430 - 437, 530 - 537

(16 possible outputs)
Ladder Diagrams Explanation
Ladder diagram uses standard symbols to represent the circuit

components and functions found in a control system.
Ladder symbols
Input, normally-open contact
Input, normally-closed contact
Inputs in series connections
Inputs in parallel connections

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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Outputs device
Figure 5.4 : Ladder Symbols

Logic Instructions (Mnemonic)
The instruction set consists of logic instructions also known as

mnemonics that represent the actions to be performed within a given PLC.
Each program instruction consists of two parts : a mnemonic operation
component also known as opcode and an address or data component that
identifies a particular element (e.g output) within the PLC. Table 5.2 below is
an example of a mnemonic code.
Address Instructions Data

00000 LD 00000
00001 OUT 01000
00002 END(01)
Table 5.2 Mnemonic Code

Here the instruction refers to output (01) number 0.

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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Input/Output (I/O) Assignment
These instructions are used to program logic circuits in ladder diagram

form, by assigning all physical inputs and outputs with an operand (address)
suitable to the PLC being used. The I/O assignment used differ between
manufacturers but certain common terms exist.
Logic Instructions and Graphic Programming
Logic instructions are used as the basic programming language for

PLCs. Although logic instructions are easy to earn and use, it can be very
time consuming to check and relate a large coded program to the actual
circuit function. Furthermore, logic instruction tends to vary between different
types of PLC. A factory or plant may use a range of different PLCs, in which
confusion can result over differences in the instruction sets.
Name/Mnemonic Symbol Description

Creates a normally open
condition as the first
LOAD condition off the bus bar. All
(LD) instruction lines begin with
either LOAD or LOAD NOT.
Creates a normally closed
condition as the first
LOAD NOT condition off the bus bar. All
(LD NOT) instruction lines begin with
either LOAD or LOAD NOT.
Combines a normally open
AND condition in series with a
(AND) previous condition.
Combines a normally
AND NOT closed condition in series
(AND NOT) with a previous condition.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Combines a normally open

OR condition in parallel with a
(OR) previous condition.
Combines a normally
OR NOT closed condition in parallel
(OR NOT) with a previous condition.
Combines two group of

AND LOAD conditions in series. These
(AND LOAD) groups are called blocks.
Combines two parallel

OR LOAD groups of conditions. These
(OR LOAD) group are called block.
Specifies an output bit that

OUTPUT is to be turned ON for an
(OUT) ON execution condition and
OFF for an OFF condition.
Specifies an output bit that

is to be turned OFF for an
OUTPUT NOT ON execution and ON for
(OUT NOT) an OFF condition.
Creates a 0-1 s
decrementing timer that
TIMER TIM starts from the set value
(TIM) (SV) when the execution
condition turns ON.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Counts down the number of

times the input conditions
turns ON. Each time the
COUNTER input condition turns ON,
CP
(CNT) CNT the present value (PV) is
R reduced by 1 and when the
count reaches 0, the
Completion Flag (accessed
through the counter
number) turns ON.
Does nothing. Can be
NO OPERATION inserted into a program
(NOP) None when modification are
made that would otherwise
change program address.
Table 5.3 Basic Instructions

5.7 DESIGN AND WRITE PROGRAM LADDER
Examples of Logic Function

1. AND function
00000 00001 00002

ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS DATA
01000
00000 LD 00000
00001 AND 00001
00002 AND 00002
00003 OUT 01000
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
2. OR function
00001 ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS DATA

01001 00000 LD 00001
00001 OR 00002
00002
00002 OR 00003
00003 OUT 01001
00003
3. LOAD and LOAD NOT function

01000 00000 LD 00000
00001 OUT 01000
00001 00002 LD NOT 00001
01001 00003 OUT 01001
4. AND and AND NOT function

00000 00001 00002 00000 LD 00000
01002
00001 AND NOT 00001
00002 AND 00002
00003 OUT 01002
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
5. OR and OR NOT function

01003 00000 LD NOT 00000
00001 OR NOT 00001
00001 00002 OR 00002
00003 OUT 01003
00002
6. AND and OR function
00000 00001 00003

01004
00000 LD 00000
00002 00001 AND 00001
00002 OR 00002
00003 AND 00003
00004 OUT 01004
7. END function
00000 00001 ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS DATA
01005
00000 LD 00000
00001 AND NOT 00001
00002 OUT 01005
00003 END (01)
END
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Activity 5C

NEXT INPUT!
PART 1
5.7 Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
Figure shows a ladder diagram rung for which:
(i) The input contacts are normally open
(ii) There is an output when there is an input to the
contacts
A (i) T (ii) T
B (i) T (ii) F
C (i) F (ii) T
D (i) F (ii) T
PART 2
5.8 Draw a block diagram showing in very general terms the main units in
a PLC.
5.9 State five (5) advantages of PLC.
5.10 What is the address of the input or output in the memory of the PLC
manufacturer below :
(i) OMRON series
(ii) MITSUBISHI F series
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
5.11 Draw the ladder symbols to represent the circuit components and
function in a control system such as :
(i) Input, normally -open contact

(ii) Input, normally closed contact
(iii) Inputs in series connections
(iv) Inputs in parallel connections
(v) Output devices
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Feedback To Activity 5C
PART 1
5.7 A
PART 2
5.8 Block diagram of PLC

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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
5.9 i. The wiring of the system usually reduces by 80%

compared to conventional relay control system.
ii. The power consumption is greatly reduced as PLC
consume much less power
iii. The PLC self diagnostic functions enable easy and fast
iv. Modification of control sequence or application can
easily be done by programming through the console or
computer software without changing of I/O wiring, if no
additional Input or Output devices are required.
v. In PLC system spare parts for relay and hardware
timers are greatly reduced as compared to conventional
control panel.
5.10 (i) OMRON series
Inputs 00000 - 00011 (12 possible inputs)

Outputs 01000 - 01007 ( 8 possible outputs)
(ii) MITSUBISHI F series
Inputs X400 - 407 , 410 - 413 , 500 - 507, 510 - 513

(24 possible inputs)
Outputs Y430 - 437, 530 - 537
(16 possible outputs)
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
5.11 Ladder symbols
a) Input, normally-open contact
b) Input, normally-closed contact
c) Inputs in series connections
d) Inputs in parallel connections
e) Outputs device
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
KEY FACTS
1. PLC stands for PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL.
2. PLC system has five basic components : processor unit, memory,

the power supply unit, input/output interface section and the
programming device.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Q5-1 What is the characteristic of a PLC ?
Q5-2 Why do we need a PLC ?
Q5-3
(a) Draw the logic instructions below:
(i) AND NOT
(ii) TIM
(iii) OUTPUT
(iv) OR
(v) OR NOT
(vi) LOAD NOT
(b) Draw the ladder rungs to represent: Two switches which are
normally open and both have to be closed for a motor to operate.
(c) Convert the ladder diagrams given below to its equivalent

mnemonic codes.
00000 00001 00002 00003

01000
00004
00005
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Q5-1 The PLC must be :

a) Easy to program and reprogram
b) Easy to maintain and repair
c) More reliable in an industrial environment
d) Smaller in size than its relay equivalent
e) Cost-competitive
Q5-2 PLC are used in bigger processes because we can simply

program the PLC to count its inputs and turn the solenoids for the
specified time.
Q5-3
(a)
i.
ii. TIM
iii.
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
(b)
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INTRODUCTION TO PLC
(c)
Address Instruction Data

00000 LD 01000
00001 AND NOT 01001
00002 LD 00002
00003 AND 00003
00004 OR 00004
00005 OR 00005
00006 AND LD ---
00007 OUT 01000
00008 END(01)
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THE TRANSFER FUNCTION
UNIT6
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand and interpret the concept of transfer

function.
State the definition of transfer function.
Identify the transfer function from a simple electric

circuit.
Solve the transfer function from block diagram of open-

loop control system and closed-loop control system.
Reduce a block diagram of multiple subsystem to a

single block representing the transfer function from input
to output.
Rewrite the reduction method of block diagram.

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INPUT
6.0 EXPLANATION OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION
In this unit we discuss how to find a mathematical model, called a

Transfer Function, for linear, time-invariant electrical, mechanical and
electromechanical systems. The transfer functions is define as G(s) =
C(s)/R(s), or the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
Transform of the input. This relationship is algebraic and also adapts itself to
modeling interconnected subsystems.
We realize that the physical world consists of more systems than what
we have illustrated in this unit. For example, we could apply transfer function
modeling to electrical systems. Of course, we must assume these systems to
be linear, or make linear approximations, in order to use this modeling
technique.
6.1 DEFINITION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION
The transfer function of a

system is :
The ratio of Laplace
Transform of the output
variable to the Laplace
Transform of the input
variable with all the initial
conditions zero.
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Whenever a system is perturbed by some input signal all, of the

dependent variables in the system vary as a result. The transfer function
of a system is the ratio of Laplace Transform of the output variable to
the Laplace Transform of the input variable with all the initial
conditions zero. When a physical system is analysed, a mathematical
model is developed by writing differential equations with the help of various
physical laws governing the system.
The steps involved in obtaining the transfer function are as follows :

(i) Write the differential equations governing the system.
(ii) Laplace Transform the equations i.e, to replace the terms
involving d/dt by s and dt by 1/s .
(iii) Obtain the ratio of Transformed output to input variables.
6.2 DERIVATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE EASIER

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
There are assumptions made while deriving Transfer Function of

electrical systems.
(i) When a device is a part of a larger system, it should not load
the source which provides it input signal, i.e., ideally the source
should have zero (or low) internal impedance.
(ii) The output of the device should not be loaded by the
component that receives its output signal. The systems is
approximated by linear lumped parameters model with suitable
assumptions
The loading effects occur with electrical, mechanical, electromechanical and

fluid devices and should be taken into account while deriving transfer
functions.
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Let us now implement the procedure of the deriving the transfer

functions through various examples to follow :
Example 6.1 : Obtain the transfer function of the circuit shown in Figure 6.1
R L
vi(t) C vo(t)
Figure 6.1 : An RLC electrical circuit

Assume the current response i (t) due to a change in applied voltage v

(t) is required.
Application of Kirchhoffs voltage law around the circuit gives
di 1
dt C
vi(t ) = Ri (t ) + L + idt (6.2.1)
1
C
vo(t ) = idt (6.2.2)
Laplace Transforming equations (6.2.1) and (6.2.2) we have,
1
Vi ( s ) = RI ( s ) + LsI ( s ) + I (s) (6.2.3)
Cs
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1
Vo( s ) = I (s) (6.2.4)
Cs
Hence we have from equations (6.2.3) and (6.2.4),
Vo( s ) 1
= 2
Vi ( s ) Cs L + CsR + 1
Example 6.2 : Derive the transfer function of the circuit shown in Figure 6.2
vi(t) C vo(t)
Figure 6.2 : An RC electrical circuit

Writing the differential equations with the help of Kirchhoffs voltage law
1
C
vi(t ) = Ri (t ) + idt (6.2.5)
1
C
vo(t ) = idt (6.2.6)
1
Vi ( s ) = RI ( s ) + I (s) (6.2.7)
Cs
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1
Vo( s ) = I (s) (6.2.8)
Cs
Vo( s ) 1
=
Vi ( s ) 1 + sRC
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Activity 6A

NEXT INPUT!
6.1 Define the transfer function.
6.2 For the network given, what is the transfer function?
R
vi(t) vo(t)
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6.1 The transfer function of a system is the ratio of Laplace

Transform of the output variable to the Laplace Transform of the
input variable with all the initial conditions zero.
6.2 Writing the differential equations with the help of Kirchhoffs voltage
law
1
C
vi(t ) = idt + Ri (t ) (6.2.9)
vo(t ) = Ri (t ) (6.2.10)
1
Vi( s ) = I ( s) + RI ( s ) (6.2.11)
Cs
Vo( s ) = RI ( s ) (6.2.12)

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Vo( s ) RCs
=
Vi( s ) 1 + RCs
INPUT
6.3 DERIVATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM BLOCK DIAGRAM

SYSTEMS
We can make a simple transfer function from a complete

diagram whether in open-loop control system or closed-loop control
system.
6.3.1 Open-loop Control System
A system without feedback is called an open-loop system.
R(s) C(s)
G(s)
Input Output
Figure 6.3 : Block diagram of open-loop system

For open loop system,

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C(s) = G(s) R(s)
6.3.2 Closed-loop control system

All automatic control systems are of the closed-loop type of control
system. This is necessitated by the introduction of feedback for
comparing the reference input R(s), with the controlled output C(s).
E(s)
G(s)
R(s) C(s
_
B(s)
H(s)
Figure 6.4 : Block diagram of closed-loop system

Let us assume that,
R(s) = input (reference) or controlling variable

C(s) = output or controlled variable
B(s) = feedback signal
G(s) = C(s) / E(s) = forward path transfer function
E(s) = Actuating signal
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H(s) = feedback transfer function

B( s)
= G(s) H(s) = (open) loop transfer function
E (s)
C (s)
M(s) = = closed-loop transfer function (control ratio)
R( s)
From Figure 6.4, we have
C(s) = G(s) E(s) (6.3.1)
E(s) = R(s) B(s)

= R(s) H(s) C(s) (6.3.2)
Eliminating E(s) from equation (6.3.1) and (6.3.2), we have
C(s) = G(s) R(s) G(s) H(s)C(s)
C (s) G (s)
= M(s) = (6.3.3)
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
Hence, the system shown in Figure 6.4 can be reduced to single block
shown in Figure 6.5.
R(s) C(s)
G (s)
1 + G (s) H (s)
Figure 6.5 : Reduce form of Figure 6.4

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Equation (6.3.3) is valid for negative feedback system. Hence, for a positive
feedback system we have
C (s) G ( s)
= M(s) =
R( s) 1 G (s) H (s)
In general, for a positive/negative feedback systems, the control ratio is

given by
C (s) G ( s)
= M(s) = as the case may be.
R( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s)
6.3.3 Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Rule (1) : Combining blocks in cascade
R1G1 G1 R1G1G2
R1 R1G1G2
G1G2
G1 G2
Figure 6.6 (a) : Blocks in cascade

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Rule (2) : Combining blocks in Parallel
RG1 RG2
R + R RG1 RG2
G1
G1 G2
RG1

G2
RG2
Figure 6.6 (b) : Blocks in Parallel
Rule (3) : Moving a pick-off point after a block
R RG R RG
G
G
R
R 1
G
Figure 6.6 (c) : Moving a pick-off point after a block

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Rule (4) : Moving a take-off point ahead of a block
RG
R RG R

G G
G
RG
RG
Figure 6.6 (d) : Moving a take-off point ahead of a block
Rule (5) : Moving a summing point after a block
R1 R2 G[R1 R2]
R1 R1G+ G[R1 R2]
+
G
G
R1

R2
G
R2 R2G
Figure 6.6 (e) : Moving a summing point after a block

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Rule (6) : Moving a summing point ahead of a block
R1 R2/G
R1 R1G+ R1G R2
R1G R2
G +
G
R1

1/G R2
R2
Figure 6.6 (f) : Moving a summing point ahead of a block
Rule (7) : Eliminating a feedback loop
+ C
R
R C
G G
1 GH

H
Figure 6.6 (g) : Eliminating a feedback loop

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Figure 6.6 (a,b,c,d,e,f,g) : Block diagram reduction rules

6.3.4 A Block Diagram Reduction
The block diagram of a multiple-loop feedback control system is

shown in Figure 6.6. Use block diagram reduction to simplify this to a single
block relating C(s) to R(s). Note that, for clarity, the dependency upon s has
been omitted from the transfer functions within the blocks.
R(s) + +
+ C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
_ + _
H1(s)
H2(s)
H3(s)
Figure 6.7 Block Diagram

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R(s) C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
- -
H1(s)
+
H2(s)
H3(s)
(a)
+
R(s) C(s)
G1(s) G2 (s)G3 (s)
H1(s)H2(s)H3(s)
(b)
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R(s) C(s)
G3 ( s )G2 ( s )G1 ( s )
1 + G2 ( s )G3 ( s )[H1 ( s ) H 2 ( s ) + H 3 ( s )]
(c)
Figure 6.8 (a,b,c) : Steps to reduce the block diagram

Steps to reduce the block diagram :

(Figure6.8(a)) collapse summing junctions;
(Figure6.8(b)) form equivalent cascaded system in the forward
path and equivalent parallel system in the
feedback path;
(Figure6.8(c)) form equivalent feedback system and multiply by
cascaded G 1 (s)
Finally, the feedback system is reduced and multiplied by G 1 (s) to

yield the equivalent transfer function shown in Figure 6.7 (c ).
6.3.5 Block Diagram of Two Input System
In the present of more than one input to a system, the system may be
a single output system called a multiple-input-single-output (MISO) system or
E3145/6/19
a multiple output system called a multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO)

system. The output of the system are obtained by applying the law of
homogeneity or Principle of Superposition.
Let us consider a two-input linear system as shown in Figure 6.9.
D(s)
R(s) C(s)
G1 ( s) G2 ( s )
H(s)
Figure 6.9 : Block diagram of a two-input system

The response to the input R(s) is obtained by letting the disturbance

signal D(s) = 0. The corresponding block diagram is shown in Figure
6.9, which gives
C R (s) = C ( s ) R ( s ) acting alone with D(s) = 0

E3145/6/20
G1 ( s )G2 ( s )
C R (s) = R(s) (6.3.4)
1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
(a)
R(s) CR(s)
G1 ( s) G2 ( s )
H(s)
(b)
R(s) CR(s)
G1 ( s) G 2 ( s )
H(s)
E3145/6/21
(c)
CR(s)
R(s) G1 ( s )G2 ( s )
1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
Figure 6.10(a,b,c) : Block Diagram Reduction with R(s) alone.

Similarly the response to the disturbance signal D(s) is obtained by

assuming R(s) = 0. The block diagram for this case is shown in Figure
6.11, which gives
C D (s) = C ( s ) D ( s ) acting alone with R(s) = 0
G2 ( s )
C D (s) = D(s) (6.3.5)
1 + G1 ( s)G2 ( s ) H ( s )
The actual response of the system when both R(s) and D(s) are acting
is obtained by adding the two individual responses C R (s) and C D (s).
E3145/6/22
(a)
D(s) CD(s)
G2 ( s )
G1(s) H(s)
(b)
D(s) CD(s)
G2 ( s )
G1(s) H(s)
E3145/6/23
(c)
CD(s)
D(s) G2 ( s )
1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
Figure 6.11 (a,b,c) : Block Diagram Reduction with D(s) alone.

This example shows how superposition may be used to handle

system with more than one input :
Example 6.3: Determine the output Y(s) in the system shown below.
D(s)
R(s) + Y(s)
K 2
+ s+3 + s
-
S+1
E3145/6/24
Figure 6.12 : Block diagram of a two input system in the Laplace domain
Solution :
1. Setting D(s) = 0, gives the transfer function between Y(s)
and R(s) as :
Y (s) 2K
=
R( s ) s ( s + 3) + 2 K ( s + 1)
2. Setting R(s) = 0, gives the transfer function between Y(s)

and D(s) as :
Y ( s) 2( s + 3)
=
D( s ) s ( s + 3) + 2 K ( s + 1)
Since a Laplace transfer function is a linear operator, the

principle of superposition is used to generate the overall output
as the sum of the two input contributions:
2 KR ( s ) 2( s + 3) D( s )
Y ( s) = +
s ( s + 3) + 2 K ( s + 1) s ( s + 3) + 2 K ( s + 1)
or
E3145/6/25
2 KR ( s ) + 2( s + 3) D( s )
Y ( s) =
s ( s + 3) + 2 K ( s + 1)
Activity 6B

NEXT INPUT!
6.3 The block diagram of a certain system is shown below. Determine

the transfer function Y(s)/U(s).
Y(s)
U(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
6.4 The block diagram of a certain system is shown below. Determine

the transfer function C(s)/R(s).
E3145/6/26
C(s)
R(s)
G(s)
Y (s) G1 ( s )G2 ( s )
6.3 =
U (s) 1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s )
C (s) G (s)
6.4 =
R( s) 1 + G (s)
E3145/6/27
KEY FACTS
1. The transfer functions is define as G(s) = C(s)/R(s), or the ratio of the

Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace Transform of the input.
E3145/6/28
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Q6-1 State the steps to obtain the transfer function.
Q6-2
(a) The transfer function E 0 (s)/E 1 (s) of the RC-network shown is
given by:
C
Ei(t) Eo(t)
E3145/6/29
(b)
R
L
Ei(t) Eo(t)
Q6-3
Simplify the block diagram in the figure below and obtain the closed
loop in transfer function C(s)/R(s).
+
R(s) G1 C(s)
+
G2 +
-
G3
-
G4
E3145/6/30
Q6-1 The steps involved in obtaining the transfer function are as follows :
(i) To write the differential equations governing the system.
(ii) To Laplace Transform the equations i.e, to replace the terms
involving d/dt by s and dt by 1/s .
(iii) To obtain the ratio of Transformed output to input variables.
E0 ( s ) 1
Q6-2 (a) =
Ei ( s ) RCs + 1
E0 ( s ) Ls
(b) =
Ei ( s ) R + Ls
Q6-3
R(s) C(s)
E3145/6/31
G1 + G2
G3 G4
C ( s) (G1 + G2 )
=
R( s ) 1 + (G1 + G2 )(G3 G4 )
C(s)
R(s)
(G1 + G2 )
1 + (G1 + G2 )(G3 G4 )

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MALAYSIA

SALMAH THUKIMAN (PJB)

BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS

Name : Salmah bt. Thukiman

Name : Noor Fadzillah bt Abdullah

What Do You Think Of This Module?

Title of Module: _______________________ Module Code : ___________

Students Name: _______________________ Registration No. : ___________

Module Writers: ______________________________

Please use the following scale for your evaluation:

Instruction : Please on the space provided.

The curriculum grid of this module is based on the curriculum used by

No. TOPIC UNIT Total

3 Piping and 3 3 Hours

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM

UNIT 2 PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLERS

UNIT 3 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DRAWING (PNID)

UNIT 4 INTRODUCTION TO RELAY AND CONTACTOR

UNIT 5 INTRODUCTION TO PLC

UNIT 6 THE TRANSFER FUNCTION

1. This module is divided into 6 units.

Subject Unit 1 Page Number 5

5. You have to follow the units in sequence.

PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE

1. state the basic control system concept

TEACHING AIDS AND RESOURCES NEEDED

1. Katsuhiko Ogata (1990). Modern Control Engineering . New Jersey :

3. Mansor Bin Laman(1996). Amalan Bengkel Peralatan. Kuching : Unit

4. Zainol Anuar (1989). Asas Kejuruteraan Kawalan. Kuala Lumpur : UTM

5. W.Bolton (2000). Programmable Logic Controllers Second Edition.

6 Roger M.Bertrand (1995). Programmable Controller Circuits.

7. Manual OMRON (1999). Beginner Guide To PLC. Omron Asia Pacific

8. Manual SMC International Training (1999). Introduction To PLC

10. Manual FESTO DIDACTIC. Electro-hydraulics Learning System for

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM

General Objective : To know and to apply the concept of control system.

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to :

Explain the basic concept of control system with general

State the definition and terminology of control system

Classify and differentiate the two categories of control

Draw the block diagram of electrical equipments based

List the advantages and disadvantages of open-loop

1.0 THE BASIC CONCEPT OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Automatic control has played a vital role in the advance of engineering

disturbances, processes, feedback control systems and etc. Then a

1.1 IDENTIFYING THE DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGY RELATED

The various definitions of the system variables and components are

1.1.1 Pneumatic Control Systems

The working medium in a pneumatic control systems uses a

1.1.2 Hydraulic Control Systems

Hydraulic control systems is the study of incompressible liquids, and

1.1.3 Reference Input

It is the actual signal input to the control system.

Any operation to be controlled. For example, chemical, economic, and

1.1.5 Feedback Element

A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE

1.1 Define the elements given below :

1.2 Define the elements given below :

1.1 a) Controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is

b) Manipulated variable is the quantity or condition there is

c) Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable

Title of Module: _____________ Module Code : _

Students Name: _____________ Registration No. : _