CONTENTS PREFACE CaapTer I InrRopucTiIon BOOK I THE METHOD OF VALID KNOWLEDGE (PRAMANA) Cuapter IT Tae Nature AND Forms or KNOWLEDGE Definition of Knowledge (buddhi) Classification of Knowledge Memory and Dream Doubt (saméaya) Error (viparyyaya) Theories of Illusion in Indian Philosophy Hypothetical Argument (tarka) oR Cuarter IIT Vauip KyownepGe anp its Meruop (PRAMA AND PRaMxna) 1. Definition of prama or valid knowledge 2. Definition of pramana or the method of knowledge 3. Nyaya criticism of the Bauddha views of pramina 4, Nyaya criticism of the Mimarnsa and Sarhkhya views Page xv 21 23 30 34 36 47 53 53 56 60 66viii CONTENTS Paes Carrer IV Tue Factors oF VALID KNowLeDGE (PRAMA) 75 1. The subject, object and method of valid knowledge 75 2. Distinction of the method from the subject and object of valid knowledge 78 CuarTeR V Tae Test oF TRUTH AND ERROR 83 1. The problem. and alternative solutions 83 2. The Nyaya theory of extrinsic validity and invalidity 84 3. Objections to the theory answered by the Nyaya 89 4. Criticism of the Sarhkhya view of intrinsic validity and invalidity 98 5. Criticism of the Bauddha theory of intrinsic invalidity and extrinsic validity 99 6. Criticism of Mimamsa theory of intrinsic validity and extrinsic invalidity 101 7. Indian and Western theories of Truth 110 BOOK Il PERCEPTION AS A METHOD OF KNOWLEDGE (PRATYAKSAPRAMANA) Cuapter VI Tue DeFINiTion oF PgRcrertion 125 1. Primacy of perception over other methods of - knowledge 125CONTENTS ix Pace 2. The Buddhist definition of perception 129 3. The Jaina, Prabhakara and Vedanta defini- tions of perception 132 4 The Nyaya definitions of perception 185 Cuaprer VIT Tue PsycHoLocy or PERCEPTION 143 1. The Senses (indriya) 148 2. Function of the senses 151 3. The nature and function of the mind (manas) 157 4. The self and its function in perception 161 Cuaprer VIII ORDINARY PERCEPTION AND ITS OBJECTS 166 1. Different kinds of perception and the cate- gories of reality 166 2 Perception of substances or things (dravya) 168 8. Perception of attributes (guna) and actions (karma) 174 4 The universal (simanya), particularity (visesa) and the relation of inherence (samavaya) 180 5 Perception of non-existence (abhava) 191 6 Internal perception and its objects 199 CHaprer IX Taree Moves or ORDINARY PERCEPTION 207 1. Nirvikalpaka and savikalpaka perceptions 207 2. Recognition (pratyabhijfia) as a mode of perception 224 ii—(1117B)x CONTENTS PAGE Cuarrer X Exrraorpinary Perception (ALAUKIKA PratyaKsa) 228 1. Samanyalakgana or the perception of classes 228 2. Jiianalaksana or acquired perception 238 3. Yogaja or intuitive perception 248 BOOK III THE THEORY OF INFERENCE (ANUMANA- PRAMANA) Cuaprrr XI Tae Nature oF INFERENCE 258 1. Definition of Anumana or Inference 253 2. Distinction between perception and inference 254 3. The constituents of inference 256 Carter XII Tue GROUNDS OF INFERENCE 261 1. The logical ground of vyapti or umiversal relation 261 The question of petitio principii in inference 274 The psychological ground of inference (pakgata) 277 4, Lingaparamarga as the immediate cause of inference 284 eto Carrer XIII CLASSIFICATION AND LoaicaL Forms OF INFERENCE 289 1. Svartha and Parartha inferences 289CONTENTS xi Pace 2. Pirvavat, Sesavat and Samianyatodrsta inferences 291 3. Kevalanvay1, Kevala-vyatireki and Anvaya- vyatireki inferences 292 4, The logical form of inference 297 CHaprerR XIV THE FauLacies oF INFERENCE 306 1. Distmction between a valid and an invalid reason 306 2. The fallacy of savyabhicdra or the irregular middle 309 3. The fallacy of viruddha or the contradictory middle 311 4. The fallacy of prakaranasama or the counter- acted middle 312 5. The fallacy of asiddha or the unproved middle 314 6. The fallacies of kalatita and badhita or the mistimed and contradicted middles 317 7. The fallacies of chala, jati and mgrahasthina 319 BOOK IV UPAMANA OR COMPARISON CuaprrR XV Tue Nature anp Forms oF UpaMana 325 1. The Nyaya definition of upamana 325 2. The Jaina, Mimarhsa and Vedanta views of upamana 327 3. The classification of upamana 332xii CONTENTS Page Cnapter XVI UpaMana AS AN INDEPENDENT SouRCE OF KNOWLEDGE (PRAMANA) 335 1. Can upamana give us any valid knowledge ? 335 2. Can upamana be reduced to any other pramana ? 337 3. Conclusion 340 BOOK V SABDA OR TESTIMONY Caaprer XVII Tue NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF SABDA 345 1. The Nyaya definition of gabda and its different ands 345 2. Other systems on the nature and forms of Sabda 347 CHarrer XVIII Or Worps (Papa) 351 1. Sounds and words 351 2. Words and their meanings 353 3. The import of words 358 4. The unity of words and the hypothesis of sphota 362 CuapTer XIX Or SENTENCES (Vikya) 366 1. The construction of a sentence 366CONTENTS xiil Pace 2. The meaning of a sentence 371 3. The import of sentences 3875 4, Sabda as an independent source of knowledge 381 CHapreR XX Orger Sovrces or KNowLEDGE 390 1. Different views about the ultimate sources of knowledge 390 2. Arthipatti or postulation as a source of know- ledge : 393 3, Abhava and anupalabdln as sources of know- ledge 400 4, Smrti or memory as a distinct source of know- ledge 405 5. Summary and general estimate of Nyaya Epistemology 411 Inpex 419