10
Surface Mining
INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 2, we saw that surface mining continues
to capture a greater share of the US market because
of cost advantages, with the result that today about
55% of the coal produced is surface-mined. Since 124
Gt (137 billion) of the 394 Gt (434 billion tons) of
the demonstrated coal reserve base are strippable, and
much of it is low sulfur, this trend to strip mining is
expected to continue until perhaps as much as 65%
of the total US production is surface-mined. Therefore,
although the emphasis of this textbook is on under-
ground mining methods, it would not be complete
without a brief treatment of strip mining.
For the purposes of discussing the mining methods
employed in surface mining, the US is divided into
fOUT distinct regions whose geology. climatic, and topo-
graphic conditions fall into logical groupings that call
for different mining practices, Fig. I (Skelly and Loy,
1975):
Region I: Eastern Kentucky, West Virginia, Ten-
nessee, and Virginia are characterized by steep slopes
and contour mining along the outcrops of coal.
Region II: Pennsylvania, Maryland, Alabama, and
Southeastern Ohio have rolling terrain with modified-
area and multiple-cut contour mining.
Region III : The northwest portion of the Ohio coal
field, the western Kentucky field, and all of Indiana,
Illinois, Arkansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Kansas, and
Iowa have generally Hat to slightly rolling terrain lead-
ing to box-cut-area or modified-area mining tech-
niques; a wide spectrum of equipment is employed,
but draglines and shovels dominate the stripping opera-
tions.
Region IV: Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New
Mexico, North Dakota, and Wyoming contain the larg-
est portion of coal reserves in the nation, if not the
world. Since the topography varies from typical Great
Plains to Rocky Mountain terrain with extremely thick
seams that may be multiple and dipping, basic stripping
operations are performed by a wide range of equipment
for area mining and projected open pit mining.
The growth patterns for these regions are varied:
on a percentage basis, Regions I and II are declining
in importance, Region III remains stable, while Region
IV continues a rapid growth rate. With the application
of large stripping equipment, the average thickness of
overburden has increased from 9.1 to 18.3 m (30 to
60 ft) in the last 35 years and will continue to increase.
Highwalls up to a maximum height of 55 m (180 ft)
are being mined with the extremely large equipment.
However, as the large reserves of thick, shallow coal
in the West are mined, this figure will not continue
to increase dramatically. Furthermore, the extremely
large stripping equipment to handle very large overbur-
den thickness is no longer being manufactured. Multi-
ple, moderate-sized equipment is being used instead.
Another trend noted is toward larger surface mines.
From a maximum size of 2.7 Mt (3 million tons) pro-
duced per year in the early 1960s, today's largest mines
exceed 9 Mt (10 million tons) annually and production
from even larger open pit operations is being planned.
This trend is expected to continue.
UNIT OPERATIONS
Surface coal mining, with the exception of anthra-
cite mining, generally has been limited to a simple
strip mining method, but today a variety of surface
methods are practiced. primarily to meet the more
stringent environmental requirements. However, strip
mining continues to dominate and will be given greatest
emphasis here.
Strip mining is similar to the furrowing operation
of the farmer when he plows. In essence, overburden
is removed. and after the first cut. it is side-cast into
the previously mined area. The coal is then removed
and another cut or strip is taken, overburden being
side-casted into the previously mined area, Fig. 2, until
the overburden technological (equipment) limit, the
property line itself, or an economic limit has been
reached, whichever comes first. In the most traditional
cases, no overburden is hauled and little or no rehan-
dling of the overburden occurs. The unit operations
of drilling, blasting, overburden stripping, coal loading,
coal haulage, and reclamation involved in Fig. 2 will
be discussed briefly.
Drilling
The overburden over most coal seams consists of
sufficient consolidated material to require blasting be-
fore it can be removed by excavating (stripping) equip-
ment. Even where it is technically feasible for a strip-
ping machine to load the overburden without blasting,
the overall economics may still favor drilling and blast-
ing because the stripping cycle is speeded up when
well-fragmented materials are handled, and also equip-
286 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
REGION I
Fig. 1. Regional classification for
surface mining purposes (Skelly
and Loy, 1975). REGION rsz
ment maintenance will be much lower. Therefore, a
working bench will be bulldozed on the high wall for
positioning the drills so that a blasting hole pattern
can be drilled.
When shallower overburdens were mined, e.g., up
to 15 m (50 ft), horizontal drilling was a common
practice, Fig. 3A. A drill, usually an auger type, was
located in the pit, and long horizontal holes were
drilled approximately 0.3 to 0.6 m (I to 2 ft) above
the coal seam. Several advantages accrued from hori-
zontal drilling when compared to vertical drilling, Figs.
2 and 3C. Since softer shale materials normally occur
on top of the coal seam, an auger drill can be used
with high penetration rates at lower bit costs. Further-
more, since the force of the explosion in a horizontal
hole is directed perpendicular to the weaker bedding
planes. the coal is shot with the grain, so to speak,
and less drill footage is required per unit volume, up
to one-half less as compared to vertical drilling. Thus
less explosives and/or larger hole spacing can be used.
Also, no special preparation of the bench is required
for the drill to operate and it can tram faster in the
pit. All of these factors provide a favorable cost advan-
REGION II
LEGEND
REGION ill
tage for horizontal drilling. Unfortunately, as the over-
burden thickness increases above 15.2 m (50 ft), single
horizontal holes near the coal seam are inadequate
to pull (fracture) the overburden, especially if more
massive rock is contained higher within the overbur-
den. Also, the large explosive charge necessary to blast
high overburden depths could cause shattering of the
coal seam itself and loss of coal during excavation.
Use of upwardly inclined holes in addition to the hori-
zontal holes helps pull thicker overburden, although
a limit is soon reached, Fig. 3B.
Therefore, as thicker overburden is mined, it be-
comes necessary to go to vertical drilling, Figs. 3C
and 2. The emplacement of a more powerful explosive
becomes possible in the stronger strata requiring it,
providing deck loading. Now, however, since the strati-
graphic column above the seam will probably consist
of massive sandstone and limestone, an auger drill is
unsuitable, and another method of drilling becomes
necessary. Thus today the roller-bit type of rotary-per-
cussion drill, with compressed air for flushing the cut-
tings, is used almost exclusively for drilling vertical
blast holes, Fig. 4. A smoother bore is produced for
 SURFACE MINING 287

I ~ STR IP BENCH
V'A - -
:
SEAM

-
-
,~
-,
..., .. , -
-
- - , - Fig. 2. Typical area mining shovel strip-
-- ( -
ping operation.

ease of handling explosives, cuttings are available for

stemming, and less bit wandering occurs, resulting in
A. lower overall costs. The drill consists of rollers, usually
- 50'
three, equipped with bearings that permit them to ro-
DRILL HOLE tate independently as the drill stem is rotated with
-!........----- an applied thrust. Various teeth configurations are
available from long pointed teeth for softer rocks to
1*--40-60'--1 buttons of hard alloyed materials for the very hard
cutting. While diesel-electric power is employed for
the smaller units, high-speed heavy-duty electric drill-
ing equipment is utilized for the larger bit configura-
B. tions.
50-100' Another advantage of vertical drilling is that holes
may be drilled as far ahead of actual mining as desired
to take advantage of weather conditions, since an ex-
posed high wall is not necessary as it is in horizontal
r- 40 - 60 ' ----I drilling. Also, buffer shooting may be employed, i.e.,
shooting a row of holes with the previously blasted
row of holes along side of the highwall remaining un -
spoiled to provide total constraint. This improves frag-
I mentation, reduces air vibrations, and minimizes the
c. I scattering of overburden materials into the pit, thus
I
I +50 assisting the subsequent spoiling operation.
I The economics of drilling with the larger bit are
I fascinating. As bits increased in diameter, larger bear-
I
ings were provided for the roller bits which improved
r- 40 - 60'----1
bit life. Also, the larger hole permitted greater thrust
on the larger drill stem which increased penetration
Fig. 3. Va rious surface mining drilling techniques: (A) rates. The result was that a bit with a diameter of
horizontal, (B) inclined-horizontal, and (C) vertical. \8.7 em (7Va-in.) typically had a penetration rate of
288 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 4. Roller bits used in strip mining. (courtesy Hughes Tool Co.). Left, soft formation bit.

21 m / h (70 fph) in average sedimentary rock which
permitted 5826 m' (7620 cu yds) of material per shift
to be prepared at a cost of l.32 per cubic yard with
a bit life of 1829 m (6000 ft). Later, 38-cm (15in.)
diam bits provided drilling rates of 33m/h (110 fph),
permitting 38,439 m' (50,274 cu yds) of material to
be prepared per shift at a cost of 0.42 per cubic yard
with a bit life of 3048 m (10,000 ft). Obviously, the
larger hole permits a greater concentration of explo-
sives which makes a greater spacing between holes
possible. The spacing of holes will be dependent upon
the strength of the material being blasted, the explo-
sives used, and other factors. However, typical powder
factors are from 0.3 to l.0. Powder factor is defined
as the weight (lb) of the explosives used for each cubic
yard of material blasted. Typically, 38-cm (15-in.) diam
 SURFACE MINING 289

Fig. 4. Roller bits for medium soft to very hard formations.

holes might be spaced II x II m (35 x 35 ft) while
18 em (7-in.) diam holes might utilize a 4.6 x 4.6 m
(15 x 15 ft) pattern.
Blasting
The earliest explosives used in surface mining were
dynamites. cap-sensitive chemical mixtures containing
an explosive compound, which, when properly initi-
ated, decompose at very high detonation velocities.
Most, but not all, dynamites contain nitroglycerin as
the explosive compound. However, dynamites have
largely given way to commercial blasting agents which
are cap-insensitive chemical compositions or mixtures
which contain no explosive ingredient and which can
be made to detonate when initiated with a high-
strength explosive primer. Of the many advantages
290 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
offered by these non-nitroglycerin compositions or
mixtures, safety in handling. use. and cost undoubtedl y
are the most important.
Most of the properties presently used to character-
ize explosives and blasting agents initially were devised
for dynamites and other high explosives. These proper-
ties have been modified and otherwise adapted for use
with other commercial explosives and blasting agents
as detailed here (Woodruff, 1966).
1) Strength. Strength refers to the energy content
of an explosive which, in turn, contributes to the force
and power it develops and the work it is capable of
doing. The strength rating of a straight dynamite desig-
nates the percentage by weight of nitroglycerin in the
formula; a 40% straight dynamite will contain 40%
nitroglycerin, a 60% grade will contain 60%, etc. In
other types of dynamite, the portion of nitroglycerin
is reduced and other strength-imparting ingredients,
such as ammonium nitrate, are substituted. The total
energy value of an explosive can be meaningless. The
energy must be available in time to do useful work.
Velocity and density also are very important factors
in determining blast performance. The best explosive
for a given operation is not necessarily the one with
the highest strength, density, and velocity; it is the
one with the combination of strength, density, and
velocity that will give the type of blast results desired.
2) Density. Dynamite density is conveniently ex-
pressed by the number of 3.2 x 20-cm (l Iii x 8-in.)
cartridges contained in a 23 kg (50-lb) case. The pur-
pose of density variations in explosives is to enable
the blaster to concentrate or distribute charges at will.
In producing lump coal, it is frequently advantageous
to string out the charge with low-density grades. In
strip mining, the high-density explosive is sometimes
used in the bottom of the hole or in massive intervening
strata where the work to be done is greatest, and the
bulkier one is used in other places in the hole where
very little energy is ordinarily required.
3) Sensitiveness. Sensitiveness of an explosive or
blasting agent is a measure of its propagating ability.
Sensitiveness of dynamite is measured by the distance,
in inches, over which one half of a 3.2 x 20-cm (\ '4
x 8-in.) cartridge will propagate to another half of a
3.2 x 20-cm (1'4 x 8-in.) cartridge when both halves,
with the cut ends facing. are enclosed in a paper tube
and shot unconfined. Dynamites must be sensitive
enough to insur~ detonation for the entire length of
the charge. For this reason, sensitiveness is especially
critical in small-diameter holes in a 2.5 to 3.8-cm (\
to 1\-2 -in.) range. However, dynamites normally must
not be so sensitive that they will propagate from one
hole to another and not permit sequential firing with
delays.
4) Velocity. Velocity is a measure of the speed at
which the detonation wave travels through a column
of an explosive. Unless otherwise stated, velocity data
refer to a 3.2-cm (1 '4-in.) diameter column. Dynamites
range in velocity from about 219 mls (4000 fps) to
about 7010 mls (23,000 fps). As the velocity is in-
creased, the explosive usually produces a greater shat-
tering effect in hard materials. Strength and density
also influence shattering action, so that all three prop-
erties must be considered in the final selection of an
explosive.
5) Water Resistance. Higb explosives differ widely
in their ability to resist the effects of water. The gelatin
dynamites are the best in this respect. Some of the
higher-density ammonia dynamites possess good water
resistance, while the low-density ammonia dynamites
and permissibles have little or no water resistance. Dy-
namites which are penetrated by water first have their
efficiency impaired and then, on prolonged exposure,
may be desensitized to a point where they will not
detonate. Therefore, when water is encountered in
blasting, an explosive with at least sotne water resis-
tance is necessary. For optimum reliability. it is desira-
ble to incorporate water resistance or water tolerance
into the explosives or blasting agent formulation and
not depend upon the package alone to protect it.
6) Freezing Resistance. Most commercial dyna-
mites are resistant to freezing. Normally, they will not
freeze under ordinary exposure to the lowest atmo-
spheric temperatures generally encountered in this
country. With the exception of water-containing prod-
ucts, all blasting agents and non-nitroglycerin explo-
sives do not freeze under conditions normally encoun-
tered in the field.
7) Inflammability. This property refers to the ease
with which an explosive or blasting agent can be ig-
nited. In the case of dynamites, this ranges from some
types that ignite readily and burn violently, to others
that will not support combustion unless an outside
source of flame is continuously applied.
8) Fumes. Various gases, called fumes, both poi-
sonous and nonpoisonous are produced from the deto-
nation of commercial explosives and blasting agents.
Both the nature and total quantity of poisonous gases
produced vary among the different types and grades
of explosives, and may also vary according to condi-
tions of use. For work in the open, fumes usually cause
no concern, but, for underground work, they require
that careful consideration be given to the choice of
the explosive, the amount of it to be used, the condi-
tions of blasting and, most important, ventilation.
9) Sensitivity. This property frequently is confused
with sensitiveness. Sensitiveness is a measure of the
explosives' propagating ability. Sensitivity is the mea-
sure of its ease of initiation.
In Fig. 5, the explosives are listed in such a manner
that an increase in the properties enumerated results
upward and to the right. For example, nitroglycerin,
normally an ingredient in an explosive, when available
alone has very high strength, density, sensitiveness,
velocity, water resistance, freezing resistance, inflam-
mability, fumes and sensitivity while a permissible ex-
plosive, at the other end of the spectrum, possesses
the least degree of these characteristics. A permissible
explosive is a specially formulated mixture for use in
underground coal mines that has additives that sup-
 SURFACE MINING 291
D E FLAGRATORS~'~---------------------'. DETONATORS
NON - COMBUSTI BLES COMBUSTIB L E EXPLOSIVE BASES
AIR BLACK POWDER I AMMONIUM NITRAT E I NITROG LYC ERIN E

!
I AIRDOXI
JUDSON I
POWDERI
IGUNCOTTON

60% i
r-Y
90%

IPEL L ETI H2 O ISTRAIGHT BL ASTING

~
DYNAMITE GELAT IN
I. STR ENGTH GREATER

t !
H
2. DE T. VEL. /
3. WATER INS.
4.FR. RES./" FUEL ..... TNT SLURRyl No N0 3 GEL ATIN
5. FUMES C DYNAMIT E
ANTIACID I
6.D E NSITY l L
IAN-FOI
7. SENSITIVITY
l
/'
LESSE R
8.INF L .
.1 AMMONIUM
"I GELATINS

INGREDIENTS TO REDUC E: IAMMONIUM I

I. L E NGTH OF T IME DYNAMIT E
AMMONIA
OF FLAME NITRATE
2. T EMPERATURE OF FLAM E EXP L OSIVES
3. DENSITY
4. AFTERG L OW PERMISSIBLES:

Fig. 5. Explosives blasting chart.

press the intensity and duration of the flames and mini-
mize afterglow. In short, it will not initiate an explosive
mixture of gas when shot in confined and approved
manner. As ammonium nitrate is substituted for nitro-
glycerin, the mixture shows less resemblance to nitro-
glycerin and more to a permissible explosive. Thus,
various formulations are possible during mixing.
Free-running ammonium nitrate prills (94%) with
fuel oil (6%) is the most commonly employed explosive
in surface mining. Its main disadvantage is its lack
of water resistance, although plastic liners can be used
in boreholes or the explosive can be packaged in a
water-tight wrapping. The commercial blasting agents
are detonated using special cast primers which are usu-
ally initiated by primacord down lines that in turn
are ignited by blasting caps, Fig. 6. Primacord is a
detonating fuse having a high explosive core of penta-
erythritol tetranitrate (PETN). It has a very high veloc-
ity of detonation, exploding at about 6401 mls (21,000
fps). It also has good tensile strength and is light in
weight and flexible, making it easy to handle and con-
nect. While the explosive core is protected against pen-
etration of water or oil, straight (unknotted) lengths
will reliably detonate even when the core is wet if
initiated from the dry end or from the wet end with
a suitable booster. The energy of the primacord explo-
sion is sufficient to detonate high explosives lying
alongside it in a borehole. If it is attached to the first
cartridge loaded into the hole, it acts as a priming
agent throughout the entire length of the column of
explosives.
In spite of its high velocity and fracture potential
on explosion, primacord is relatively insensitive to
sparks, friction, or ordinary shock, and, consequently,
is relatively safe to handle and use on the job. So
far as can be determined, primacord has never been
responsible for an accidental explosion on blasting op-
erations in spite of having been subjected to all manner
of abuse in such work. Primacord for commercial blast-
ing is normally supplied in four different types: (1)
reinforced, which has an inner plastic jacket with an
outer covering of textiles and wax finish; (2) plastic
reinforced, which has an added covering of textiles
plus waterproofing material followed by an outer cov-
ering of tough plastic; (3) plastic-wire-countered,
which is similar to plastic reinforced but is further
strengthened by a countering of steel wires under the
outer plastic jacket; and (4) E-Cord, which is essen-
tially identical to reinforced except for a reduced explo-
sive core load.
Although free running blasting agents generally are
lower in density than cartridge or canned products
and therefore have lower bulk strength, the fact that
they fill the hole completely results in acceptable bore-
hole loading. This, together with the fact that the blast-
ing agent is coupled to the borehole wall, results in
an acceptable level of performance under ordinary con-
ditions. Its main advantage. in addition to its safety
in handling, is its economy: it costs approximately 15
per pound compared to 45 per pound for a 40%
dynamite. For average sedimentary rock overlying a
coal seam, a powder factor of 0.3 to 1.0 Ib of ammo-

l
292 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
.-BLASTING CAPS
DETONATING FUSE
~Io.;.r--~;TEMMING 9msec
Shot bonk
IMER
Fig. 6. Singlehole charge (left) and plan of blasting pattern employing delays
.-
(right).
,., .,., IGr-A,N-FO
'" N
nium nitrate (ANFO) will be required for each cubic
yard of material blasted.
In order to secure higher density, higher bulk
strength, and a higher degree of water resistance, slurry
explosives have been employed. They include mixtures
of water and ammonium nitrate and can also include
aluminum (AI) and TNT. In fact, one of the largest
explosives manufacturers is switching almost entirely
to water gels. To increase its bulk strength 175%, 15%
aluminum flakes are added to the ANFO mixture. By
adding 20% TNT to the mixture and making a slurry
of it, the bulk strength is increased 151 %. Finally,
by utilizing 25% TNT, 15% Al with a slurry mixture,
bulk strength is increased 264%.
Fig. 6A is a single-hole explosive arrangement
while Fig. 6B shows a multiple-hole pattern. In each
situation, two primacord down lines are employed for
added reliability with dual blasting caps used for the
same purpose. Special primers are normally used with
the primacord for igniting the ammonium nitrate. Mil-
lisecond delay elements permit delays between rows
of holes as well as individual holes if desired. This
reduces vibration and noise and improves fragmenta-
tion.
Overburden Excavation
The blasting operation causes some of the ove rbur-
den material to fall into the pit; most of it, however,
is retained in the highwall area as a fragmented struc-
ture which can be excavated with relative ease. Two
types of machines are in most common use for this
type of excavation operation in American surface
mines: the power shovel and the dragline. The shovel
Pit
Inst 9msec 17 msec 17 msec
P---.r.~~r---~--~--*--o
21ft-24ft
9msec + 17 msec 17 msec
~ 26ft-28ft I-
9msec 17 msec 17 msec
operates in the pit, Fig. 2; the dragli~e operates on
the overburden beside the pit, Fig. 7. The fragmented
material in the pit and in the overburden is scooped
up and discharged (spoiled) at the side of the pit oppo-
site the high wall, building up by this process a mound
of loose material in hedge rows which are collectively
called the spoil bank. The excavating machines remove
all of the fragmented overburden material down to
the top of the coal seam.
In addition to the shovel and the dragline, the
bucket-wheel excavator (BWE), a machine used exten-
sively in Europe and much of the rest of the world,
is being employed in a few American coal mines. This
machine has several excavating buckets mounted on
a revolving wheel structure, like a water wheel, fixed
at the end of a long, bridgelike boom. Normally, this
machine is utilized in tandem with another excavator,
Fig. 8. In a few mines where the overburden is thin,
conditions are such that the overburden may be re-
moved by bulldozers, scrapers, and front-end loaders,
which are lower in initial cost, more economical to
operate, and more flexible in the disposal of the spoil.
This last attribute, and its importance in more stringent
reclamation requirements, make these latter machines
more applicable in surface mining.
Since the stripping equipment normally represents
the highest capital cost item, its selection is the most
important decision to be made in selecting the strip
mining system. After this choice is made, the other
equipment is matched to it. The selection of the over-
burden excavators will be treated in greater detail in
a subsequent section. Here, however, the unit opera-
tions will continue to be described in order.
Coal Loading
The coal exposed by the overburden excavator is
generally removed by power shovels, or, increasingly,
by rubber-tired, front-end loaders, depending upon the
conditions at the mine site. Until recent years. the
vast majority of mining shovels produced were of 6.1
to 9.2-m 3 (8 to 12-cu-yd) capacity. There was little
demand for larger shovels since the haulage units
served were rather limited in size. But when haulage
units became increasingly larger, for instance the 154-t
 SURFACE MINING 293

Fig. 7. Typical area mining dragline stripping operation.

/- ---{l-+-- STRI PPI NG

SHOVEL

COAL
LOADER

60'
100'
40'
1
Fig. 8. Pit layout for wheel excavator and
1-106~ 47 50'
shovel tandem operation.
294 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 8A. Frontend loader used to load trucks (Deere & Co.).
(170-t) truck is one of the most popular sizes today.
the need for bigger shovels developed. Today, it is
the II to 20-m3 (15 to 26-cu-yd) machines that are
in demand. In any event, the shovel and trucks must
be matched so that the truck has a capacity in even
multiples of the bucket size. Typically, the truck will
have a capacity of 5 to 10 dipper loads.
Another advantage of the larger shovel with its
greater power is that it is more capable of digging
the solid coal. However, some thicker or more compe
tent coal seams will require drilling and blasting. Use
of a mobile, rubber-tired, mounted auger drill to pro-
duce a simple blasting pattern will usually suffice.
Where feasible, especially in thinner, less competent
coal, the use of a rooter on a bulldozer frame will
provide a cost advantage over drilling and blasting.
Fig. 9 shows a cross section of a loading shovel with
pertinent specifications for a wide range of models.
The front-end bucket loader is fast becoming popu-
lar because of its ability to excavate, load, and carry
material quickly and with unsurpassable maneuverabil-
ity. It is used for loading coal into trucks and also
for stripping overburden, especially with the haul-type
method, Figs. 8A and B.
Like the dozer from which it evolved, Fig. 14,
the front-end loader is available on crawler tracks as
well as rubber-tired wheels. During its evolution, there
has been a series of improvements extending the operat-
ing capability of the machine: four-wheel drives, pow-
erful hydraulic action, and improved engines. The rub-
ber-tired wheel loaders are generally preferred in all
but the most severe terrain and footing conditions.
They are available with both straight and articulated
frames. The larger units are generally articulated four-
wheel-drive loaders having the advantage in traction,
stability, and maneuverability, but their complexity
adds to capital and maintenance costs. By virtue of
articulation, the front and rear wheels track in turn,
giving the stability of a long wheel base and the maneu-
verability of a short turning radius.
Front-end loaders can be competitive with loading
shovels in loading coal directly off the seam, and have
certain advantages and limitations. Some of the advan-
tages of front-end loaders over shovels include: (I)
Fig. 88. Front-end loader removes over-
burden after blasting (Deere & Co.)
 SURFACE MINING 295

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P&H 1600 23- 0 42-0 42-9 35- 7 48- 6 28-5 17-6 18- 0 6
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M 151M 22- 3 41 - 6 16- 6 43- 6 35- 3 47- 3 20- 9 50- 9 34-3 17- 6 18-0 8
BE 195B 26- 3 46- 9 18- 9 48- 6 41 - 9 55-9 38-9 19-0 19-9 8
M 182M 29-6 50- 0 21-6 52-0 43-0 55-0 23-0 60-0 39-0 2 1- 6 23- 0 10
P&H 1900 27-0 50-0 52-9 42-6 57- 0 33- 0 2- 03 20- 9 10
BE 280B 28-6 53-6 21-0 54-3 47-6 62- 3 40- 6 21-0 21-6 10
M 185M 25- 3 48- 9 19- 9 49-6 40- 6 54- 3 24- 0 57- 6 40-3 20-6 23-0 12
P&H 2100B 28- 3 51 - 6 52- 6 44- 0 60-0 38- 9 21-9 23-0 12
M 191M 34-0 52-0 22- 3 54-9 51 - 3 54-9 26- 9 63-0 41-6 21-6 23- 0 12
P&H 2100BL 30-4 51 - 6 52- 6 46- 1 60-0 39- 9 24- 0 23- 0 13
M 191M(0) 46-3 66- 0 28-6 70-9 63-9 69-0 32-9 79- 0 50-3 21-6 26- 6 15
M 183(0) 41-3 56- 9 25-9 60-6 55-6 59-0 29-0 67- 9 44-6 22- 6 23- 0 16
BE 295B 31 - 6 53-3 24-9 55-0 49-0 63- 6 42- 6 23- 0 22- 9 18
P&H 2300 36- 6 55- 0 57- 0 54- 0 66- 6 46-6 26-0 24-6 20
M 251M 33- 9 64- 3 I 25- 0 I 65- 6 63- 3 67- 0 I 30- 6 I 73- 6 47- 0 I 27-6 I 30-0 25
Fig. 9. Load ing shovel models and specifications .
296 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
excellent mobility, (2) good blending capabilities, (3)
good backup and cleanup capabilities, (4) multi-func-
tionalism (loading coal, cleanup, road maintenance,
stockpiling, etc.), and (5) low capital cost. The disad-
vantages include: (1) not as available as the shovel,
(2) excessive tire wear in difficult digging, (3) high
tire cost, (4) expected life half that of shovel, (5) inabil-
ity to work high faces, (6) decrease in performance
with bad floor conditions, and (7) lower capacity for
digging so that coal must be shot harder. The early
front-end loaders had small buckets, usually 3.8 m3
(5 cu yd), but today the 7.6 and ll_m 3 (10 and 15-
cu-yd) buckets are most popular.
Coal Haulage
In the US, surface coal mine transportation out
of the pit to the preparation plant or loading siding
is almost always accomplished by large off-highway
diesel-electric trucks. Labor costs are substantially re-
duced with the larger units which may be rear-dump
or drop-bottom, tractor-trailer units. Rear-dump
trucks are, for the most part, 32 to 77-t (35 to 85-
ton) capacity. Midwestern and eastern strip mines usu-
ally employ the rear-dump unit because it maneuvers
well in compact pit operations and is built to cope
with steep ramps and sharp haulroad turns. But these
qualities that make it a good hauler for compact, rough
pit work also limit the speed and distance it can travel.
Therefore in the West, where pits are larger, where
ramps have gentle grades, and where haul distances
are long, the bottom dump is usually preferred primar-
ily because of its lower initial cost. low maintenance
cost, and very favorable ratio of material hauled for
a given horsepower design. Tractor-trailer, bottom-
dump units are usually 91 to 181-t (100 to 2oo-ton)
capaci ty. In short, they are the choice where traction
is not a problem.
Regardless of the size and type of truck utilized,
good road maintenance in the pit is very important
since haulage costs may comprise nearly half the cost
of producing a ton of coal, with tire costs the largest
proportion of this cost. In addition to maintaining a
good road base for minimum tire wear, minimizing
the dust formed by truck haulage is an important con-
sideration in hauling the coal off the mine site. Thus,
good grading and wetting down with water trucks are
necessary. In the pit, truck haulage is normally by a
circular route through transverse roads maintained
through the spoil every 457 to 610 m (1500 to 2000
ft) apart. Where the bottom may present a problem
for traction, it is a frequent practice in shovel stripping
to maintain a coal berm against the new high wall for
truck transportation. This is not done very frequently
with draglines, however, since any berm left would
have to be overcast by the dragline.
In European surface mines. mobile crushers in the
pit and belt conveyors are in general use instead of
trucks and are receiving attention in this country as
well. While the initial cost is much higher for belt
conveyors, handling larger volume at lower operating
cost will usually produce a more favorable overall cost
compared to trucks.
Reclamation
A tour through abandoned surface mines in Appa-
lachia is not a pretty sight nor is it a situation that
should continue to be condoned even if stringent legis-
lation had not been enacted to prevent such future
land degradation. In years past, when a surface-mined
coal deposit became exhausted or uneconomical to
mine with the equipment available, it was abandoned,
leaving a barren, sawtooth, moon-type landscape of
spoil piles hostile to natural vegetation and generally
unsuitable for any immediate land use. The industry
now accepts the premise that reclamation work, i.e.,
reclaiming the spoil area and reestablisHing permanent
vegetation, is an integral part of the surface mining
operation. For quality results at an economical cost,
reclamation cannot be an after-thought to the mining
operation but instead must be an integral part of the
total design. Presently, reclamation is required concur-
rent with mining to minimize the problems of wind
and water erosion as well as for aesthetic reasons.
While a variety of equipment may be used for reclama-
tion purposes, the large bulldozer is the principal vehi-
cle in use. Topsoil, where available, should be removed
prior to mining and stored for subsequent reuse. It
is usually desirable to try to put back the overburden
in approximately the same stratigraphic column in
which it originally existed, paying particular attention
to the burial of acidic materials. Drainage should be
reestablished to keep the water off the coal seam to
avoid acid contamination of the ground water. As the
various systems of surface mining are described, good
reclamation features will be pointed out.
OVERBURDEN STRIPPING EQUIPMENT
The selection of the overburden stripping equip-
ment is of vital importance in a mining operation. In
the past, the philosophy of brute strength was accepted
as providing the most favorable economic choice with
the result that the primary stripping units became huge.
Up to a point, economics are in favor of the larger
unit. A specific example is shown in Table 1 which
compares the results of replacing a 10 m3 (l3-cu-yd)
shovel in 1958. Even including the amortization of
the newer equipment, the overall cost of the larger
shovel was lower because of the significantly lower
operating cost. Furthermore, the coal reserve was sub-
stantially increased because of the ability of the larger
newer unit to mine a thicker overburden.
However, not only do the very large units have
high initial costs but they have also proved to lack
reliability. So it is not surprising that a point of dimin-
ishing returns has set in. With an overburden that
ranges widely in thickness, say from 12 to 43 m (40
to 140 ft). it may not make economic sense to purchase
a machine that is capable of handling 43 m (140 ft)
 SURFACE MINING
Table 1. Cost Comparison Between 13 and 70-
Cu-Yd Shovels
Marion Marion
5320 (1938) 5760 (1958)
CapaCity, cu yd 13 cu 70 cu
Boom length, It 95 140
Ave. burden, It 33.5 61
Rate, cu yd per hr 600 3250
Max. burden, It 48 66
Cost per cu yd, $ 0.0585 0.0485
Cost 5760 - $3,300,000
Amortize 15 rs
11 man. @ 720 hr per month
$27.78 per hr
y bucket-loading factor will result.
5760 cost ($0.0485) includes amortization;
5320 does not.
Metric equivalents: cu yd x 0.764 554 9
0 .3048 ~ m.
of overburden when that portion of the deposit repre-
sents only a small percentage of the property. It may
be better to purchase a smaller unit and do a certain
amount of rehandling of material. Therefore, rather
than buying a single large machine that is probably
a little too big for the job, it may be better to choose
a medium-size machine that can handle the task if
worked to its limits. Two smaller machines might also
prove a better choice. Thus, biggest is not always the
best.
Multiple machines for stripping might be used in
tandem. Scrapers and bulldozers might remove high
spots and draglines and shovels then take care of the
rest of the overburden. There are many possible combi-
nations of stripping machines, as we will see. Tandem
operations might be very beneficial for subsequent rec-
lamation procedures since the spoil can be left in a
less irregular contour with the more acid materials
buried. Also, multiple-seam mining may require a
greater degree of flexibility in the equipment selected.
Thus, there are many factors entering into the choice
of the stripping equipment such as: (I) the properties
and characteristics of the material to be mined, (2)
the desired production rate, and (3) the compatibility
of the stripping machine to the overall mining and
mineral handling process (a mine without an integrated
system will never develop into a truly efficient opera-
tion).
Therefore, since the stripping unit will usually be
the highest cost item, and is selected first with all other
equipment selected to match it, it requires special atten-
tion.
All strip mining equipment, whether primary or
supporting machinery, has certain specific applications
and limitations which require discussion. It is intended
that this analysis will outline the most desirable fea-
tures of each piece of equipment as well as its draw-
backs.
297
Power Shovel
The power shovel, whether it is designed primarily
for stripping or loading, has its greatest application
in handling tight or poorly fractured overburden be-
cause of its crowding action which allows a higher
breakout force to be applied. As a result, a reduced
amount of overburden preparation is required com-
pared to the use of other equipment under these condi-
tions. The power shovel can, however, be utilized to
handle loose material as well as rock, and blockier
material will have less overall effect on its ability to
load efficiently. Since it is designed with a solid connec-
tor between the dipper and drive mechanism, positive
control is always possible, and generally a higher
In shovel applications, cycle times are normally
low because most of the material loaded is confined
to an area directly in front of the unit and dumped
within a relatively short radius of the loading point.
While variable depending upon the unit, a complete
cycle for 90 dumping is generally 50 to 55 sec. Ordi-
narily, a shovel works from a position directly on top
of a coal deposit, eliminating the need for preparation
of a working bench, Fig. 2. It is usually equipped with
crawlers which are designed for rock wear and it has
the ability to load over a truck end. Low operator
fatigue is also apparent in shovel operation.
The limiting factors of shovel usage include less
flexibility and maneuverability and slow tramming
rates. Bank or spoil slides as well as water seepage
into the pit will tend to impair the operation of a shovel.
The trend is toward units with greater versatflity in
reach and digging depth, toward specialized bucket
designs, and toward use of hydraulic power and con-
trol.
When the operating conditions are appropriate, a
stripping shovel generally offers lower overall operating
costs than can be obtained with draglines or bucket-
wheel excavators of comparable size. This is a conse-
quence of a number of factors, including lower power
requirement costs and lower wire-rope costs per cubic
yard of dipper capacity, a higher availability factor,
a lower level of bank preparation (e.g., blasting), and
a lower labor requirement. Also, the shovel normally
moves the overburden a shorter distance.
Currently, stripping shovels ranging from 19 to
13S-m3 (25 to IS0-cu-yd) capacities, with boom lengths
of up to 72 m (235 ft) and handle lengths up to 43
m (140 ft) are available. The larger units are capable
of mining an average overburden thickness of up to
30 m (100 ft). The price of a stripping shovel with a
76-m 3 (IOO-cu-yd) dipper and 61-m (200-ft) boom, in-
cluding shipment and erection costs, might run to $12
million. The market is highly competitive and pricing
is elastic. Some manufacturers, in fact, claim that they
lose money on shovels and that the tight pricing situa-
tion discourages innovation. Few, if any, of the very
large stripping shovels have been constructed during
the past ten years in the United States; they have been
 298 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

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Fig. 10. Stripping shovel models and specifications.

l
 SURFACE MINING
limited generally to buckets of between 76 to 92-m'
(100 to 120-cu-yd) capacities.
Loading shovels play an important role in certain
western strip mining because they not only dig and
load coal, but also strip off overburden. Dipper sizes
for these shovels are usually between 7.6 and 19 m 3
(10 and 25 cu yd), with the emphasis on the larger
shovels since these machines may be called upon to
load higher overburdens. Thus, stripping with loading
shovels will offer advantages for western mining when:
I) Relatively thin overburden results in low strip-
ping ratio (cubic yards of overburden per ton of coal)
which does not require the higher stripping capacity
of an expensive dragline.
2) Combinations of shovels and trucks need to
quickly move the overburden farther than the reach
of any dragline.
3) Multiple and dipping and sloping seam opera-
tions lend themselves to a benched pit.
4) Less blasting is required, thereby reducing
shooting costs.
5) When shorter lead time for ordering equipment
is required, as well as a lower initial capital outlay.
Fig. 10 provides a representative list of stripping
shovels available today with pertinent specifications
for them.
Dragline
The greatest assets of a dragline are inherent in
the actual design of the machine. A greater reach and
dumping radius, which enable deeper overburden to
be removed, coupled with ease of maneuverability are
the major advantages of the dragline. Since the dragline
normally operates on top of the overburden, certain
problems such as bank slides, water runoff, and seepage
are reduced or eliminated. Compensation for pitches
and rolls in the mineral deposit can easily be made
and, if necessary, the dragline may be used to chop
down a small proportion of the overburden to prepare
a working bench. Although it deviates from standard
operating procedure, this method can be used to advan-
tage under certain circumstances. For these reasons,
dragline stripping is expected to account for about 80%
of the total western surface coal production in the
foreseeable future.
A highly important difference between draglines
and stripping shovels is the method of locomotion.
The shovel moves on massive crawlers in the manner
of a bulldozer or military tank . Turning is accom-
plished by powering the crawlers on only one side of
the machine, thereby causing it to skid or slew about
the center of the crawler on the unpowered side. The
dragline moves by walking on a pair of retractable
pontoons which, when extended, are capable of lifting
the machine off the ground. A pontoon for a medium-
sized dragline [say, 57-m 3 (75-cu-yd)] can be 18 or
21 m (60 or 70 ft) long by 3.0 to 4.6 m (10 to 15 ft)
wide.
During excavating operations, the dragline rests
on a large [up to 32 m (105 ft) in diam] ballast-filled
299
tub, its two pontoons retracted. When the machine
must be moved, the pontoons, activated through a me-
chanical (cam) or a hydraulic system capable of posi-
tioning them laterally from front to back as well as
vertically, are lowered in such a fashion that the sup-
port points fall somewhat behind the center of gravity
of the dragline. As the pontoons begin to lift the ma-
chine, it moves forward, sliding or rolling depending
on the design of the particular walking system. By
means of such a system, a large dragline can advance
with steps of3.0 m (10 ft) or more. The walking mecha-
nism permits the dragline, no matter how ponderous
it may be, to move in any direction with considerable
precision, if not with any special grace.
A major advantage of the walking dragline, in addi-
tion to reduced maintenance and greater maneuverabil-
ity. is its extremely low bearing pressure. Even the
largest machines exert a pressure on the ground of
only 125 kPa (19 psi) and smaller machines have a
bearing pressure of only 59.5 kPa (9.5 psi), making
them extremely suitable for soft or wet formations.
Also, the dragline can operate on the tops of spoil
either as a primary stripping tool or for reclamation
purposes. It is ideal for producing the initial or box
cut in a stripping operation, a procedure that is almost
impossible for a shovel.
The dragline can be effective in operations such
as building roads and ditches in addition to being able
to clean a rough coal seam for direct loading into trans-
poration vehicles. Due to the design of the dragline,
bucket loading requires a high degree of operator skill,
cycle times are generally high, and small amounts of
load spillage frequently occur. The composition of the
overburden can cause material to adhere and build
up inside the bucket, decreasing its capacity and reduc-
ing the efficiency of the dragline, especially in wet or
freezing conditions.
Draglines, like shovels, have reached their physical
limitations, the largest one being built with a 168-m3
(220-cu-yd) bucket. However, because of its newer de-
sign and introduction of new components, it has not
had the reliability and performance necessary to en-
courage others to be built. The largest draglines being
built today utilize buckets with capacities from 76 to
115 m 3 (100 to 150 cu yd). Fig. II provides a represen-
tative listing of draglines with pertinent dimensions.
The Bucket Wheel Excavator
There are approximately to bucket wheel excava-
tors operating in the US, most of them in Illinois.
Bucket wheel excavators are among the largest, most
complicated, and, under favorable circumstances, most
productive excavating machines used in surface min-
ing, Fig. 12. They effectively remove unconsolidated
overburden, such as earth, glacial till, clay, and soft
shale, that does not require blasting.
In a single continuous operation, a bucket wheel
excavator (BWE) will excavate material from a high-
wall on one side of a mine and deposit it as spoil at
the rate of 1147 to 1529 m3 /hr (1500 to 2000 cu yd
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M 8850 30 V, 340 146-0 180-0 80- 0 84- 0 13- 0 21-4 110- 140
M 8950 34 300 137-0 158- 0 80- 0 78- 0 16- 0 22- 0 140- 160
BE 4250W 38 302 185- 0 105-0 105-0 16- 7 24-0 214 220
(0) Diesel electric. All others electric.
Note: All dimensions based on largest bucket capacity available.

Fig. 11. Dragline models and specifications.

 "

SURFACE MINING 301

is unique among excavating machines because it is de-
signed to operate continuously, in contrast to stripping
shovels and draglines, which operate cyclically. The
long stacker allows a much greater discharge radius
to be achieved while consuming less power per cubic
yard of materials removed compared to other equip-
ment.
There are many advantages to using BWE's:
I) For a given output, a BWE is actually smaller
than a dragline or shovel.
2) It is a continuous excavator and has no cycle
times.
3) It has lower instantaneous power requirements
and no shock loading.
4) It has a larger discharge radius and can be de-
signed to operate above or below the active mine level.
Specifications and Performance Data 5) It can load mined material efficiently onto a
variety of haulage modes, including truck, hydraulic,
General or belt conveyors.
Overall length (maximum) It 404 6) It can be designed to operate efficiently through
Roller circle diameter, ft 34 a wide range of mining heights.
Height of discharge pOint above coal, ft 144 7) It produces a smaller size consistency of mate-
Excavating range above coal (low), ft 40 rial. In coal, possibly only one further reduction would
(high), It 100 be required to produce a shippable product of 3.2 x
Digging Wheel
o cm (I \4 by 0 in.).
8) It can be designed with ground-bearing pres-
Diameter, ft 24 sures as low as 75.8 kPa (11 psi), but a reasonable
No. of buckets 9
Bucket capacity, cu yd 11/2 (bank measurement)
design is 137.9 kPa (20 psi). Its wheels produce more
Rpm (variable) normal 7 stable slopes and wider benches.
Swing speed at digging pOint, fpm 50-150 9) Close control of selective mining of interbedded
coal and small partings such as high- and low-sulfur
Belts horizons is possible.
Ladder belt width, in. 54 10) It has the flexibility to deliver the mined mate-
Ladder belt speed, fpm 900 rial above or below the working level.
Ladder conveyor length, It 91 II) There is little or no deadweight structure re-
Stacker belt wi<tth, in. 54 quired as counterweight because the stacker and drive
Stacker belt speed, fpm 1,000 are used, unless separate articulation is required.
Stacker conveyor length, It 326
Disadvantages of a BWE are:
Electric Power I) Its machinery is highly complicated and, there-
Motor generators, hp 2 @ 1000 each fore, has reduced availability.
Wheel drive motor, hp 250/500 2) It has less flexibility (due to lack of mobility).
Ladder belt drive motor, hp 187'/,/375 3) It cannot handle consolidated hard materials.
Ladder crowd drive motor, hp 100 4) It requires a large maintenance force and has
Stacker belt drive motors, hp 2 @ 250/500 high initial cost for a given production rate.
Swing drive motors, hp 2 @ 25150 5) The bucket configuration and wheel diameter
Propel drive motors, hp 4 @ 100 can cause problems in trying to follow the bottom of
Weight the coal seam, restricting the unit to mining thick coal
seams only. Thicknesses of coal would have to be at
Working weight without belts, Ib 3,200,000
least 0.7 times the diameter of the wheel.
Metric equivalents: ft x 0.3048 = m; cu yd x 0.764 554 6) In most instances, the great mass of support
9 = m3 ; fpm x 0.005 08 = m/s ; in. x 2.54 = em; in. X 25.4 equipment needed limits its use to thick seams only.
~ mm; hp X 746.0 ~ W; Ib X 0 .453 592 4 ~ kg. Fig. 8 shows the operation of BWE in a pit in
Fig. 12. Bucket-wheel excavator of Peabody Coal Co. at tandem with a shovel. Not only will the more compe-
River King mine, IL. tent rock in the lower portion of the overburden be
loaded with the shovel, but also since this is the portion
of the overburden that is apt to contain acidic materi-
per hr) up to 130 m (426 ft) away on the opposite als, it will be buried by the BWE so that the spoil is
side of the pit. In Germany, the largest such unit in placed back in its approximate original order. The ir-
the world, with a capacity of up to 9175 m 3 /hr (12,000 regular or hedgerow-type effect is also minimized with
ell yd per hr), operates in a brown coal operation. It subsequent reduction in reclamation costs.
302 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
The Tower Excavator
A method formerly used which may have applica-
tion in the future is a mining scheme employing a
tower excavator. This excavator has its greatest utiliza-
tion in conjunction with a shovel or other equipment
as a tandem operation. It can also be used where a
dragline must cut a working bench prior to every move.
The tower excavator can cut the bench ahead of
the dragline or shovel and control the spoil dumping.
This has the effect of minimizing peaks and therefore,
minimizes the amount of leveling that must be done
by bulldozers and allows a greater depth of mining.
An added advantage of this method is that the upper
strata can be placed over the spoil area to aid the
reclamation plan and partially save the topsoils for
further use. The bucket size, however, limits the tower
excavator's application. Furthermore, these excavators
are no longer produced, and mining firms would have
to show considerable interest in them to spur manufac-
turers into building them. However, with ever-tighten-
ing legislation regarding land reclamation procedures
in strip mining, this method may be feasible. A tandem
operation that might be considered with a shovel is
shown in Fig. 13.
Pan Scrapers
Pan scrapers have been the backbone of the heavy
construction industry since their invention in the early
1930s, and are finding wider application in the surface
mining industry. As a result of the technological im-
provements during the past years, they can now be
used to remove moderately consolidated overburden
as well as various ores.
The scraper is an all-weather machine, noted for

Surfoce

Ope n
Tai l Bench Co. Heo d

_ ~~h woll_

T owe r
Spo il

Exposed Coal Seam

Spoi I

Pl an View

T owe r
Spo il

/
Tail Head
Tower Tower

Shovel Spoil

Se c ti o n V iew
Fig. 13. Proposed tower excavator bench cutting tandem operation.
 SURFACE MINING 303

Fig. 14. Bulldozer removing overburden from a coal seam (John Deere & Co.).

its mobility and versatility. With the advent of state Bulldozers

laws requiring segregation and replacement of topsoil Bulldozers have become the workhorses of the sur~
at surface mine sites, the scraper has found a new face mine, especially in the mountainous terrain typical
home in coal operations. It is expected that stripping of the Appalachian area, and they are being used suc-
(in conjunction with draglines) and reclamation will cessfully for clearing terrain, constructing haul roads,
be the areas of greatest usage for scrapers, whether leveling benches for excavating equipment, tipping
in the east, midwest or west. overburden, and hauling for reclamation work, Figs.
Scrapers are limited in application mainly by high 14 and 15.
maintenance requirements when used in massive rock Both tracktype and wheel-type tractors are being
such as sandstone and deep overburden, and also by employed. In fact, the track-type tractor and the rub-
the high cost encountered for uphill dozing of material. ber-tired front-end loader are being employed at almost
The scraper's primary disadvantage is that its economic all mines in the Appalachian area, regardless of the
efficiency is seriously compromised where the material other equipment available in the mining industry.
to be moved is blocky. Manufacturers, however, have The track ~ type tractor is unmatched in its ability
been designing units capable of loading rocks to 61 to negotiate steep grades and to work in loose or muddy
cm (24 in.) in size. Unconsolidated material and such
rocks as friable shale and coal are, of course, the most
amenable to scraping, and are less costly in terms of
the maintenance, downtime, and tire wear they cause.
When used for reclaiming, scrapers are able to re-
load the stripped overburden material, such as topsoil
and subsoil previously stockpiled, haul it back to the
reclamation site, and replace it relatively evenly over
spoil material. If the various soils have been stockpiled
separately, scrapers can recreate the natural soil layer
sequence that existed over the coal prior to mining.
Pan scrapers are either track- or rubber-tire-pro-
pelled units. Track units are used f9r slow shQrt-range
haulage applications of 305 to 457 m (1000 to 1500
ft) where traction is a problem. In much wider use
are the pneumatic tire-mounted units for high-speed,
long~distance haulage under more favorable footing.
A bulldozer is normally used to push-assist scraper Fig. 15. Bulldozer preparing haul road in a strip pit (John
loading. Deere & Co.).
304 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 16. Hydraulic excavator stripping last

3.6-m of a 9.1-m (12-ft of a 30-ft) over-
burden (John Deere & Co.).

ground. However, it is limited in top speed to a range
of 8.1 to 16 km/h (S to 10 mph), which makes it
uneconomical for production earthmoving over haul
distances of much over 91 m (300 ft). On the other
hand, wheel bulldozers have an advantage in speed
[32 to 48 km/h (20 to 30 mph)] and maneuverability,
but require more solid and level working bases. These
machines have been used mainly for cleanup opera-
tions, stockpiling, and moving unconsolidated materi-
als. They are used only in the relatively small opera-
tions as primary stripping machines but can be found
in all pits as service machines.
The companion to the bulldozer, the front-end
loader, was discussed under "Coal Loading." It is quite
heavily used in Appalachia as a primary stripping tool
as we will see in the section on mining methods.
Hydraulic Excavators
A relatively newcomer as a stripping unit is the
hydraulic excavator, Fig. 16. Its unique application

Fig. 17. Excavator removing overburden on same base level (Caterpillar).

 SURFACE MINING
Fig. 18. Excavator loading truck (Caterpillar).
of power, bucket agility, speed, and ease of operations
exceeds conventional rope shovels in many instances.
Because of the unique 3point articulation by hydraulic
load application, a high penetration force allows the
digging of hard limestone and other rocks without
preparation. Together with reduced capital costs, it
can bring about significant cost reductions.
It is equally adept at cutting below the bench as
with a dragline, Fig. 16, on the same bench, Fig. 17,
or for loading of coal, Fig. 18. In the latter case, the
excellent control of the bucket permits good coal clean-
ing. It is being increasingly used in overburdens up
to 9.1 m (30 ft), especially with the various hauling
techniques or in tandem with bulldozers, or other
equipment. In Fig. 16 the excavator is taking out the
last of the overburden and passing the spoil to a shovel
further up the slope.
Together with bulldozers and front-end loaders,
the hydraulic excavator finds increasing use in lower
overburden heights and where limited capital is avail-
able in smaller operations.
STRIP EQUIPMENT SELECTION AND
PIT DESIGN
It would be impossible to analyze the selection of
all types of stripping equipment with any degree of
comprehensiveness in this limited treatment of surface
mining. However, since shovels and draglines are used
in a majority of the strip pits. a more comprehensive
treatment of these two pieces of equipment will be
given here.
In designing a strip mine operation, the reach of
the machine and its capacity are the two most impor-
tant factors to be considered. The reach determines
305
how high an overburden can be mined and how far
and high the spoil can be emplaced, establishing the
technological strip ratio (SR). Reach thus enters into
both the technological and economic limitations of the
strip pit. The bucket capacity determines the pro-
ductivity of the machine and thus directly affects the
economic feasibility of an operation. Actually, the
reach and capacity of a given machine are closely re-
lated. The product of reach and capacity represents
an overhanging load which must be adequately sup-
ported by the main structural frame of the machine.
Therefore, for a given main frame structural unit, the
reach and capacity should be inversely proportional,
i.e., one can easily be increased by an appropriate re-
duction of the other.
MUF Concept
The maximum usefulness factor (MUF) is the term
used to express the relationship between machine struc-
tural weight and its ability to do work (capacity multi-
plied by reach). The MUF is defined as the product
of the nominal dipper or bucket size in cubic yards
times a functional dumping reach in feet. To gain maxi-
mum advantage in constructing shovel-operation spoil
piles, the shovel is positioned so that its tracks adjacent
to the spoil are as close as possible to the coal deposit
rib. A vertical plane passing through the deposit rib
would contain the dot shown above the outside crawl-
ers in Fig. 19. By measuring horizontally from the
outermost edge of the crawlers to the dipper discharge
point, the dumping reach, 's. is established. The maxi-
mum usefulness factor can then be determined in terms
of cubic yards multiplied by feet. For a shovel pit
design, both the maximum reach and maximum dump-
306 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

h A, H

8
dotum

r--- w ---l b >.1- -

Fig. 19. Shovel pit without coal fender (Woodruff, 1966).
ing height of the stripping unit are critical factors. If
the gross machine weight for various stripping shovels
is plotted against the maximum usefulness factor for
each shovel, the curve appears to follow a generally
straight line regardless of manufacture or size range
of machine. It has been determined that each MUF
unit requires 338 kg (745Ib) gross weight in the shovel,
Fig. 20.
Like the shovel, the dragline's ability to handle
deep overburden is normally limited by its ability to
dispose of the spoil. Because this machine usually
works from the overburden surface of a cut or from
a bench floor slightly below the surrounding land sur
face, its dumping height usually is not an influencing
factor. For the type of operation described, the dump
ing reach, rd , in Fig. 21 is the controlling factor.
Walking draglines are mounted on circular bases
called tubs. With the diameter of the tub (E in Fig.
II), plus a safety margin of onefourth the diameter
of the tub between the top edge of the old high wall
and the closest point of the tub, a moment center as
,-
shown by the dot above the high wall edge in Fig. 21
is established. Measuring horizontally from the point
described to the dumping point gives a moment arm
rd fo( the dragline. The nominal bucket capacity in
cubic ' yards multiplied by the arm, rd, determines the
maximum usefulness factor for each dragline.
As with shovels, the dragline gross machine weights
plotted against the maximum usefulness factors for
existing dragline models closely follow a straight line,
Fig. 208. Draglines require 261 kg (575 Ib) of gross
machine weight for each MUF. Since the cost of mining
machines is directly related to weight, the dragline
will cost less than the shovel for each unit capability
of work.
One useful application of MUF is in comparing
machines such as the Gem of Egypt and the Silver
Spade which operate in the same general area in south-
eastern Ohio. These machines are almost identical in
design (BE 1950B in Fig. 10) and their MUF's are
nearly equal except that the Gem of Egypt is equipped
with a 52m (170 ft) boom and a 99m3 (130 cu yd)

f I I
2 1/
/
6
~(~
S.'I___~
.
0 5

3_ /
~

- f7 4
9
" /G
(b Nott :

g <."l'/ lope of A:.\]S

';i ~z 8~1/467
6 " 11.".. I
Slo p. 01

41--
/ Stopt 01 curve= 1' 745
2f-tt; _.
1/ II
2[7 ''1/ Fig. 20. MUF numbers as a function of
(I() (I<f) t/(X1IIO') machine weight for shovels and draglines
(Woodruff, 1966). A, left, shovels; B,
2 6 8 10
Gross mochine: wpight (lb.) " 2
Gross machine _i!Jl'l1 (lb.)
3
right, draglines.
 SURFACE MINING
Rd~
I J5E I
datum
I- w 1966).
dipper, designed to handle thin overburden in rela-
tively flat terrain; the Silve, Spade is equipped with a
61 -m (200 ft) boom, and a SO-m' (105 cu yd) dipper
and is designed to handle deep overburden in hilly
terrain. Similarly, the MUF can be used for the drag-
line specifications in Fig. 11. It will be noted that a
range of bucket sizes are shown for many models. The
structural dimensions given in Fig. 11 are for the larg-
est size bucket. The reach for a smaller bucket size
can easily be calculated using the MUF concept. For
example, " X D, = MUF = '2 X D 2
Designing the Pit
With the aid of Fig. 19, a shovel pit can be designed
for a given stripping shovel model. First the pit width
must be selected. This is a function of many factors,
but above all it must be able to accommodate the opera-
tion of the stripping shovel in the pit itself. Therefore,
there will be a minimum pit width in which the shovel
will have sufficient clearance to operate. By using Figs.
10 and 19, the selection of a minimum pit width is
possible. While the wider the pit usually the more effec-
tive the operation, the pit cannot be so wide that the
overburden cannot be put away in the spoil bank with-
out recasting. Thus the minimum and maximum pit
widths for a given shovel operation can be easily deter-
mined. By looking at the shovel parameters in Fig.
10 and keeping in mind the operational position of
the shovel in Figs. 2 and 19, it should be apparent
that for the rear end of the cab to clear the highwall
during the dumping cycle, a minimum pit width equal
to at least l-2 N + 0 of the machine will be required.
As an example, the BE 550B shovel [19 m' (25 cu
yd)] would require a minimum pit width of 3S.75/2 +
33.5 = 19.37 + 33.5 = 53 ft. However, for cleanup
with the shovel, when the boom is perpendicular to
the high wall, the maximum clean-up radius will be
M + N/2 in Fig. 10. For the 550B, this would be
66 + 38.75/2 = 66 + 19 = 85 ft, considerably more
307
Fig. 21. Dragline pit (Woodruff,
than the minimum required for clearance. Actually,
for the larger stripping shovels, a bulldozer will work
in con junction with the shovel for cleanup, pushing
the material into the active highwall face for the shovel
to pick up and thus speeding up the shovel operation
by allowing fuller buckets to be loaded more quickly
and keeping the swing cycle closer to 90 0 rather than
IS0, which also speeds up the loading cycle. The 53
ft represents an absolute clearance minimum and thus
a 550B will usually have a minimum pit width of 15
to 20% more so that at least an 18-m (60 ft) width
will be chosen for the machine. However, pit widths
of 21 to 24 m (70 to 80 ft) are very common for this
machine.
Looking at Fig. 19, it is possible to determine how
much overburden can be placed in the spoil area given
the machine's physical parameters. From this figure,
the area of the spoil (A,) can be calculated considering
the maximum dumping height (h), the pit width (W),
angle of spoil (0), and the pit geometry:
A,=(h- ~ tano)w+ ~ (~ tan II)
W' W'
A = Wh--tanO+-tanO
, 2 4
W'
A, = Wh--tanO
4 (I)
The spoil pile is equal in area to the area of the overbur-
den cut plus an additional value due to swell (S). The
swell factor (S) is defined as the additional volume
(area) expansion of the in situ bank material in the
loose state. Thus in terms of the bank cut area (A,)
and allowing for the swell, the spoil area can be calcu-
lated:
(2)
308
The cut area (A,) is calculated from the pit width
(W) and average overburden height (H):
A,= WH
The simultaneous solution of Eqs. I, 2, and 3 gives:
(I + ~)WH =
lDO
(I +~)H= h - W tan 0
lDO
From Fig 19 it can be seen that the reach of the shovel
(r,) can be calculated from the spoil angle of repose
(0) and the spoil dumping height (h):
rs = h cot 8
Substituting for h in Eq. 4 from Eq. 5 yields:
r,- - t a
S- ) H = - - WnO
( 1 +IDO cot 0 4 Bank Cll yd/month o utput
Rearranging to solve for H yields:
r, W Shovels are designated by dipper size (D) while
----tanO
cot 0 4 draglin es are designated by bucket size (B); in either
H (6)
S case, the size of the dipper or bucket is expressed in
1+ -
lDO
Thus for a given machine size, considering the mate-
rial-pit parameters, it is possible to determine the high-
wall limit of mining. A calculation of the technological
strip limit is possible by calculating the weight of the
coal in tons in a unit length of cut and dividing it
into the overburden unit volume:
v.o:::l"o"f...:o,-,v-.:e:.:rb:.:u=f.::d",en,,-,,(c:.:u,-,y"d",)
SR=-
tonnage of coal (tons)
where t is thickness of the coal seam, 85 Ib is the
average weight of a cubic foot of coal, and dividing
by 2000 Ib gives tonnage.
Some typical ranges for the parameters listed in
the equations for sedimentary strata overlying coal
seams are: e,
angle of repose, 33 to 38 0 ; <1>, highwall
angle, 60 to 90 0 , depending upon the competency
0
of the material; and S, swell factor, 25 to 35%.
A view of Fig. 21 reveals that Eqs. I to 4, derived
for the shovel pit, hold equally well for the dragline
pit because the geometry for the spoil and cut area
are identical. Rearranging Eq. 6 gives the shovel reach
in terms of the other parameters:
r, = cot 0[(1 + I~)H + ~ tan 0) ]
Looking at Fig. 21, it should be apparent that the
dragline reach (rd) will be equal to the shovel reach
(r,) plus an additional amount equal to the horizontal
projection of the high wall slope:
rd = r, + H cot
COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
rd = cot 0[H( 1+ I~) + ~ tan 0]
(3) +H cot cj>. (8) -
Selecting Machine Capacity
Wh - IV" tan 0 Having tentatively selected a stripp'ing machine
4 based on reach requirements. appropriate capacity
must also be attained. An estimated capacity table
(4) should be set up as shown in the following example:
4
Buckel size, ell yd 8
Buckel fill factor 80%
Buckel load, bank Cll yd 0.88
Cycle time, sec 56
(5) Passes per hours 64
Theoretical bank Cll yd/hr 51Q
Monthly operating hours 720
Theoretical bank Cll yd/month 36,8008
Monthly operating factor 85%
31,2008
An explanation of each item follows:
cubic yards of level volume (loose) measure. In our
discussion, Band D will be used interchangeably. In
the calculation of overburden or spoil values, it is com-
mon to employ the in-place or bank volume in cubic
yards. In the loading of a bucket, the swell factor will
result in less bank cubic yards than represented by
the actual volume of loose material in the bucket; on
the other hand, during loading of the bucket, less than
a full bucket of level measure may be loaded or actually
a surcharge load may be produced. The shovel is apt
to have a surcharge value whereas the dragline will
WH X I ft ~27 usually have a tendency to less than a full bucket mea-
tW X I X 85+2000 sure, although operator skill will affect the fillability
of both. The influence of these two factors is expressed
in the bucket-fill factor which gives the percentage
of the level bucket capacity expressed in bank yards
actually loaded per cycle. Typical fill factors are found
to be 80 to 95%; our example utilizes an 80% fill
factor so the bucket load expressed in bank cubic yards
will be 0.8B.
Cycle time refers to the time required between the
commencing of dumping the bucket on the spoil until
dumping commences again for the subsequent load,
thus including one complete cycle of operation. Typical
shovel cycles may vary from 40 to 58 sec while drag-
lines will usually take 58 to 68 sec. In our example,
a 56-sec cycle is taken. Dividing 56 into the 36DO sec
(7)
available in an hour gives the passes per hour (64).
Multiplying the passes per hour by line 3, bucket load
in bank cu yd, 64 (0.8B) = 51B (line 6).
Large stripping units are scheduled to operate more
continuously than any other mining equipment, so it
is not uncommon to see them scheduled for 720 hr
(in our example) out of a total possible number of
cj> 730 hr per month. However, any number less than
 SURFACE MINING 309
this may be used according to the working schedule. alone (1), the BE 480W dragline in tandem (2) and
Multiplying theoretical bank cubic yards per hour the dragline used for stripping alone (3) provides the
(5IB) by the monthly operating hours (720) gives a following outputs in cubic yards per month.
theoretical bank cubic yards per month (36,800B).
During the scheduled hours, however, there will be
machine maintenance delays and other delays such BE 480 W BE 480W
182 M dragline dragline
as stopping for lunch and waiting for blasting or power shovel in tandem used alone
outages. These are lumped together as the monthly (1) (2) (3)
operating factor. Well-run mining operations can Dipper size, cu yd 10 15 15
achieve monthly operating factors between 80 and Dipper fill factor 0.85 0.8 0.8
90%; our example utilizes 85%. Therefore, in our ex- Dipper load, bank cu yd 8.5 12 12
ample, multiplying the theoretical bank cubic yards Cycle time, sec 50 59 59
Passes per hr 72 61.017 61.017
per month (36,800B) by the monthly operating factor Theor. bank cu yd per hr 612 732.2 732.2
(0.85) gives the actual bank cubic-yard per month out- Monthly oper. hr 336 576 720
put that can be expected given the assumed conditions Theor. bank cu yd per
(31 ,200B). Depending upon the amount of overburden month 205,632 421 ,747 527, 184
Monthly oper. factor -0.7 0.75 0.75
that must be moved to achieve the desired production, Bank cu yd per month 143,942 316,310 395,388
the bucket size needed is easily calculated. Of course,
suitable time studies will provide more accurate factors
for a specific operation than those given here. Entering Fig. 9 to obtain specifications for a 182M
An example will illustrate the use of the preceding shovel operating alone ( 1) reveals a clearance radius
information: of 23 ft (K) and a width across the crawlers of 21.5
I) A second-hand, 182M loading shovel with a ft (J). Based on clearance the minimum pit width
7.6-m' (10 cu yd) bucket is to be used for both overbur- would have to be:
den stripping and loading of a l.2-m (4 ft) thick seam
that outcrops with 0.6 m (2 ft) of cover and then ex- J 21.6
tends into a gentle hill that has a slope of 0.3 m in K +"2 = 23.0 + - 2- = 23.0 + 10.8 = 33.8 fl. (9)
3.0 m (1 ft in 10 ft). The shovel will be scheduled
for stripping 336 hr per month and has the following But based on a maximum cleanup radius of 39 ft (1),
characteristics: dipper factor, 85%; cycle time, 50 sec; the following cleanup width is required:
70% monthly operating factor. The overburden has
a swell factor of 30%, the highwall angle is 74 with J
the hori zontal while the spoil pile angle of repose is 1+"2 = 39.0 + 10.8 = 49.8 fl.
37. Calculate the number of cuts to the technological
limit, the monthly production of coal in the last cut, Therefore, choose W = 50 ft.
and the strip ratio. Check digging reach:
2) Having determined that the strip ratio for the
shovel is far below the economic strip ratio, a BE 480 J
W dragline equipped with a 12-m' (15 cu yd) bucket D +"2 = 52 + 10.8 = 62.8 fl.
is purchased for use in tandem with the shovel. For
a dragline with the following characteristics: dipper Next, dumping reach, 's. must be determined. This
factor, 80%; cycle time, 59 sec; and a monthly operat- is detennined using the tables and a suitable sketch
ing factor of 75%, determine the following if the drag- to scale. From Fig. 9 two points are available in the
line is scheduled for 576 hr of operation per month circular dumping cycle. from column A and Band
and all the factors remain the same as in (1): column C and D. Plotting these two points and inter-
a) Number of additional cuts possible for complete connecting them by a straight line gives the dumping
operation. reach, r" where the line crosses the profile of the spoil
b) Division of highwaU between shovel and drag- pile [12 m (40 ft)l:
line for complete operation.
c) Strip ratio in last cuI.
d) Monthly production in last cut.
,,
3) Finally, deciding that the tandem operation is /
unduly constraining and that the use of the shovel ,/
for both stripping and loading of coal is less than ideal, ' -~"'\r./
the dragline is scheduled 720 hr a month for stripping
and the shovel is used only for loading coal. Determine:
a) Maximum technological limit for dragline.
b) Strip ratio in the last cut. ,,
c) Monthly production in last cut. /
/
/
Setting up the capacity tables for the 182M shovel
310 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
The number of possible cuts are next determined. r18B18 ~ r'5B15 ~ 127(18) ~ 15r,5.
To do this, the average high wall depth of the last cut
Therefore
to be mined must be determined from Eq. 6:
127(\ 8)
W 152.4 ft.
r/ cot IJ - 4 tan IJ
T15 =
IS
H Utilizing Eq. 8, but remembering the adjacent cut area
1 + S/ IOO
must be left open for the shovel spoil:
50
~ 4O/cot 37 - - tan 37
4 152.4 ~ H cot 74 + cot 37 [( 1 + 13~) H
1+30/100
30.14 - 9.42 50 ] + 50
::..::.c..,-,----,-,-= ~ 15.94 ft. (10) +4tan37
\.3
152.4 = 0.2867 H + 1.7251H + 12.5 + 50
The following sketch reveals that only three cuts H ~ 44.7 ft.
can be mined since the average highwall in the fourth
cut would be in excess of 15.94 ft: From the sketch below, it is apparent that nine
cuts can be taken (six additional) since the average
overburden height in the 9th cut (44.5 ft) will be less
than the 44.7 ft calculated to be possible:
CD :
2~

0
Therefore, three cuts are possible and the volume of


overburden per linear foot in the last cut can be calcu- 8.2
lated:
cuyd
linear ft
14.5 X SOX 1ft
27 cu ft/cu yd
17 22 27 32 37 42 44. 5: 47
I
~
eli yd overburden
"-----...
~ 26.85 (last or 3rd cut). Calculating the volume of overburden in the last cut
linear ft as before:
The coal tonnage per linear foot in the last or 3rd cu yd OB 44.5' X 50' X I'
cut can also be calculated: 82.41 cu yd
linear ft 27 cu ftf cu yd
4 X 50 X I X 85 Ib/cu ft
-'----'.-'----"-==....:..::'-'-' ~ 8.5 tons per linear ft. 82.41
2000 Ib/ton therefore, the strip ratio = - - ~ 9.7
8.5
Having calculated these, the strip ratio can then be
obtained: To determine the proportion of the high wall each ma-
chine must mine:
Strip ratio (SR) ~ ====-'-=
overburden vol
coal tonnage
26.85 _
---3.1.
8.5
6
shovel - 143,942
dragline - 316,3 10
Finally, the monthly production of coal in the last total - 460,252 cu yd per month
cut will be:
shovel: 143,942 (44.5) ~ 13.92 ft
143,942 460,252
45,551.2 tons.
3.16 316,310 30.58 ft
To solve for part (2), entering Fig. II , it can be dragline: 460,252 (44.5) ~ 44.50 ft check
seen that the dumping radius of a BE 480W dragline
(column B) is 154 ft for a bucket size of 18 cu yd, monthly production of coal in the last cut = 46~:~52
since all structural dimensions in the table coincide ~ 47,449 tons.
with the largest bucket size listed. The reach of the
dragline is always calculated by multiplying the tub (3) To find the number of cuts that the dragline
diameter (column E) by 0.75 and deducting the prod- can mine alone, apply Eq. 10:
uct from the dragline dumping radius; thus:
152.4 ~ 0.2867H + 1.7251H + 12.5
r'8 = 154 - 0.75(36) ~ 154 - 27 ~ 127 ft. 139.9
H=-- ~69.6ft
Remembering the MUF concept: 2.01
 SURFACE MINING
midpoint of the 13th cut = 64.5 ft
midpoint of the 14th cut = 69.5 ft
therefore, 14 cuts are possible.
cu yd OB 69.5' x 50' x I'
---:---= 128.7 cu yd
linear ft 27 cu ftlcu yd'
therefore, the strip ratio is 15.14
monthly production of coal in the last cut = 3i~:~!8
= 26,115 tons
MINING METHODS
Mining methods are patterned to the natural condi -
tions that exist in a region. Topography, type of over-
burden, and climate are some of the more important
of these conditions. Since these vary from region to
region, it is to be expected that the method of mining
will vary as well. Also, however, systems evolve as a
tradition in a region. Therefore, the logical classifica-
tion of mining is on the basis of region (Skelly and
Loy, 1975).
Region I
Natural Conditions: This bituminous coal region
in the eastern US is a major, elongated depositional
basin containing a series of local, parallel, northeast-
southwest trending synclinal basins, occasionally offset
by faulting, Fig. l. Erosion of sedimentary strata by
dissecting streams has produced a series of steeply slop-
ing valleys and ridges. Overburden consists of shales
and blocky sandstones, many of which are acidic. Sur-
face mines are stripped, on the average, of 17 m (55
ft) of overburden, ranging from zero outcrop up to a
maximum 30 m (100 ft).
Many thinly bedded coals exist in this region, re-
flecting a static depositional environment. However,
seam thicknesses are variable, and most of the impor-
tant seams contain shale particles. Climatic conditions
vary considerably with the greatest seasonal variation
in West Virginia, going from an average minimum
temperature of -6.7C (20F) in the winter to an aver-
age summer temperature of 29.4C (85 F). Precipita-
tion is substantial, the annual average being between
91 and 127 cm (36 and 50 in.).
Conventional Contour Strip Mining: Region I has
been characterized throughout the years by its wide-
spread use of contour strip mining, Fig. 22A. In con-
tour stripping, an initial cut is established along the
hillside at the point where the coal outcrops. Successive
cuts are made into the hill, discontinuing the operation
at a specific stripping ratio, either economic or techno-
logical. Depending on thickness, continuity, slope, and
quality of the coal seam, type and conditions of over-
burden, size of mine area, and the return per ton of
coal mined, this ratio can be as much as 30: I and
still provide a profitable operation using this mining
technique.
Contour stripping affects a large area, especially
on the downslope side. Not only is the overburden
indiscriminately cast over the side of the hill but explo-
311
A. Typical contour strip method.
diameter= 2/3 X Coal sea
ft fo 150 ft
Longitudinal section of on auge r ho le
Note: Unm ined cool is left around holes
and wasted.
Spacing of auger holes dr ill ed from the highwall
B. Coal losses from auger mining.
Fig. 22. Typical contour strip mining, A, showing augering
of highwall, B (Skelly and Loy, 1975).
sive casting is commonly employed in which holes are
drilled on close spacing and heavily charged to heave
as much as 50% of the material out of the pit and
down the slope. Since the overburden contains highly
toxic materials, severe environmental mine drainage
problems are created; mudslides and other erosion pro-
duced are not conducive to establishing vegetation on
the slopes. The unstable highwall that is left behind
creates further erosion and ponution problems. There-
fore, because of the severe environmental degradation
resulting from this method, both temporarily and per-
manently, it has been outlawed in virtually all states
and will have little future application. It is listed here
for background information only.
Contour stripping primarily utilizes the unit opera-
tions of clearing and grubbing, overburden prepara-
tion, overburden removal , coal loading, coal hauling,
augering, regrading and back filling, and revegetation.
Only those aspects of contour stripping that are pecu-
liar to it will be discussed here, and then only briefly.
The proposed affected area is usually cleared of
vegetation by timbering and/or removal with dozers.
Dozers push this material downslope to the projected
toe of the spoil pile to create a brush dam which helps
to establish the spoil bank of dirt and sediment. This
312 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
unit operation is not always necessary, and in some
instances it is eliminated and all vegetation is simply
buried in the spoil during overburden removal. The
overburden is prepared by either drilling and blasting
with ANFO or by ripping. Both bulldozers and front-
end loaders are used for stripping. Coal loading usually
is accomplished by the same loader used in the strip-
ping process. However, when the coal is too hard or
too thick for effective front-end loader use, shovels
are employed as a substitute provided the underclay
can support them. The coal is either ripped or blasted
prior to haulage with small-capacity 14 to 27 t (15
to 30 ton), on-the-road-type trucks, usually end-dump.
Usually, when the maximum strip ratio has been
reached, the highwall will be auger-mined, Fig. 22.
Augering is done by drilling horizontal holes into the
seam. While holes up to 61 m (200 ft) deep can be
drilled sometimes, the auger either sags and thus pene-
trates the bottom or wanders laterally into adjacent
holes, thus resulting in shorter holes. While augering
can provide cheap coal, it provides poor recovery, Fig.
228 and can result in severe water pollution problems,
especially if the holes penetrate abandoned under-
ground mines.
In summary, regrading, back filling, and revegeta-
tion are difficult if not impossible with contour strip-
ping, at least at reasonable cost. While the technique
can produce cheap coal, it does not require any compli-
cated or time-consuming mine preplanning, and re-
quires less capital expenditure for equipment and sup-
plies, it has obvious environmental disadvantages
which preclude its use for the future.
Lateral Movement or Hauiback Method: This
newly developed mining method, Fig. 23, was initiated
as a means of eliminating one of the critical factors
inhibiting achievement of effective and productive rec-
lamation in the hills and mountains of Region 1-
problematic outslope spillage. Selection of an adjacent
hollow valley or low area for initial overburden dis-
posal is the first consideration for beginning the opera-
tion. This phase is essential to eliminate indiscriminate
casting of first-cut material over the bench. If a hollow
is utilized, then extensive preplanning for the construc-
tion of underdrains and terracing must be imple-
mented. In addition, this head-of-hollow fill can be
utilized in conjunction with appropriately sloping ac-
cess roads to form a conveyance system for mine water
and surface runoff. Water can be diverted and chan-
neled into rock drains, preventing its contact with spoil
material and providing effective erosion controL The
next step entails construction of the haul road on or
below the predicted coal seam cropline. In addition
to serving as an integral component in the removal
of overburden, this roadway, situated on the crop
bench, can aid in prevention of water, rock, and over-
burden spillage downslope.
A great deal of preplanning is involved in the next
step: benching down by blasting overburden at the
point calculated to be the highwalllimit. An important
factor here is the bench width required to allow efficient
coordination and scheduling of the various procedures
included in the haul back method in order to eliminate
production delays. Spoil material generated by the ini-
tial benching-down process is loaded and hauled to
a previously determined storage area with segregation
and burial of blackish shale, waste coal, and toxic and
other acid-producing materials which are not condu-
cive to revegetation. Remaining overburden is carefully
and precisely blasted using specialized techniques such
as deck loading, which would permit a subsequent inte-
rior cut, as well as prevent formation of an uncon-
trolled outcrop area.
Excavation, haulage, and deposition of overburden
is conducted parallel to the crop line following blasting.
All movement of overburden is toward the mined-out
area, thereby precluding possibilities of baving uncon-
trolled spillage on the outslopes. Spoils are segregated
on emplacement and regraded and revegetated as soon
as possible. Concurrent reclamation associated with
lateral movement allows for immediate revegetation
and spoil stabilization, further enhancing its value as
an environmentally sound method of mining.
Three basic combinations of stripping equipment
are usually employed with the haulback technique, Fig.
23: (A) front-end-Ioader truck, (B) scrapers, and (C)
combination of both. Two loaders and two to four
trucks can work very effectively in the pit, providing
high production. Dozers assist by pushing overburden
down to the loader for easy digging and loading. Other
services such as construction of ramps and haul roads
are performed by the dozer. A great deal of flexibility
is possible with the use of trucks with controlled depo-
sition and segregation of spoil material possible without
interfering with augering, reclamation, or auxiliary op-
erations.
Stripping shovels are rarely used to load overbur-
den because of their lack of mobility and maneuverabil-
ity, although they do have an advantage over the front-
end loader where poor overburden footing is obtained
and thus digging is difficult. However, large front-end
loaders are the rule with shovels being used only be-
cause they are available.
The loader-truck combination provides the follow-
ing advantages: (I) ultimate placement and distribution
of spoil; (2) under good conditions, production can
easily be increased by simply adding a truck; (3) a
wide variation in overburden can be handled. Disad-
vantages are: (1) increasing the number of trucks cre-
ates congestion and slowdowns; (2) it is difficult to
match loader-trucks for maximum production; (3)
good timing and planning are essential; and (4) spoil
deposition is intermittent by truck-loading, dumping,
and backing.
Since scrapers can dig their own loads, transport
them at speeds up to 56 kmlh (35 mph), and spread
and compact them in the dumping area, these machines
offer good cost advantages over truck hauls on the
short distances associated with the haul back technique.
Two to three scrapers supported by a ripper-dozer can
provide effective one-step loading and hauling in the
 SURFACE MINING 313

A. Typical truck haulback method.

B. Typical scraper haulback method.

C. Typical truck and scraper haulback method.

Fig. 23. Typical haulback or lateral movement methods (Skelly and Loy, 1975).
314 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
haulback technique. Advantages of the technique are:
(I) less equipment is needed in the pit since scrapers
are usually self-loading and can build and maintain
their own roads; (2) no time is lost loading and dump-
ing, compaction is achieved, and there is less delay
in production if a machine breaks down; (3) greater
production per hour on short hauls with better regrad-
ing and compacting results in less subsequent reclama-
tion work; and (4) steep grades are easily handled.
The main disadvantage is that hard, blocky overburden
can not be handled as easily as with loaders and trucks.
A combination of the foregoing techniques is ideal
with the scrapers removing the less consolidated mate-
rial near the surface while the loader-trucks handle
the blockier material over the coal. Scrapers can be
routed along the top of the high wall, Fig. 23C, mini-
mizing pit congestion, and can spread the overburden
without the use of a dozer. On the other hand, loader
trucks can be assigned to handle the overburden near
the seam, which is more toxic and blocky, and can
avoid tramming steep grades for which they are not
well suited.
The coal is generally ripped by the dozer available
and loaded by the same front-end loaders used in over-
burden handling. It should be apparent that the mobil-
ity and flexibility of front-end loaders for overburden
and coal handling, and their suitability for narrow pits
and steep slopes make them a favorite in Region I.
The following substantial advantages can be ex-
pected with the lateral movement technique compared
to conventional contour mining: (1) there are minimal
erosion and landslide problems with the elimination
of outslope spoil; (2) highwalls are eliminated; (3) seg-
regation of the overburden results in better revegetation
and less acid mine drainage; (4) concurrent reclamation
minimizes environmental problems; (5) there is mini-
mal disturbance of adjacent land; (6) disturbed land
area is reduced (50%), as are subsequent back filling
and revegetation costs; (7) ultimate control of back
filling is possible; (8) the mining of coal seams on ex-
tremely steep slopes is possible; (9) the reclaimed land
has excellent recreational and wildlife land-use poten-
tial; and (10) overburden need be handled only once.
The disadvantages of the lateral movement include
the following: (I) there are higher initial capital costs
for additional equipment and decreased rate of produc-
tion produces an approximate 30% increase in overall
production costs; (2) extensive premining planning is
necessary to properly schedule and execute the various
phases without delays; (3) the critical drilling and blast-
ing required to control overburden is time consuming;
and (4) the availability of storage area for excess over-
burden and other considerations of overburden quality
and strip ratios may not be favorable.
Pollution Control: Since the coal seams in Region
I contain considerable pyrites, water pollution is a con-
siderable threat. Proper design, construction, and
maintenance of pollution control facilities can alleviate
these threats, and maintain acceptable water quality
in streams. Common control techniques applied in-
clude water diversion, acid neutralization, and con-
struction of sediment basins.
Since an ounce of prevention is worth a pound
of cure according to the old adage, the key to pollution
control is to reduce the need for treatment to a mini-
mum. By using water diversion systems (ditches,
flumes, pipes, trench basins, and dikes), water can be
kept from contact with acid-producing materials and
from picking up of sediments from disturbed areas,
Fig. 24. A diversion ditch along the top of the high wall
is standard practice, except when accompanied by a
haul road, Fig. 23C, which then substitutes as a diver-
sion ditch. The edge of the haul road along the outcrop
bench is also used to collect surface drainage which
is directed to a sump. Techniques of neutralization
and sedimentation control are similar. in all mining
methods in this region and Fig. 24 shows how this
is accomplished. Neutralization is obtained by using
lime and soda ash treatment. Treatment equipment
is simple and mobile, with the size of equipment de-
pending upon water flow and quality.
Mountaintop Removal and Valley Fill: This is a
new method of mining developed in Region I which
is not extensively used. It makes possible nearly 100%
recovery of a coal seam in very hilly and mountainous
areas using the same equipment employed in contour
mining. The first cut is executed in a box-cut manner
across the ridge, isolating an undisturbed coal and
overburden barrier of at least 4.6 m (15 ft) on the
outslope, Fig. 2SA. This barrier serves as a natural
seal along the outcrop to retain surface and mine water
during the actual mining process; later it provides sup-
port for the back-filled overburden and helps confine
ground water within the regraded spoil. The overbur-
den excavated during this first cut is placed in a valley
or head-of-hollow fill. After the initial cut and removal
of the coal, mining proceeds in a series of cuts, parallel
to the first and adjacent to one another with concurrent
reclamation. Spoil from each new cut is placed in the
adjacent excavated cut and in valley fills, until the
entire mountaintop has been removed.
Valley or head-of-hollow fill is a technique most
frequently employed with mountaintop removal. Such
hollows must be free of underground mine openings
and natural springs, with vegetation removed and rock
drains constructed where natural drainage previously
existed, Fig. 2SB. This artificial drainage system pro-
vides a continuous water conveyance permitting
ground water and natural drainage to percolate
through the fill without saturating it, thus greatly re-
ducing landslide and erosion problems.
After mining is completed, previously rugged
mountaintops are transformed into level land which
may be scarce and thus very valuable. Advantages of
this technique include the following: (1) coal can be
mined where underground or other surface methods
would not be feasible; (2) total resource recovery is
possible; (3) valuable level land becomes available for
agricultural, recreational, home, commercial, and in-
dustrial development; (4) steep unconsolidated out-
 SURFACE MINING 315

~'C? _

La nd ( '7' / /' '; /

/
', /' /
. ~ ,""- " /
Di ve r sion Dit ch .

Div ersi on Dit ch Neutral izat io n

Se ttli ng Basin
A. Typical contour strip method water handling system.

B. Typical truck haulback method water handling system.

Fig. 24. Typical drainage systems with surface mining (Skelly and Loy, 1975).

slopes of spoil are eliminated, reducing the erosion
problems associated with them; (5) highwalls are com-
pletely eliminated; and (6) overburden can be easily
segregated, reducing acid mine drainage and facilitat-
ing revegetation.
Disadvantages associated with the technique in-
clude: (l) there are increased capital costs for addi-
tional equipment; (2) extensive premine planning is
required to maximize productivity and minimize costs;
(3) planning and proper construction of valley fills are
time-consuming and costly; and (4) valleys are not
always available for filL
Like many new mining methods, improvement in
techniques could result in greater cost reduction for
the mountaintop removal method. Its future use will
be influenced by changing laws, environmental con-
cerns, and public opinion on the aesthetic values of
the method.
Region II
Natllral Conditions: While Pennsylvania, Mary-
land, and southern Ohio are disconnected from Ala-
bama in this region, Fig. IB, they are similar, represent-
ing the edges of the Appalachian Mountain chain.
 01

316 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

A. Typical mountaintop removal-valley fill method.

Origino I ground SUI' fa'ce -____

H i ghwal l--~2=

Fil l
Lafera l

Roc k- f illed natural dra inway

R Cross section 01 typical head-aI-hollow lilL

Fig. 25, Mountaintop removal (Skelley and Loy, 1975),

Therefore, while they resemble Region I to some de-
gree, the topography is generally less steep and the
terrain more rolling, although the variation can be
great, from relatively flat in Ohio and southern Ala-
bama to quite rugged in the mountain ridges of central
Pennsylvania and Maryland, While the seams are rela-
tively flat and continuous, in some local areas, they
may dip up to 30 and some faulting may be encoun-
tered. As many as 40 minable seams occur in Pennsyl-
vania and Maryland with overburden commonly con-
sisting of sedimentary clays, sandstones, and shales
with some massive stone.
While the mining methods in Region II are similar
to those in Region I to a considerable degree, the
greater variation in topography results in a greater
variation of methods. These include conventional con-
tour stripping in Alabama, modified block cut in Penn-
sylvania, dragline and shovel usage in box cut contour
mining and modified area mining, and dozers and load-
ers in small mines. The more popular methods in this
region will be described. To some extent, mining in
a more level topograpby here is similar to that in Re-
gion III, but methods peculiar to such conditions will
be deferred generally to the discussion of mining meth-
ods in Region III. Also, since conventional contour
stripping as described in Fig, 22 in Region I is presently
permitted by law only in Alabama, and even here is
probably on its way out under the new federal regula-
tions, no further treatment of this method will be pro-
vided,
Box-Cut Contour Mining: While this method pro-
vides for spoiling overburden on the outslopes, Fig,
 SURFACE MINING
Fig. 26. Typical boxcut contour method (Skelly and Loy. 1975).
26, important differences from conventional contour
stripping result in better environmental control, al-
though problems will exist. A major difference is that
a coal barrier 4.6 to 7.6 m (15 to 25 ft) thick must
be left at the outcrop, depending upon the state law.
This barrier confines the water to the pit and prevents
its flow through the spoil area which would result in
landslides and acid drainage problems. Also, equip-
ment differs, draglines and shovels being much more
adaptable to providing the required coal barrier rather
than dozers and front-end loaders. While this method
will also be obsolete soon, it is briefly described.
Blasting Ihust be carefully controlled to avoid frac-
turing the low-wall barrier, with dozer ripping substi-
tuted whenever possible. A typical two-cut sequence
is shown in Fig. 27. The upper material in the cut
next to the final high wall is cast on the outslope as
shown, graded, and revegetated as the first step. This
material is probably more conducive to revegetation
and less likely to contain acid-bearing materials. In
the second step, the material in the lower part of this
cut is cast on to the coal berm, uncovering the coal
in the first cut which can subsequently be mined. From
this point on, parallel cuts can be taken into the hillside,
casting overburden into the previously mined area until
some practical strip limit is reached. Steps 3 and 4
in Fig. 27 show how the pit is completed for two cuts
only. As can be seen, part of the coal covered in the
second step is uncovered and mined with the excess
spoil from the second pit that is left after spoil has
been piled against the highwall (3rd step) being placed
back into the pit, (4th step).
While the carefully placed materials on the down-
slope create fewer environmental problems than con-
ventional contour stripping, such problems do occur
with any downslope disposal technique. Thus this is
proving to be an unacceptable practice, too.
Modified Block-Cut Mining: The contour mining
method known as modified block-cut mining or simply
block cut reduces spoil spillage on the outslopes, and
creates few environmental disturbances, Fig. 28. This
technique is quite similar to the haul-back method since
all the spoil, except for the initial cut, is moved laterally
along the bench after the topsoil has been removed
and stored, either on the high wall or at the outcrop.
Initially, a box or block cut is excavated to the limiting
high-wall height as close to the center of the mining
317
permit area as possible, leaving a 7.6-m (25 ft) wide,
low-wall barrier, with spoil being compacted, graded,
and temporarily seeded on the outslope. Coal from
this initial cut is removed, after which overburden from
cut No.2 (approximately one-third to one-half as long
as the initial cut) is placed in cut No. 1. When cut
No.2 coal is exposed and ready for loading, stripping
of cut No. 3 begins and continues through No. 2'5
loading cycle, with the spoil placed in the remaining
portion of the initial cut. Regrading and revegetation
of the first cut is then accomplished. Overburden from
cut No.4 is placed in cut No.2 after the coal is totally
exposed in cut No.3, then No.5 overburden is removed
to No.3, No.6 to No.4, etc., until completion. Recla-
mation grading is conducted as the final load of spoil
is pushed into a mined-out cut, with revegetation of
the graded blocks occurring as soon as weather per-
mits. Successive cuts become smaller as mining contin-
ues, thus minimizing the amount of overburden that
must be hauled to fill the final pit. The first cut spoil
stored on the outslope is back filled into the pit gradu-
ally so that, when mining is completed, virtually the
original contour of the slope is achieved with minimal
environmental degradation. At some sites, cut se-
quences proceed in one direction only, although this
does not allow continuous coal loading and therefore
is not as efficient.
Dozers remove the topsoil on moderate slopes by
pushing it uphill and storing it on the top of the ex-
pected high wall, but on steeper terrain topsoil is stored
on the lower wall barrier until reclamation. Scrapers
are generally not used in this technique. Bulldozers
and front-end loaders move overburden in a load-and-
carry operation by simply pushing and carrying mate-
rial to the adjacent vacant block. Spoil segregation is
simple, with blocky acid material buried at the base
of the high wall. Usually two dozers and two loaders
will operate at a given site. As the coal becomes ex-
posed, one of the loaders remains behind to load coal
while the rest of the fleet uncovers the next block. If
the coal must be fractured before loading, one of the
dozers will be used to rip it. End-dump highway trucks
with capacities of 18 to 27 t (20 to 30 tons) are used
for haulage; frequently they are contracted.
Since overburden removal and back filling are inte-
gral parts of the operation, the only extra reclamation
procedure required is replacement of the topsoil by a

....-Diversion Ditch
...'"
co
PROCEDURE PROCEDURE
I. Clear 8 grub from poinl A 10 point B. I. Compacl suilable spoil into and above
2. Make cui ACD. auger holes ( if appl icable ).
3. Place spoil from ACD onlo DE B.
4. Eslablish rood at point E on fi ll bench. 2. Push sp oil aga insl highwall and uncover
5. Solid bench - poinl C to poinl D. Di vers ion Di lch Excess Spoil coal in 2nd pit. Slack any excess
6. Fill bench - point C 10 poinl D. from belween rood and pit.
~:)r-Highwall
2nd Pi 3.Leave 01 least 1511. barrier.
7. Vegetate outslope spo il.
4. Pick up cool.

Original Ground Surface Original Ground Surfac e - - -

1st Step 3 rd Step

PROCEDURE PROC EDURE

Diver sion Dilch I. Remove and stock spoil from lsi pit. I. Push spoi l inlo 2nd pit.
Spoil from Pil width is 1/3 of l ot al bench-(solid 2.Slope bench 10 specified grade.
1st pil bench plus f ill bench). Diversion Ditch 3.AI leasl 15 11. of barr ier is left inlact.
==..-Hlghwall 2. Pick up cool. 4.Road on edge of fil l bench is not disturbed.
3. Auger if permilled . Highwall Low - wa ll
., . . :.)Road Borr ier Reverse Terrace Slope
Rood

Original Ground Su rfa ce/

Cool Seam
2nd Step Original Ground Surface
4 th ,Step

Fig. 27. Typica l boxcut (two cuts) method (Skelly and Loy, 1975).

J ) j ) )
 SURFACE MINING 319

------- -----
- - - - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ 0.
---- - -

-. .,......
-.

151 Slep

2nd Slep
Fig. 28. Typi cal modified block-cut method. Top, first step; bottom, second step (Skelly
and Loy, 1975).

dozer either by pushing it upslope or downslope to
cover the affected area. Revegetation should be easily
established after reclamation is completed, creating an
environmentally sound area. Advantages accruing
from this technique include the following: (I) aestheti-
cally pleasing results are achieved with excellent com-
plete reclamation of the affected area and no distur-
bance to adjacent land above and below the permit;
(2) no double handling of spoil is required; (3) low
capital investment is required since as few as two ma-
chines may be used; (4) land slides are eliminated;
(5) acid formation is retarded since toxic materials
are immediately buried; (6) highwalls are eliminated;
(7) fast reclamation is accomplished; (8) there is mini-
mum erosion; (9) multi-seam mining is practical; and
(10) the disturbed area is minimized. Some disadvan-
tages are: (I) small total coal production per year is
achieved and the method limited to small operations,
320 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
~~.-.c:::::::'~~ -=-::~~-:._:::.>
~~~--.
Fig. 29. Typical modified area mining method (Skelly and Loy, 1975).
although high tons per man hour are possible; (2)
proper planning, design, and scheduling are necessary;
and (3) good location is needed for initial fill.
Modified Area Mining: While this technique re-
sembles the mountaintop removal method of Region
I, inasmuch as hilltop or ridge removal is accom-
plished, it is practiced in rolling terrain rather than
on steeply sloping mountains, Fig. 29. It is especially
adaptable to abandoned contour strippings that previ-
ously had reached the upper economic strip ratio. Not
only are these orphan strip pits reclaimed, but the
abandoned benches provide excellent storage areas for
initial box-cut spoil.
First- and second-cut topsoil is removed by pan
scrapers and stored on stockpiles for final cut reclama-
tion. Topsoil from third and successive cuts is removed
and placed directly on regraded spoil areas, thereby
combining topsoil segregation and reclamation in a
single operation. Initial box cuts are made near the
point of a ridge or hill, or wherever first-cut spoil can
be stored with minimal environmental effects. Drag-
lines or shovels ranging in size up to 34 m' (45 cu
yds) are the primary stripping machines, but draglines
are more common since they can dig through hills
and more easily spoil the material with their larger
casting radius as well as provide better segregation
of spoil material. The spoil banks left will resemble
those encountered in the larger area strip mines to
be described in Region III.
Advantages of modified area mining include: ( I)
nearly 100% of the coal is recovered; (2) segregation
and burial of toxic overburden material is easily accom-
plished with the draglines normally used; (3) there
are the side benefits of reclaiming abandoned pits; (4)
reclamation is carried on concurrently with mining;
(5) regrading is done to nearly original contour; and
(6) there is high production protential. Disadvantages
include: (I) the initial cut must be stored for future
use, and (2) complete disruption of hilltop rock strata
can affect ground-water movement.
Pollution Control: As can be seen in Fig. 30, the
use of diversion ditches, sediment retention structures,
and neutralization facilities in this region are similar
to that in Region I. Pit collection sumps are excavated
in the strata beneath the coal seam at the lowest point
in the pit to collect ground water and/or surface runoff
which is automatically pumped via pipeline to neutral-
ization and sedimentation facilities.
Block-Area Mining: Block-area mining is a com-
promise between modified block-cut mining and modi-
fied area mining inasmuch as it employs the equipment
used in the former but applies to natural conditions
more common to the latter. It utilizes dozers and front-
end loaders in overburdens of up to a maximum of
12 m (40 ft), Fig. 30. An initial block cut (No.1 in
Fig. 31A) is established by dozing or carrying the over-
burden material to a temporary storage area adjacent
to the cut, Fig. 3lB, burying toxic materials. Similar
cuts are made in sections 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., along
the direction normal to mine development. After the
coal is loaded, which is done immediately after the
blocks are exposed, the overburden from successive
cuts 7, 8, 9, 10, etc., is pushed into the mined-out
area, with reclamation being accomplished concur-
rently. Variations in cut sequence can be many; one
alternate scheme is shown by the numbers in pa-
rentheses in Fig. 3lA.
The advantages of block-area mining include: (I)
it makes recovery of very thin seams economical; (2)
reduction of pollution potential by burial of toxic mate-
rial, concurrent regrading, and reclamation are accom-
plished; (3) minimal capital outlay for equipment is
required; (4) production costs are low; (5) original con-
tour is easily obtained; and (6) breakdown of one ma-
chine cannot stop operations. Disadvantages include:
(I) storage of initial block cuts until back filling of
final pits could be a problem, and (2) depending upon
the block sequence used, water handling and coal haul-
ing routes could also become problems.
Southeastern Ohio: While classified in Region II,
 SURFACE MINING
A.
B.
Fig. 30. Typical drainage systems (Skelly and Loy, 1975).
this area is less hilly than most of the remainder of
the region but is not as ftat as Region III. Unlike
other areas in Region II, it utilizes very large shovels
and also is the location of the largest dragline in opera-
tion in the world. Contour mining is generally the
rule here, with mining to depths of 55 m (180 ft) in
a variety of tract sizes. The following two case studies
are examples of representative mining in this area.
In the first mine, a Bucyrus-Erie 1950-B stripping
shovel (Silver Spade) with a capacity of 80 m' (105
cu yds) and equipped with a 61-m (200-ft) boom is
employed as a primary stripping machine, Fig. 32.
The overburden is prepared using a Bucyrus-Erie 61R
rotary roller bit drill, and 39-cm (15\.2-in.) diam holes
are drilled to within 1.5 m (5 ft) of the coal seam on
a spacing of 15 x 18 m (50 x 60 ft). From 30 to 33
321
bags of ammonium nitrate of 36 kg (80 Ib) each and
fuel oil are loaded into each hole and detonated with
dynamite. Usually three rows of holes are shot at once,
using delays between each row to assure good fractur-
ing of the overburden. The coal is not blasted.
The mining cycle is initiated by using the shovel
to remove overburden to a depth of 38 m (125 ft),
exposing the coal seam and establishing a pit width
of approximately 55 m (180 ft) by following the contour
or outcrop line. The seam being mined is the Sewickley
No.9 which is 114 cm (45 in.) thick. A Bucyrus-Erie
120 loading shovel of 7-m' (9 cu yd) capacity follows
the stripping shovel and removes a 16-m (54 ft) cut
of coal from the side of the pit nearest the spoil. Fig.
32 shows both plan and section views of the pit. Four
lOO-lon K . W. Dart trucks operating on the exposed
322 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
Spoil from storag e area placed in finol cu ts olong th is face

9 -Ind icates seq uence of block cu ts

(Ill -Ind icates alt ernate sequence of block cu ts
A. Cut pattern sequences.

B. System overview.
Fig. 31. Typical blockarea mining method (Skelly and Loy, 1975).

seam are spotted for loading, and haul approximately
four miles to a preparation plant.
On the second and successive cuts, the stripping
shovel operates from the exposed coal seam and re-
moves a 18m (60 ft) overburden cut, casting the spoil
into the 16m (54 ft) cut where the exposed coal has
previously been loaded out. The cycle is then repeated
for each cut. Two Caterpillar 0-9 dozers are assigned
to the pit for use in cleanup ahead of the stripping
shovel and for high wall preparation prior to drilling
and blasting. Stripping operations are conducted three
shifts a day, seven days a week, while coal loading
normally occurs on two shifts a day, five days a week.
The stripping ratio is approximately 20: 1 and the an-
nual coal production is about 1.4 mt (1 V, million tons).
Reclamation is started after coal removal, using
large bulldozers to grade the spoil to a gently rolling
contour. The final-cut high wall is filled to a minimum
of 1.5 to 3.0 m (5 to 10 ft) above the coal seam. Both
ends of the pit are filled in to hasten and purify seepage
because the spoil in this area has a high limestone
content. In essence, this method provides a sizable arti-
ficiallake in the final pit. This lake affords many possi
bilities for mUltiple land use, but high walls may have
to be eliminated in the Future. Planting of trees such
as black locust, pine, poplar, and maples, or of legumes
such as crown vetch follows the leveling process.
The 168-m3 (220 cu yd) Bucyrus-Erie 4250-W drag-
line (Big Muskie) is employed in a nearby mine to
remove up to 56 m (185 ft) of overburden consisting
mainly of shales, mudstones, lime rock, and sand-
stones, Fig. 33. A BucyrusErie 61R rotary drill is
also used for overburden preparation at this mine, drill-
ing on a 9.1 X 9.1-m (30 X 30-ft) grid. Ammonium
nitrate and fuel oil are bulk-loaded into the holes and
some 1.4 to 5.0 tons (IV, to 5V, tons) are required
 SURFACE MINING 323

5 ~,e Open
C.t

I
I
High I
Exposed
Wall
Sewickly No. 9
Coal
I
I

Pion View

12S'

Spoil

120' _ _ ~'-lr-S4'-1
Section View
Fig, 32. Plan and section views of a BucyrusErie 1950B pit (Stefanko, Ramani, and
Ferko, 1973).
per hole in order to maintain a one-ta-one blasting ing the I 22-cm (48-in.) thick No.9 Meigs Creek seam.
ratio, depending on the nature of the overburden and A 190-B Bucyrus-Erie II-m' (14 cu yd) loading shovel
depth of the hole. Bagged ammonium nitrate is used follows the dragline and removes the entire 53 m (175
only in wet holes. The coal is not blasted. ft) of exposed coal from the pit, loading a fieet of
The mining cycle can be referred to as contour four to six K. W. Dart 108-t (120-ton) trucks which
mining and is similar to the method previously dis- haul approximately 6.4 km (4 miles) to the railhead
cussed except that the dragline operates from the high- of a private automatic railroad. The mining cycle is
wall. The cycle begins as the dragline establishes a then repeated by the dragline exposing another 53-m
53-m (175ft) wide pit while following the contour of (I 75-ft) width of coal, casting the spoil into the previ-
the hillside. The spoil is cast along the crop line, expos- ously loaded cut.
324 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

Surface
Open Cut

High-
Wall
Exposed
No.9
Meig s Creck
Seam

PIon View

Surface

1
120-130'

Spoil

L 42-47" 1.....- - 175' 175 '

Section View

Fig, 33, Pit layout at Bucyrus-Erie 4250-W operation (Stefanko, Ramani, and Ferko,
1973)_
Stripping operations are conducted throughout the
year, three shifts a day, and coal loading is completed
in two shifts a day, five days a week_ Annual coal
production is approximately 1.4 mt (I" million tons)
from the dragline pit with a stripping ratio of nearly
20: 1. The performance of this equipment, when first
erected, was studied closely, and considerable delay
time occurred because of problems in the new design.
While these have been largely worked out, this equip-
ment still does not attain the efficiency of older smaller
units, Studying four different operators showed the
average swing time per second per operator to be from
71 to 82 sec for an overall average for all operators
of 77 sec per swing_ The dragline operates at 13 800
Y stepped down from 69 000 Y, while the loading
shovel and drill require 4160 Y_
Region III
Regional Characteristics: This midwest region can
be further subdivided into two distinct subregions be-
cause of basic differences in climate and coal character-
istics. The eastern portion of the region which includes
 SURFACE MINING
Fig. 34. Typical dragline in operation.
Ohio. western Kentucky. Indiana. and Illinois, has
most of the region's (and the country's) known bitumi
nous reserves, while the western portion, comprised
of Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma,
has both bituminous and lignite reserves. While the
topography of the entire region consists of gently roll-
ing hills and very flat plains, and is largely farmland,
it varies from very fertile in the north and east to
relatively poor toward the southwest. Generally, thin-
ner, poorer quality, and shallower seams amenable to
smaller surface operations occur in the western portion
of the region while higher quality, thicker coal seams,
amenable to both surface and deep mining occur in
the eastern portion of the region. Table 7 in chapter
two shows that half of the eight largest mines in the
US are surface operations in the eastern part of this
region (Illinois and western Kentucky). Some of the
largest shovels and almost all of the bucket-wheel exca-
vators operate in Illinois.
Area Mining: The contiguous seams underlying the
levelland in this area lend themselves to the widespread
lise of the area mining method. A wide spectrum of
equipment is employed, in various combinations, al-
though the basic stripping operations are performed
by large draglines or strip shovels. Generally, in areas
where coals lie within 12 to IS m (40 to 50 ft) of
the surface, stripping shovels are used because of their
faster mining cycle, while thicker overburden [46 m
(ISO ft) in some cases] necessitates the use of draglines,
or bucket-wheel excavators are used in tandem with
either shovels or draglines. With the high overburden-
to-coal ratios and fiat terrain, capacities of stripping
equipment begin at 27 m' (35 cu yd) and range up-
wards.
Since outcrops are not common, mining usually
begins with an initial rectangular opening or box cut,
overburden being cast to one side of the cut. After
removing exposed coal from this cut, an adjoining par-
325
allel opening is made, placing overburden into the pre-
ceding mined-out area. Mining proceeds parallel cut
by parallel cut, similar to Figs. 2 and 7, until all reserves
in the area are mined. In the past, miles of hedge-
row-type spoil banks would be visible after mining.
Today, however, state laws require a minimum amount
of unreclaimed spoil banks, so reclamation proceeds
concurrently with mining.
So far, we have considered only single coal s~ams,
although there are many properties where more than
one seam will be worked at one time. For such multi-
seam operations, the versatility of the dragline for over-
burden removal is especially important, Fig. 34. The
following example shows this versatility.
At this mine, Fig. 35, the overburden consists of
clays, sandstones, and shales and requires drilling and
blasting before stripping can be initiated. The topogra-
phy of the area can best be described as flat with a
few gently rolling areas. A Bucyrus-Erie 61R rotary
drill is used to prepare the overburden and holes are
spaced on a grid of 9.1 X 10 m (30 X 34 ft). A 6.1
to 9.I -m (20 to 30-ft) thick shale parting located be-
tween the Illinois No. 7 and No. 6 seams is drilled
with a Marion Mark II drill on a spacing of 9.1 X
8.2 m (30 X 27 ft). Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil
are used to blast both the overburden and parting.
No blasting of the coal is required.
A Marion 8900 dragline with a Ill-m' (l45-cu-
yd) bucket and a 61-m (250-ft) boom removes 18 to
21 m (60 to 70 ft) of overburden and the shale parting
between the seams. The dragline works from a 7.6-
m (25-ft) bench, 48 m (158 ft) in width at the top of
the high wall. The bench is cut by the dragline before
it moves ahead and approximately 2.4 m (8 ft) of shale
is placed on the bench to form a solid surface for
the machine to operate from and move on. Although
this bench-cutting operation (chopping down) is not
the most efficient use of a dragline, in this situation
326 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
Surface Open cut
Highwall
Exposed
Illinois
No. 7
Seam
Plan View
Section View
A.
Fig. 35. Development of a dragline in a multi-seam operation (Stefanko, Ramani, and Ferko, 1973). (A) Views of
the initial pit with the No.2 seam exposed. (8) Dragline positioned on leveled spoil removing parting.
it appears more feasible than procuring another strip-
ping machine and using a tandem mining cycle. The
dragline then exposes a 46-m (150-ft) width of coal
in the 122-cm (48-in) thick No.7 seam, casting the
overburden along the crop line for approximately 305
m (1000 ft) of pit length. Fig. 35A shows the pit initially
with the No.7 seam exposed for loading. A Marion
151 loading shovel of 7.6-m' (IO-cu-yd) capacity fol-
lows the dragline and loads the entire pit width. Three
109-t (120-ton) K . W. Dart trucks haul approximately
3.5 km (2.2 miles) to a railheading where the coal is
transferred to a private railroad and hauled 22 km
(14 miles) to the preparation plant.
After completing about 305 m (1000 ft) of cut,
the dragline moves to the spoil area, which has previ-
ously been leveled by bulldozers, and digs the remain-
ing parting to expose the 183-cm (72-in.) thick No.
6 seam. Fig. 358 shows the dragline operating from
the leveled spoil. Again the loading shovel trails the
dragline and loads the lower coal seam from the entire
pit width. The dragline then moves to the high wall,
and the cycle is repeated over the entire 2.0 km (I \4
miles) of pit length, casting the spoil into the previous
cut. In this method, spoil leveling is done immediately
after the dragline moves on, and reclamation can be
almost concurrent.
Drag-
line
Surface Parting
Dragline
~~~~~~~~~~Road
Highwall
Exposed
Leveled
Spoil
on
Illinois
No.6 Seam
Plan View
Surface
Spoil
.L~~\-----t1::::::::::::.-r"'"
20-30ft
lr--~7~2~in-.~N~o.~6-S~e-o-m~--~-----------
Section View
B.
Region III, and specifically the state of Illinois,
is the home of the bucket-wheel excavator. Fig. 9
showed the plan of operation of a shovel in tandem
with a bucket-wheel excavator. Fig. 36 is a picture
of what such a pit might look like. However, there
are other combinations of equipment that call be used
in tandem with the excavator. Fig. 37 shows the plan
of operation of a dragline in conjunction with the exca-
vator, while Fig. 38 is a picture of such an operation.
The strata above the coal seam at this operation
consists of clays, gravel, and medium-hard shales. The
topography at this Illinois mine is generally fiat, and
a Krupp No. 1185 bucket-wheel excavator teams with
a Marion 7800 23-m' (30-cu-yd) dragline to remove
some 26 m (85 ft) of overburden. Drilling and blasting
are required in that section of the highwall which is
removed by the dragline. A Robbins R. R. 10 vertical
drill bores 27-cm (lOo/8-in.) diameter holes II to 12
m (38 to 40 ft) deep on approximately a 9.I-m (30-
ft) square grid. Two 23 kg (50 Ib) bags of ammonium
nitrate and fuel oil are usually loaded in each hole
and detonated by a 0.4-kg (I-lb.) cast primer and pri-
macord.
The mining cycle is initiated by the bucket-wheel
excavator as it cuts a bench 9. 1 to 20 m (30 to 65
ft) deep and 27 m (90 ft) wide in the high wall, which
 327

Fig. 36. Pit laout of a typical bucket-

wheel excavator and stripping shovel tan
dem operation (Stefanko, Ramani, and
Ferko, 1973).

Dragline Spoi l Open Cut

Working
Be nch

Bucket Wheel
Excavator
Cut

Plan View

:~==::==~====~====~~~:S'1~~~~~~~~
--7 Surface
,

9oft-l1
'30-65 ft
BWE
Spoil

10-55fl
Dragline
Spoil
--~--~----~--~--------~
t--90 11---1--90 fl -1 36 in.
Seclion View
Fig. 37. Pit configuration for a bucket-wheel excavator and dragline tandem operation
(Stefanko, Ramani, and Ferko, 1973).
328 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 38. Bucket-wheel excavator and dragline in a tandem operation.

is generally unconsolidated to that depth. The Marion due to maintenance requirements, the bucket-wheel
7800 dragline follows the wheel excavator on the was able to nearly double the production of the drag-
bench, removing the remaining 3.0 to 17 m (10 to line.
55 ft) of medium-hard shales, exposing the 91-cm (36-
in) thick Illinois No. 2 seam for the entire 2.4 km
(1\6 miles) of pit. Fig. 37 shows the pit at this stage. Table 2 , Data Comparing a Wheel Excavator With
A Marion 4121 4.6-m 3 (6-cu-yd) loading shovel follows a Dragline over a Six-Month Period
on the exposed seam, loading coal from the entire 27 Marion 7800 Krupp wheel
m (90 ft) of pit width. Four 91-t (lOO-ton) K. W. Equipment dragline excavator
Dart trucks haul 5.6 to 10 km (3\6 to 6 miles) to
the tipple. At the end of the cut, the dragline fills in Bucket capacity, cu yd 30 28
the end of the pit which has already been loaded out Downtime, hr
and moves to this fill area, allowing the wheel excavator Power 27.45 6.55
to pass in order to start the following cut. Cable 24.25 4.35
On the second and successive cuts, the bucket- Other electrical 34.55 30.58
Wire rope 30.20
wheel excavator again digs a working bench, dumping Bucket 27.50 226.33
the spoil on top of the overburden cast by the dragline Mechanical 266.05 577.23
on the previous cut. Reclamation is somewhat easier Oil and grease 77.10
with this system as the upper soils are placed on top General repairs 445.00 1120.51
of the dragline spoil by the excavator and plant growth Belt 161.20
is relatively easy to establish. The cycle is then repeated Hopper 33.15
throughout the length of the property. At this opera- Clean machine 1.55
tion, water which lies above the coal seam creates a Miscellaneous 52.50 4.09
problem with the sandy upper high wall and continuous Lunch 71.45 1.30
pumping is required. Therefore the matching of the Blasting 1.05
Road building 6.00
bucket wheel and dragline moves becomes critical. The Clean pit 31.40
distance between the bucket wheel and dragline must Rehandle 7.25
be closely maintained. Stripping is a 24-hr-a-day, year- Deadheading 29.40 36.04
round operation, while loading is generally completed Wait on dozers 22.40 0.16
in one shift per day. Yearly production is generally Wait on loader 3.30 0.42
around 817,020 t (900,000 tons). Other 3.60
Data comparing the bucket-wheel excavator with Total time lost, hr 1162.00 2241.91
the dragline on this operation over a six-month period Total time worked, hr 2771.40 1734.19
is interesting, Table 2. As can be seen from this table,
and what is rather typical of the bucket-wheel excava-
Percent time worked %
Percent time lost, %
70.46
29.54
56.38
43.62 1
Yardage 2,822,295 5,282,273
tor, is the large amount of downtime of the bucket-
wheel excavator compared to the dragline, 43.62 vs. Metric equivalents: yd x 0.9144 = m; cu yd x 0.764 554
29.64%. However, even with the excessive downtime 9 = m3.
 SURFACE MINING
Fig. 39. A l07m 3 (l40-cu-yd) 3850-B shovel operating at the River King mine in southern Illinois.
Other tandem operations with bucket-wheel exca-
vators have been suggested, even the use of two or
more bucket wheels, each operating a parallel slice
downward.
The largest shovels made [up to 138 m' (180 cu
yds)] operate in this region. Fig. 39 shows one such
machine, a 107-cm' (l40-cu-yd) 3850-B shovel, in op-
eration at the River King mine of Peabody Coal Co.
in southern Illinois. An interesting variation is the use
of a shovel equipped with a variable pitch dipper for
a multi-seam operation, Fig. 40.
Other Mining Methods: While rather straightfor-
ward area mining methods dominate Region III, modi-
fications, possible substitutes, and unique operations
exist. Some of these will be covered here.
A unique mining operation employing five pan
scrapers and five bulldozers as the major stripping
equipment for a multi-seam subbituminous operation
is shown in Fig. 41. Pan scrapers remove the overbur-
den above the upper seam exposing a coal width of
91 to 122 m (300 to 400 ft) for a length of nearly
305 m (1000 ft). Diesel shovels of 3.1 to 6.1-m' (4
329
to 8-cu-yd) capacities remove this coal by loading it
into nine 45-t (50-ton) trucks, and scrapers remove
the parting uncovering the lower seam. A loading ma-
chine is then assigned to operate on the lower seam,
working closely with scrapers and dozers to remove
the parting. The operation at this stage resembles an
open pit operation with the upper seam worked as
one bench and the lower seam as a second bench for
the length of the cut. Once the cut is completed, an-
other parallel cut will be taken as in a traditional strip-
ping operation.
The gigantic earth-moving operation is dependent
upon critical equipment timing. Scraper haul lengths
are approximately 1067 m (3500 ft) with seam uncov-
ered to depths of 66 m (215 ft). Reclamation is very
easy on this operation since scrapers can level the spoil
and place surface materials back into their original
position. The low initial equipment cost, flexibility of
operation, low production cost, and minimal adverse
environmental effects of this system make it attractive
where it can be used.
Since much of Region III is valuable farmland,
330 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
Bo tt om Seam of
Top Seom of
Coo I Removed l\. ,(
Coa l Removed

- Previous ::;;::::
:. C Spoil 7 ,
--

-~-=.---~.

800m - Digging

Plan View 2:>

~~~iflM~L~~= Shovel jJ
Coo l Sea m:
Fig. 40. Multi-seam stripping op-
eration with a shovel (Skelly and
Loy. 1975). Seclion View

the environmental impact of area mining, including
disturbance of ground-water flow, pollution, disruption
of surface characteristics, and erosion and sedimenta-
tion must be minimized by proper reclamation proce-
dures. For this reason, mining engineers are constantly
looking for better ways to produce lower-cost coal in
a more environmentally acceptable manner. Unfortu-
nately, while block-area stripping provides immediate
reclamation of disturbed areas quite effectively, it is
not applicable to large stripping machines with the
extremely high production levels possible with them.
Thus there is a greater attempt to use better reclama-
tion procedures with the mOTe popular area mining
methods, and there is an interest in concurrent recla-
mation methods in mines employing the large stripping
machines. Fig. 42 shows the use of a pull-back dragline,
maintaining reclamation grading within 61 to 91 m
(200 to 300 ft) of active spoil. Topsoil replacement
and revegetation immediately follow the pull-back drag
route. This pull-back reclamation methodology, com-
bined with retreat mining techniques. would retain the
high production advantages of large stripping equip-
ment while at the same time minimizing environmental
disturbances.
Region IV
Natural Conditions: Region IV extends from the
border of Canada on the north to the border with
Mexico on the south, and contains the nation's largest
coal reserves, Fig. l. Its topography varies from the
typical Great Plains area to the Rocky Mountain ter-
rain. Much of it is semiarid with sagebrush and skimpy
grass the only cover, although areas on the western
slope of the Rocky Mountains receive considerable pre-
 SURFACE MINING
Open Cut
Highwall
Surface
Exposed Armstrong
Cool Seam
Plan View
Armstrong Seam
35-40 ft
50ft i--300-400ft 300-400ft--j
Monarch
Complex
Section View
cipitation, primarily in the form of snow in the winter.
Erosion by wind and water has occurred over the re-
gion for centuries, and flash floods continue to create
severe erosion problems.
The reserves in this area range from the lignite
beds in North Dakota and Montana to the highly vola-
tile bituminous coal in several other fields. While min-
ing in this region has not been extensive until recently,
it is greatly accelerating and will undoubtedly provide
the nation's major production very shortly. Because
of the diversity of the region, descriptions are more
meaningful on a state or area basis.
The Black Mesa field in the four-corners area of
Arizona and New Mexico contains six bituminous coal
seams ranging in thickness from 1.5 to 8.5 m (5 to
28 ft); they are within 518 m (1700 ft) of the surface
with a Btu content of 12,300 (13 kJ) or greater, ash
of 9% or less, and a sulfur content ranging from 0.4%
to 0.9%. Mining has been extensively pursued in this
field for the last ten years.
Colorado's eight major coal basins were formed
under diverse geologic conditions that caused the beds
to vary from flat-lying and slightly faulted to steeply
pitching and extensively faulted . Here average bitumi-
nous coal Btu value ranges from 13,300 to 14,500 (14
to 15.3 kJ) and the sulfur content is less than 1%.
Eastern Montana and western North Dakota share
the nation's largest lignite and subbituminous reserves
in the Fort Union region. Virtually all of these reserves
331
Fig. 41. Plan and section views of a unique
(Skelly and Loy, 1975) multiple seam
scraper operation.
lie beneath less than 30 m (100 ft) of cover which is
either glacial drift (northern part) or a fine-grained
clastic sediment (southwestern portion). Central Mon-
tana's coalfields consist of subbituminous, bituminous,
and lignite coalbeds.
Even though portions of Wyoming remain largely
unexplored, the coal reserves are known to be enor-
mous. Lignites, subbituminous, and bituminous coals
are present; many of these are very thick and lie at
shallow depths. In the northern part of the state, pres-
ently the scene of the nation's greatest coal develop-
ment, surface mines tend to be very large.
Area Mining: Area mining of the lignite and subbi-
tuminous coals in western North Dakota, eastern Mon-
tana. and northeastern Wyoming is similar to that in
Region III. One basic difference is a much lower strip-
ping ratio than encountered in the other regions, 1.0
in portions of North Dakota and 4.0 in Montana and
Wyoming which reflects the combined benefits of shal-
low overburden and thick coal seams.
Since much of the land underlain by coal in Region
IV is either farmland, pastureland, or semiarid waste-
land, little clearing and grubbing and virtually no tim-
bering are required, but where necessary these are ac-
complished by dozers. Topsoil is minimal and even
where available does not provide good cover growth
because of semiarid conditions. Overburden prepara-
tion is frequently not necessary because of the uncon-
solidated overlying strata, but where needed it is ac-
332 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

" l :U

. '1~
-
Reclaimed Area .'

Fig. 42. Concurrent reciamation with a pull-back dragline (Skelly and Loy. 1975).

complished by vertical rotary or percussion drilling.
Area mining in Region IV, as in Region Ill, usually
begins with an initial box cut and proceeds parallel
cut by parallel cut as explained f',arlier until the reserves
are depleted. Although overburden removal is similar
in both regions, the equipment used in Region IV is
usually smaller than in Region III and scrapers are
used more extensively. It is in the coal loading opera-
tion that differences from other regions occur. Since
many of the coal seams are thick, the coal is usually
shot and loaded in benches in an open-pit type of opera-
tion. Since the volumes of coal loaded are so much
greater, a greater variety of coal loading equipment
abounds: shovels, bucket-wheel excavators, front-end
loaders, and self-loading scrapers. A discussion of rep-
resentative mining methods for thick, dipping, and
mUltiple seam operations will illustrate the use of the
equipment more clearly.
Multiple and Dipping Seams: Multiple and dipping
seams require modifications of techniques previously
described or the application of entirely new techniques,
an example of each of which will be shown. Fig. 43
shows a modification of the area mining techniques
for mining multiple seams that dip from the horizontal.

Fig. 43. Modified area mining of multiple dipping seams (Skelly and Loy, 1975).
 SURFACE MINING 333

A. Mining method.

1==F;;~b;;,~~'~~_~lim~it~s of mining- - - - ., I

.!-O,ig ir,o l ground l in e 1

~-...J I
Overburde n
I

rec la mat ion grade li ne

B. Final pit configuration.

Fig. 44. Open pit operation of multiple dipping seams (Skelly and Loy, 1975).

Draglines with rather small buckets are used .as the
primary stripping equipment with support from dozers
and scrapers. As shown in Fig. 43, stripping follows
the coal down dip to increasingly greater depths until
an economic strip limit is achieved. Removed overbur-
den is cast on both sides of the cut, covering the previ-
ously exposed high wall above the lower seam as well
as beyond the economic strip limit of the coal seam
being worked. This operation is repeated for each seam
in ascending order. Since no overburden material is
hauled, this is a strip rather than an open pit operation.
Fig. 44 shows mining under similar natural condi-
tions but with utilization of an open-pit method of
operation. An open-pit operation is distinguished from
a stripping operation by the fact that overburden is
hauled rather than merely cast. On this operation in
Wyoming, 13 coal seams ranging from 1.2 to 28 m
(4 to 93 ft) in thickness are mined. Since the coals
outcrop along the top of the ridge, the lower seam is
mined first with progressive benching of overlying
seams as they are encountered. The removal of overly-
ing coals permits additional recovery of lower seams.
This stripping cycle continues through all of the seams
at the site until the overall stripping ratio becomes
too great to permit continued economical operation.
When mining has ceased, the pit will resemble the
cross section shown in Fig. 44B: a series of benches
on the high side, a single nearly Hat incline representing
the base of the lowest seam, and a very large spoil
outside the pit. The volume of spoil will be so great
that it may not be economical to return it to the pit,
and even if it were, it would be insufficient for regrading
to original contour. Thus reclamation will consist pri-
marily of high wall reduction and rounding of the spoil
pile. The advantage of this technique is that high pro-
duction is achieved from a series of otherwise unmina-
ble coal seams. The primary disadvantage is that the
pit will not be returned to original contour.
For the extremely thick seams encountered in Re-
gion IV, the open-pit method is especially appropriate,
Fig. 45. Shovel-truck combinations or scrapers provide
good Hexibility and dependability for overburden re-
334 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

_..,..;_ -- .1

I' I

J
.A

Fig. 45. Typical open pit mining method, thick seam (Stefanko, Ramani, and Ferko, 1973).

maval. Overburden is returned to the mined-out pit
after initial mining and later graded to a contour com-
patible with the surrounding terrain. The coal thick-
ness usually necessitates a benching operation for re-
moval with loading shovels.
There are many possible combinations of equip-
ment and techniques that are limited only by the min-
ing engineers' imagination and creativity. Up to now,
existing equipment has had to be used for mining dip-
ping and multiple seams, but in the future it is expected
that new equipment especially designed for such condi-
tions will be employed. In any event, planning of these
more complex operations will have to be more exten-
sive than it has been in the past. For this reason, com-
puters will be used increasingly to determine the opti-
mum moves of equipment based upon appropriate spoil
volume calculations. For example in Fig. 46, sequenc-
ing of dragline moves for the mining of three seams
is shown.
The new Jacobs Ranch mine of Kerr-McGee Coal
Corp. near Gillette, Wy., is an interesting one. Three
seams, the 1.5 to 3.8-m (5 to 12\2 ft) thick upper
Wyodak (UW), the 9.1 X 18.2-m (30 to 60 ft) thick
lower Wyodak (LW , ), and the 1.2 to 2.6-m (4 to 8.5-

Fig. 46. Dragline sequencing in the mining of three seams (Chironis, 1978).
 SURFACE MINING 335
CO HAUL ROAD EXPOSE D COAL

A. FIRST ST EP

CHAN\3ES DIREcTIONS
prrw;~"""=~==mi

B. SECOND STEP

HAUL ROADS
STRIPPED
FROM
ADJACENT
BLOCK

C. THIRD STEP
Fig. 47. Multi-seam open pit operation (Chircnis, 1978).

ft) thick lowest Wyodak (LW2 ) are mined. The UW
has an average overburden thickness of 37 m (120
ft) and is separated from the LW , by 0.5 to 14 m
(1.5 to 45 ft) of shale and sandstone while LW 2 is
separated from LW 1 by 0.3 to 2.0 m (1 to 6\6 ft) of
shale. Three million tons (2.7 mt) are projected for
the first year's peak of operation which began February
1978 with a projection of 13. 15 mt/a (14.5 million
tpy) by the mid-1980s.
While the stripping plans are subject to change
as experience is gained in thick-seam mining, mining
is projected as shown in Fig. 47. Stripping begins with
336 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY

2000 2000

1500 o 500 1000 1500

Sca Ie in feet

1000

500 , 500
'\,
\
Sea level \
\
\
-500 LEGEND \
- --- Fault \
\
-1000-- Coal seam

A. Typical cross section.

B. Principal underground mining method.

Fig. 48. Anthracite mining conditions (Chircnis, 1978).

the removal and storage of topsoil. Overburden re-
moval and deposition of the spoil in a valley adjacent
to the initial cut follows . Once a pit advances far
enough for equipment access and movement, overbur-
den will go directly from the pit to the backfill area
where coal has been mined. In the standard pit ad-
vance, shovels remove overburden in mUltiple 12-m
(40-ft) benches, the number depending on overburden
thickness. Waste goes along the pit to the correspond-
ing pit back-fill benches, and coal goes out on the oppo-
site side of the pit, Fig. 47 A. As a pit approaches
the property line, mining direction reverses 180 0 adja-
cent or parallel to the previously mined pit ov~rburden
and coal haulage routes also change; this is accom-
plished by making a 90 turn and then advancing far
enough (8) to achieve the width of the next pit; then
another 90 turn is made (C). Once these steps have
been accomplished, the standard mining cycle contin-
ues.
ANTHRACITE MINING
The author's friends from eastern Pennsylvania
would be sorely disappointed if no mention were made
of anthracite mining. Several studies have been COD-
 SURFACE MINING 337

A. Open pit arrangement.

B. Method of mining.
Fig. 49. Anthracite open pit operation of multiple seams (Chironis, 1978).

dueted recently concerning the possibilities of mining
anthracite by open-pit operations. The vast reserves
found in the southern anthracite fields of eastern Penn-
sylvania have been badly folded and warped, and a
typical cross section is shown in Fig. 48A. In the past,
underground mining up the pitch employing the breast
and pillar technique has been prominent, Fig. 48B.
However, the danger from such mining, inability to
mechanize the operation. and the tremendous physical
exertion demanded of miners have made the technique
largely obsolete today except for some very small inde-
pendent operations; total underground mining produc-
tion is less than 907 kt (1 million tpy), annual tons.
Thus surface mining is projected as a substitute for
this underground technique. Presently, the nearly S.4
mt (6 million tons) of annual production is achieved
roughly in equal amounts by strip mining and recovery
of waste piles from past mining.
A suggested open-pit mining method for mining
a dozen or more seams down to a depth of 244 m
(800 ft) is shown in Fig. 49A. Mining proceeds in a
series of uniform production faces 12 to 15 m (40 to

l
338 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
Portable
S.... it chgear --"-..,.j~;o~~~ , ~
Fig. 50. Large area mine electrical system (Skelly and Loy, 1975).
50 ft) high by 30 to :'8 m (100 to 125 ft) wide in a
direction perpendicular to the strike of the coalbeds
(from the left in Fig. 49A). Conventional loading shov-
els with a capacity of II to 19 m' (IS to 25 cu yds)
are used to load 45 to 91-t (50 to 100-ton) rear-dump
trucks. Back filling can occur simultaneously with min-
ing, Fig. 49B.
ELECTRICAL POWER
The optimum power distribution system should be
designed to supply adequate electricity to all equipment
without exceptional voltage drop at the ends of the
pit, provide maximum protection of personnel and
equipment, and be portable for relocation. After the
voltage has been reduced at the main substation, the
primary voltage on pole lines should be carried 1.6
km (1 mile) in advance of, and parallel to, the pit
on the high wall side. The usual practice is to run later-
als on either pole lines or ground cables from the main
overhead at line intervals of 366 to 457 m (1200 to
1500 ft) to switch-houses near the highwall, Fig. 50.
The power is then further reduced and distributed to
low-voltage equipment, such as highwall drills and coal
loading shovels. Pumps and coal drills are fed from
the secondary circuit which is a stepdown further. The
switchhouses and laterals are moved back as the pit
advances and a new main pole line is constructed an-
other mile back as the pit approaches.
Since stripping equipment capacity is generally over
19 m' (25 cu yds), it requires distribution of voltages
of either 7200 or 13000 V. All heavy equipment con-
verts the distribution system's alternating current to
direct current via large motor generator sets located
in the equipment housing. This permits the use of a
large synchronous motor and conversion sets with the
ease of control of motors that can only be achieved
with d-c motors.
.~