The Silk Route of the Mongols

chapter five

The Silk Route of the Mongols

The Coming of

Ghengis Khan
A A Kyrgyz tribesman of the

Eurasian Steppe region, with

his hunting eagle. At the end of the Twelfth Century, in the wastes of the Mongolian

steppes to the north of China, events were taking place which were to

change dramatically the course of history. The nomadic tribesmen,

who had produced such fearsome warriors as the Huns (Xiongnu),

were coming together under a great Mongolian leader. His name was

Ghengis Khan.

Ghengis Khan was proclaimed

leader of the Mongols at Karakorum

(near Ulan Bator, the capital of

modern Mongolia) in 1196. At the

time, China was split in two. The

south was ruled by the Sung Dynasty,

and the north was already under a

Manchurian Dynasty of Mongol

origin. In the West, the Muslims

were divided into a number of

regional powers. There was no

longer a great empire to confront the

growing Mongol domination, which

now extended from eastern China to

western Turkestan. Even so, no one

foresaw the explosion of Mongol

power which now took olace.

A Horse games such as this Ghengis Khan and his powerful army of Mongol horsemen spilled
one are often played among
out of the eastern steppe and overran the surrounding territory in all
the nomadic tribes of Central

and Nonh-East Asia, echoing directions. This was one of the most ferocious campaigns the world
the horseback battles of their has ever known. Beijing, the new capital of northern China, was
past.
sacked - and its population either fled or was massacred on the spot.

When offered resistance, the Mongol armies took no prisoners.

34
 ne Silk Route of the Mongols

Y A 14th Century Iranian

The Mongols then turned west beyond the Pamirs and attacked the
manuscript illustration
Silk Route city of Merv. They are said to have massacred its 700,000
showing Ghengis Khan

inhabitants - and even killed all the cats and dogs. Usually, however, fighting the Chinese in the

mountains.
the Mongols were careful to spare able-bodied men and craftsmen,

who were systematically deported and re-employed elsewhere.

Soon the Mongol Empire stretched all over China and into

Afghanistan, through much of the Middle East and into Europe as far

as Poland. Fast safe lanes of communication were essential in order to

control such a huge empire. One of these was the Silk Route, and

overland trade was again to prosper under Mongol protection. A

massive construction programme of state caravanserais (multi

purpose roadside inns), post-houses and bridges was implemented by

the Mongols; and cities which they had previously destroyed, such as

Samarkand, were to rise again.

For the first and last time in its long history, almost the entire length

of the Silk Route was ruled by one power. Under what has become

known as the Pax Monglica, there was relative peace along its paths

The final great century of the Silk Route had begun.

35
The Silk Route of the Mongols
A Ghengis Khan on his throne
surrounded by his court. John
Carpini would have seen
similar scenes when he
attended the great
international gathering at
Karakorum, the Mongol
capital.
36
The
Pope's Emissary
to the East
Mongol aggression was frequently held in
check by the death of one of their leaders.
Mongol armies poised to push out the
boundaries of their empire still further
would have to return to Mongolia for the
election of a new leader. In 1241 the death
of Ogedei (Ghengis Khan's son, who had
succeeded him) caused one such halt.
Emissaries from all over the known world
now travelled to the Mongol capital of
Karakorum for the selection of a new
leader. This was one of the greatest
international meetings of its time, with
representatives travelling from as far afield
as Turkey and Korea, Russia and Rome.
Western Europe had by now emerged
from the so-called Dark Ages to the more
stable and prosperous Medieval period.
Cities such as Venice and Genoa had built up trading links across the
Mediterranean and were looking to extend their influence further
eastwards. It was perhaps with this in mind that the newly elected Pope
Innocent IV felt it necessary to send an emissary from Rome. More
importantly, he had hopes of forming an alliance with the heathen
Mongols and converting them to Christianity, so protecting Europe
from further Mongol expansion. The Pope chose as his emissary to
Karakorum a friar called John Carpini.
Friar John Carpini travelled to Mongolia byway of the Eurasian
Steppe Route, the branch of the Silk Route that crossed from the Black
Sea north of the Caspian and skirted the Tarim Basin by a side route
which kept north of the Tian Shan Mountains. In fact, geographically
this was a much less hazardous and shorter route than the main Silk
Route, but it had previously been vulnerable to raids from the war-like
tribes who inhabited the Steppes through which it passed. The tribes
 The Silk Route of the Mongols

had now been defeated by the Mongols, making the route safe for

caravans. During Pax Monglica, the Eurasian Steppe Route was

probably more popular than the main southern route. The Mongols

even established what are known as the Golden Horde cities along

the European end of its path, which they filled with craftsmen and

other people transplanted from conquered lands.

But Friar John Carpini's mission to the Mongolian capital was not a

success. Unlike the emissaries from all over the Empire he had brought

with him no lavish gifts for the new Khan. This was not appreciated.

When the new Khan was selected, all the emissaries prostrated Y The interior of a yun, the

themselves before him - except Friar John Carpini, who said he traditional tent dwelling of the

nomadic tribes of Mongolia

prostrated himself only before God. The Khan was not impressed by
and Central Asia.
this obstinate Christian behaviour. The Pope's hopes of forming an

allegiance with the Mongols, and perhaps even converting them to

Christianity, were dashed.

But despite his lack of tact, Friar John Carpini was an astute

observer. When he returned to Rome, he told the Pope that he had

noted signs of division amongst the Mongols. In his view, this could

well divert the Mongols from further expansion into western Europe.

As it turned out, Friar John Carpini was right. From now on internal

power struggles effectively halted any further Mongol expansion

into Europe.

urt on the Mo

Steppe today. As nomads, the

Mongols seldom stayed in

one place for an y length of time

and the easily transponed yurt

was ideal for this lifestyle.

 The Silk Route of the Mongols
A A 13th Century figurine of a
Chinese character actor, such
as might have been found at
Kublai Khan 's court.
~'&^y^^ o"
7%^
Q /
r"
-
A A map showing the route
covered by Marco Polo on his
journey to and from China. The
shaded area indicates the
extent of the Mongol Empire at
the time.
Marco Polo's
Journey
With much of Asia now under Mongol rule and European trade
expanding, it was now that the most famous of all European travellers
to the East made his journey along the Silk Route. In 1271 Marco Polo
set off from Venice for China, accompanied by his father and his uncle.
The two elder Polos had already travelled to China by way of the
Eurasian Steppe Route in search of trade. They had been well received
by the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan, who had never before seen any
'Latins'. The elder Polos had been quick to see the possibilities of
trade with the East and promised Kublai Khan they would return.
Marco Polo has left us with a detailed description of his 9000
kilometre journey to China, filled with many adventures. He passed
along the Silk Route from Turkey, down through the Persian Gulf to
Hormuz, north again to Balkh, across the Pamirs to Kashgar and then
took the southern route around the Tarim Basin into China itself. Even
under the protection of the Mongol Empire, the Silk Route had its
dangers. In remote regions of Iran, Marco Polo recorded that 'unless
merchants be well armed they run the risk of being murdered, or at
least being robbed of everything'. Three years after setting out, the
Polos finally arrived at the court of Kublai Khan at Shang-du.
Marco Polo was impressed by the wealth he found at the Mongol
court. In particular, he describes 'a very fine marble Palace, the rooms
of which are all gilt and painted with figures of men and beasts ... all
executed with such exquisite art that you regard them with delight and
astonishment'. This description later inspired the English poet
Coleridge to write his famous poem about Kublai Khan's 'stately
pleasure-dome' in Xanadu (as Marco called Shang-du).
Kublai Khan welcomed the Polos and appointed them to high posts
in his administration. Unfortunately they soon discovered that this
meant they were no longer free to return home. For sixteen years the
Polos served Kublai Khan, travelling all over China as his ambassadors.
 The Silk Route of the Mongols

< Y Two illustrations (left and

bottom left) taken from a

famous 15th Century French

edition of Marco's story. The

upper picture shows the

Khan 's palace at Khanbalik

(today the city of Beijing),

the lower some nomadic

shepherds met by Marco on his

travels. The pictures are not

accurate - the artist had no

pictures to follow, just Marco 's

descriptions.

Finally Kublai Khan allowed the Polos to leave China. They returned

to the West by sea along the Spice Route. Their ship sailed around

India to the Persian Gulf, and from here they returned to Venice,

arriving home in 1295.

Three years later Marco Polo was imprisoned by Venice's rivals, the Y A ceremonial trumpet

Genoese. It was during his capitivity that he dictated the story of his greeting in Samarkand today.

This form of welcome dates

travels to one of his fellow prisoners. This account of his travels
from Mongol times.
became one of the most popular books in Medieval Europe. It was

known as IlMilione ('The Million Lies') as few believed that his

fabulous stories of the East were true. But later historians and travellers

have since established that most of his tale was accurate.

yj * <
 Karez (Qanats) of Turpan, China

Roger D. Hansen

The oasis at Turpan, located in the desert expanse of northwestern China (PRC), owes it surprisingly lush green
environment to the karez (a.k.a. qanat) system of water supply. The basin surrounding Turpan has been the
long-time haunt of the Uyghurs (a mixed Turki-Mongol ethnic group that is the majority in Xinjiang Provence).
The Turpan area is historically significant because nearby Gaochang (now a ruin, see photograph 1) was once
the Uyghur capital and an important staging area on the Silk Road.

Silk Road
Turpan was once one of the crossroads of central Asia. Historically, it was a strategic stop on the overland trade
route linking China with India, Persia, and Rome (see illustration 1). Because many of the traders carried bales
of silkChinas mostfamous exportthe entire route became known as the Silk Road (or Route). But this great
trans-Asian highway carried much more than just silk. The China-bound caravans were loaded with gold and
other valuable metals, woollen and linen textiles, ivory, coral, amber, precious stones, and glass (which was
not manufactured in China until the 5th century AD). Caravans leaving China carried furs, ceramics, lacquer,
and bronze objects such as belt buckles, weapons, and mirrors. The Silk Road was not one route but a series
of caravan trails which, at the extremes connected Xian in China with Rome in Europe. The Road hit its peak
during the 7th and 8th century AD.

Illustration 1. Main routes of the old Silk Road (from Hopkirk).

Culture and religion also moved along the Silk Road. Before Islam established a firm grip on central Asia, the
Uyghurs practiced Buddhism, Manicheanism, Nestorian Christianity, and other religions. Buddhism came north
from India across the Karakoram Range. Extraordinary examples of this culture were found in caves at Bezeklik,
near modern-day Turpan (see photograph 2). The Manichean faith arrived from Persia and Nestorian Christian-
ity from Asia Minor. The former was founded by Manes in the 3rd century AD. To escape persecution, many
Manicheans moved into central Asia. Until German archaeologists unearthed whole libraries in the Turpan area,
this creed was thought to have no literature. The Nestorians, outlawed by the Council of Ephesus in 5th century
AD, fled eastward. Because so many of its adherents were traders and missionaries, the creed eventually took
root along the Silk Road. Nestorian manuscripts were discovered at the Gaochang ruin in the early 20th century.
All three cultures were extinguished from central Asia by the tidal wave of Islam, with Tamerlane driving the
final nail in their coffin in the 14th century.

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 Karez (Qanats) of Turpan, China

Photograph 1. Gaochong, the ancient Uyghur capital and Silk Road fort, is today an adobe ruin.

Photograph 2. The caves at Bezeklik contained important examples of Buddhist culture.

One of the major obstacles along the Silk Road was the Taklamakan Desert, which has one of the worlds most
inhospitable climates. Caravans skirted this oval-shaped impediment by going around either the northern or
southern edges. Turpan was located on the northern route (see illustration 1).
The Silk Route was dependent for both its existence and survival upon a line of strategically situated oases
which hugged the perimeter of the Taklamakan Desert. In turn, these oases depended for their survival upon
the glacier-fed rivers flowing down from the vast mountain ranges which form a horse-shoe around three sides
of the great desert. As the Silk Road traffic increased, these oases began to rank as important trading centers in
their own right and no longer merely staging and refueling posts for the caravans passing through them.

Turpan
Turpan lies in the second deepest inland depression in the world, with more than 4,000 sq. kilometers of land
situated below sea level. Anciently called, Land of Fire, it has recorded some of the hottest summer days in
China, with temperatures as high as 130 degrees F. The Chinese administrator Aitchen K. Wu (Turkistan Tumult
(1940) as quoted in China: the Silk Routes, p. 231) passed through Turpan in 1933 and commented:
The market often goes on all night longwhile in the daytime the streets are deserted, every one having gone to the
earth in caves . . . The hot wind is worse than anything that can be imaged, shriveling the skin, scorching the eyes; and
the direct rays of the sun carry death. It is a proverbial saying, not much exaggerated, that the people bake their dough
cakes by sticking them on the walls of the huts.

Mildred Cable and Francesca French, two intrepid missionaries who spent many months in the region during
the 1920s and 30s, describe the oasis vividly in their book The Gobi Desert (1942) as quoted in Foreign Devils on
the Silk Road, p. 113:

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 Karez (Qanats) of Turpan, China
. . . Turfan lies like a green island in a sandy wilderness, its shores lapped by grit and gravel instead of ocean waters,
for the division between arid desert and fertile land is as definite as that between shore and ocean. Its fertility is amaz-
ing, and the effect on the traveller, when he steps from the sterility and desiccation into the luxuriance of Turfan is
overwhelming.

The areas specialty is grapes, and many farms have drying towers for turning them into raisins. Turpans green-
ery owes its existence to the underground channels called karezes (or qanats). These underground tunnels rate
as one of Asias more intriguing and historic public works activities (see photograph 3). Uyghur and Chinese
versions of karez technology date back over 2,000 years ago.

Photograph 3. Karezes provide the water needed to keep the Turpan oasis green.

Photograph 4. Cleaning an ancient karez.

Karez
A karez is a horizontal underground gallery that conveys water from aquifers in pre-mountainous alluvial fans,
to lower-elevation farmlands (see illustration 2). The water for the karez is provided by the mother well(s),
which is sunk into the groundwater recharge zone. A karez transports water underground, usually surfacing in
cultivated areas (see photograph 4). Putting the majority of the channel underground reduces water loss from
seepage and evaporation. A karez is fed entirely by gravity, thus eliminating the need for pumps.

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 Karez (Qanats) of Turpan, China

Illustration 2. Schematic of a Karez Project:

(1) Infiltration Part of the Tunnel

(2) Water Conveyance Part of the Tunnel
(3) The Open Channel
(4) Vertical Shafts
(5) Small Storage Pond
(6) The Irrigation Area
(7) Sand and Gravel
(8) Layers of Soil
(9) Groundwater Surface

Several theories have been made concerning the origins of Turpans karez technology. It was: (1) imported from
Persia; (2) locally developed and refined through long-term experience; and (3) developed elsewhere in China
and then imported (ie. Longshouqu Canal project). Some combination of 1 and 2 seem the most probable. In
seems likely that the karez concept moved north and east from Persia along the Silk Road.
In 1845, Lin Zexu was banished to the Turpan area. He was deeply impressed by the karez technology and
encouraged its spread to other areas. Under his leadership more than 100 karezes were constructed. Statistics for
1944 show that there were 379 karezes in the Turpan area. By 1952, there were 800, with a total length of 2,500
km, equivalent to the length of the Grand Canal. Today there are over 1000 karezes in the Turpan area.

Acknowledgment
Photographs 3 and 4 were taken by the author at the Karez Museum in Turpan.

References
Chinese Hydraulic Engineering Society, 1991. A Concise History of Irrigation in China (on occasion of the 42nd
International Executive Council Meeting of ICID, Beijing), April, p. 29-30.
Hopkirk, Peter, 1980. Foreign Devils on the Silk Road, The University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst.

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 Karez (Qanats) of Turpan, China
Neville-Hadley, 1997. China: the Silk Route, Cadogan, London.
Wulff, H.E., 1988. "The Qanats of Iran," Scientific American

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