Magnetic Field Lines for a Current Loop

Magnetic field like bar magnet.

Current I flowing in circle in x-y plane.

r
r
Magnetic dipole moment = I A = I An
A current loop = A circulating charge q
q
, where T is period of motion. I=
T
Orbital angular r r r 2 r r2 A
momentum
L = r p = rm q = 2m q = 2m q
T T T
r q q r
Magnetic dipole = I An = An = L
moment T 2m q

Dipole moment vector is normal to orbit,

with magnitude proportional to angular momentum.
Holds for any set of charges with same ratio
q/mq in orbital motion.

r e r
electron For electrons, q=e and = L
2m e
Magnetic dipole moment vector is anti-parallel to
angular momentum vector.
 Bound electron in the external B field
r
r r r dL
since = B =
dt
(
dL and B )
L
Torque results in precession of
angular momentum vector.
e
Larmor precession frequency L = B
2m e

Just like gyroscope :

spinning in gravity field
r
dL = (L sin )d the rate at which
the axle rotates about
e
L (B)sin dt
the vertical axis
dt = d Mgh r
r r
2m e p = = = r mg
dt I
 Potential energy of system

Change in orientation of relative to B r r

(
produces change in potential energy, dU = dW = d = d B )
r r
Defining orientation potential U = B = Bcos
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
U (B)

0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
r r r r
// B ()
// B
r r r r
For electron L // B L // B
 Quantum consideration
Electron bound to Hydrogen atom
L and Lz are quantized on atomic scale
Magnetic dipole moment
r e r eh
magnitude = L= l(l + 1)
2m e 2m e
e eh
z-component z = Lz = ml
2m e 2m e
Quantization of L and Lz means that and z are also quantized.
Electron has probability distribution, not classical orbit.
r r e r r e eB
U = B = LB = LzB = m l h = hL ml
2m e 2m e 2m e

Total energy E = En + hL ml = En + B Bml l, , 0, , l

Degeneracy partially broken: total energy depends on n and ml.

 Energy diagram for Z=1
l=0 l=1 l=2
E
B=0 B0 B=0 B0

-0.85eV 4s 4p 4d
-1.5eV 3s 3p 3d
n=2 n=2
-3.4eV 2s 2p B0
n=2, l=1, ml=1
n=2, l=1, ml=0
E = hL = B B n=2, l=1, ml=1

o
2,1,11, 0, 0 = o + L
2,1,01,0,0 = o A triplet spectral
lines when B0.
-13.6eV
n=1
1s 2,1, 11, 0, 0 = o L
 Normal Zeeman Effect 1896
Lorentz Zeeman
First observation of spectral line
splitting due to magnetic field.
Requires Quantum Mechanics (1926)
to explain.
1853~1928 1865~1943
1902 1902

Magnetic field present m =1

No magnetic field l
n=2, l=1 ml=0
ml=1
ho ho h L ho + h L

n=1, l=0 ml=0

 ml
2
1 l=2
n=3 0
1
2
1
n=2 0 l=1
1

Selection rule
l = 1
m l = 0,1

n=1 0 l=0

3, 2 2,1 2, 0
A triplet of equally spaced spectral lines when B0 is expected.
Normal Zeeman effect
Selection rule
eh
Energy spacing hL = B B = B =(5.7910-5 [eV/T])B[T]
2m e
For B=1Tesla, hL = 5.79 10 5 eV and L = 8.78 1010 rad/s

Mysteries :
Other splitting patterns such as four, six or even more
unequally spaced spectral lines when B0 are observed.
Anomalous Zeeman effect

Existence of electron spin

 Stern Gerlach
Electron spin
Direct observation of energy level
splitting in an imhomogeneous B field.
r r
[ r r
F = U( r ) = B ]
1888~1969
Assuming B depends only on z 1889~1979
Bx, By : constant ; Bz=B(z) only 1943
r dB
F = Fz z = z z
dz
Translational force in z-direction is proportional to
z-component of magnetic dipole moment.

Quantum prediction
r dB dB
F = z z = m l g B z
dz dz
 Ag atom in ground state

outermost
l=0, ml=0
electrons

No
Expectation
separation

Expectations for l=1 :

Bx, By : constant
Bz=B(z) only Three separate lines

Stern and Gerlach, Z. Physik 9, 349 (1922).

 Experimental results

Not zero, but two lines

No B field With B field
Two lines were observed.

Total magnetic moment is not zero.

Orbital angular momentum cannot be the source of
quantized magnetic moment. l = 0, 1

Same result for Hydrogen atom (1927) : two lines were observed
Phipps and Taylor
 B-field off: B-field on:
No splitting Two peaks!

Gerlach's postcard, dated 8 February 1922, to Niels Bohr. It shows a

photograph of the beam splitting, with the message, in translation: Attached
[is] the experimental proof of directional quantization. We congratulate [you]
on the confirmation of your theory.
1925, Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck Goudsmit Uhlenbeck

proposed that electron carries

intrinsic angular momentum. spin

Experimental result requires

1
2s + 1 = 2 s= 1902~1978 1900~1988

2 spin quantum number

New angular momentum operator S

1
[S z ] e = ms he = he
2
[ ]2 2 1 3 2
S e = s(s + 1)h e = h e
2 2
Both cannot be changed in any way. Intrinsic property
 Electron Spin
z The new kind of angular momentum is called the electron SPIN.
Why call it spin?
z If the electron were spinning on its axis, it would have angular momentum
and a magnetic moment regardless of its spatial motion.
However, this spinning ball picture is not realistic, because it would
require that the tiny electron be spinning so fast that parts would travel
faster than c !
So we cannot picture the spin in any simple way the electrons spin
is simply another degree-of-freedom available to electron

B0
B=0 +sB
E = 2s|B| B
sB
s = 9.2848 1024 J/Tesla -- electron magnetic moment
B = eh/2me = 9.2741 1024 J/Tesla (the "Bohr Magneton" related to orbital motion)

Note: All particles have spin (e.g., protons, neutrons, quarks, photons)
 Image of Spinning Electron
Convenient to picture electron spin as
the result of spinning charge distribution.

Spin is a quantum property.

Electron is a point-like object

with no internal coordinates.
Magnetic dipole moment
r g ee r
s = S
2m e
ge : electron gyromagnetic ratio =2.0023 by measurement
Agree with prediction from
Quantum Electrodynamics
r
Only two allowed orientations of spin vector S
 Recent Breakthrough
Detection of a single electron spin!
z (Nature July 15, 2004) -- IBM scientists
achieved a breakthrough in nanoscale
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by
directly detecting the faint magnetic
signal from a single electron buried
inside a solid sample.
Nature 430, 329 (2004).

Next step detection of single nuclear spin (660x smaller).

 zSo, we need FOUR quantum numbers to specify the
electronic state of a hydrogen atom
zn, l , ml, ms (where ms = 1/2 and +1/2)

Complete wavefunction : product of spatial wave function

and spin wave function .
Spin wave function : eigenfunction of [Sz] and [S2]

2
[ ]
[S z ] = 1 h S 2 = 3 h 2
4

Wavefunction states Eigenvalues

r n=1,2,3,. En=13.6(z/n)2eV
e ( r ,) = Rnl (r )Ylm ( , ) l=0,1,2,, n-1 L = l(l + 1)h
ml=0,1,2,, l Lz = mlh
ms=1/2 Sz = m s h
Degeneracy in the absence of magnetic field :
Each state l has 2(2l+1) degenerate states. n 1
2 (2l + 1)
Each state n has 2n2 degenerate states. l =0
In the strong magnetic fields,
Taking spin contribution into account
r r r
L and S precess independently around B
r r r r eh
U = L B s B =
eB
(L z + g eSz ) = (m l + g e m s )B
2m e 2m e

For an electron (ge=2)

eh
spin up ms=1/2 U = (m l + 1)B
2m e ml=0,1,2,, l
eh
spin down ms=1/2 U = (m l 1)B
2m e
ehB
For a given ml, U U U = 2 = 2h L
2m e
Contribution to energy shifts.
 Magnetic field present ml=1, ms=1/2
ml=1 ml=0, ms=1/2
ml=0 ml=1, ms=m1/2
ml=1 ml=0, ms=1/2
ml=1, ms=1/2

ho h L ho + h L

ml=0, ms=1/2
n=1,ml=0
ml=0, ms=1/2
The spin-orbit interaction
In the absence of magnetic field, internal field generated by
electron motion (proportional to orbital angular momentum) will
interact with spin dipole moment.
r r Frame of electron
when L is parallel with S r r
r LB
S
Frame of nucleus Zp e r g ee r
r s = S
2m e
r L
S Nucleus circulates around electron
B-field due to nuclear motion
Zp
e Orbital dipole moment is anti-parallel
with spin dipole moment.
r r
U = s B >0
higher energy state
 r r Frame of electron
when L is anti - parallel with S r r
LB
r g ee r
s = S
Frame of nucleus Zp e r 2m e
S
Nucleus circulates around electron
B-field due to nuclear motion
Zp
e Orbital dipole moment is parallel with
spin dipole moment.
r r
U = s B <0
r r
lower energy state LS r
s
2p3/2
2p
(
r r
)
Ze 2 g e 1 2p1/2
U LS = LS r r
4 o 2 4m e c r
2 2 3
1s s S
r r
Neither L nor S is conserved separately.
 r
Defining total angular momentum magnitude J = j( j + 1)h
r r r
J = L+S z-component Jz = m jh
Square of total angularr momentum
r r ( )
r 2 r r 2 r2 r 2
J = L + S = L + S + 2L S
r r
r r J 2 L2 S2
L S =
2
r r h2 3
U LS L S = j( j + 1) l(l + 1)
Energy shifts due to
spin-orbit interaction 2 4

Back to 2p state ml=1, ms=1/2

z z 3 Projections :
ms=1/2
r mj=3/2 j=
S 2 mj=3/2,1/2,1/2,3/2
ml=1 r
L r z z
J r
ml=1 r S 1
ms=1/2 L mj=1/2 j=
r 2
J Projections : mj=1/2,1/2
 How to determine j and mj ?
1
Since Jz=Lz+Sz m j = ml + m s = ml
2
Range for j obtained from extremes of aligned and anti-aligned
r r
L and S
r r 1
Aligned Both L and S with maximum z orientations j=l+
2
Possible projections : mj=l+1/2, l+1/2-1, , (l+1/2)
r r 1
Anti-aligned Both L and S with maximum z orientations j=l
2
Possible projections : mj=l-1/2, l+1/2-1, , (l-1/2)
 3
Spin-orbital energy shift U LS = U o j( j + 1) l(l + 1)
4

3 3 3
E (2p ) = E + U o + 1 1(1 + 1) =1
4
2p3/2 j=3/2,l=1,s=1/2 3/2 2
2 2
1 1 3
2p1/2 j=1/2,l=1,s=1/2 E(2p1/2 ) = E 2 + U o + 1 1(1 + 1) =2
2 2 4
1 1 3
2s1/2 j=1/2,l=0,s=1/2 E(2s1/2 ) = E 2 + U o + 1 0(1 + 1) =0
2 2 4

For a hydrogen atom, Uo=1.510-5eV

B=0 B0, but small mj

3/2
(4) 2p3/2 j=3/2,l=1 1/2
1/2
ms=1/2 (2) 2s1/2 j=1/2,l=0 3/2
1/2
2s,2p 1/2
(8)
1/2
1/2
(2) 2p1/2 j=1/2,l=1
Spectroscopic notation

2s +1
L j
symbol
l=0 s sharp
l=1 p principle
l=2 d diffuse
l=3 f fundamental
l=4 g
l=5 h
l=6 i
 Pauli
Pauli Exclusion Principle
1900~1958
From spectra of complex atoms, 1945
Wolfgang Pauli (1925) deduced a new rule:

Pauli Exclusion Principle

In a given atom, no two electrons* can be in the same quantum state, i.e.
they cannot have the same set of quantum numbers n, l , ml, ms
-- i.e., every atomic orbital with n, l , ml can hold 2 electrons: ()

z Therefore, electrons do not pile up in the lowest energy state, i.e,

the (1,0,0) orbital.
They are distributed among the higher energy levels
according to the Pauli Principle.
Particles that obey the Pauli Principle are called fermions

*Note: More generally, no two identical fermions (any particle with

spin of /2, 3/2, etc.) can be in the same quantum state.
 Two particles is an infinite quantum well of length L
2 n n h
2 2 2
Review : single particle solution n ( x ) = sin x with E n =
L L 2mL2

2 4
1 (x 1 ) = sin x1
particle 1 is at n1=4 state L L
Assuming
particle 2 is at n2=3 state 2 3
2 (x 2 ) = sin x2
L L

What is the solution for the two particle system ?

(x1 , x 2 ) ? (x ) (x ) =
= 1 1 2 2 2 4 2
sin x1
L L L L
3
sin x2

Right or False
distinguishable or indistinguishable
 e.g. P , P ,
L L L L
Case (I) distinguishable 2 4 4 2

(x1 , x 2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x 2 ) = 2 4 2
sin x1
L L L L
3
sin x2

4 2 4 2 3
Probability density P(x1 , x 2 ) = (x1 , x 2 )
2
= 2 sin x1 sin x 2
L L L

L
, x2 = 0
x2=L/2 2
L
P , x 2 = 0
2

L 2 4
x1 , = sin x1
2 L L
x1=L/2 L 4 2 4
P x1 , = 2 sin x1
2 L L
Case (II) indistinguishable (x1 , x 2 ) = (x 2 , x1 )
2 2

Probability density must be unchanged if particles are switched.

1
[ 1 (x1 ) 2 (x 2 ) + 1 (x 2 ) 2 (x1 )]
(x1 , x 2 ) = 1
2

[ 1 (x1 ) 2 (x 2 ) 1 (x 2 ) 2 (x1 )]
2

1 2 4 3 3 4
S (x1 , x 2 ) = sin x1 sin x 2 + sin x1 sin x 2
2 L L L L L

1 2 4 3 3 4
A (x1 , x 2 ) = sin x1 sin x 2 sin x1 sin x 2
2 L L L L L
32 2 h 2 4 2 2 h 2 25 2 h 2
Eigenvalue E= 2
+ 2
=
2mL 2mL 2mL2
 S (x1 , x 2 ) = S (x 2 , x1 ) PS (x1 , x 2 ) = PS (x 2 , x1 )
However,
A (x1 , x 2 ) = A (x 2 , x1 ) PA (x1 , x 2 ) = PA (x 2 , x1 )

Any crucial difference between PS(x1, x2) and PA(x1, x2) ?

The particles are on average farther apart in an antisymmetric spatial state
than they are in a symmetric one.
 Exchange Symmetry
The simplest case : Two identical particle system
indistinguishable
Suppose two particles satisfy 3D Schrdinger equations with
coordinates r1 and r2, and no interaction between them,
h2 2 r r r r r r
1 a ( r1 ) + U( r1 ) a ( r1 ) = E a a ( r1 ) = H ( r1 ) a ( r1 )
2m
h2 2 r r r r r r
2 b ( r2 ) + U(r2 ) b (r2 ) = E b b (r2 ) = H (r2 ) b ( r2 )
2m
r r r r r r
[H (r1 ) + H (r2 )] (r1 , r2 ) = E (r1 , r2 )
r r r r
(r1 , r2 ) = a (r1 ) b (r2 ) w/. E=Ea+Eb
Particle a has energy Ea and particle b has energy Eb.
r r r r Distinguishable
Interchange particles r1 r2 (r2 , r1 ) = a (r2 ) b (r1 ) solution
Particle a has energy Eb and particle b has energy Ea.
 Try combination of the two wave functions
r r 1 r r r r
(r1 , r2 ) = [ a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + a (r2 ) b (r1 )] also solutions of
2 Schrdinger Eq.
r r 1 r r r r
(r1 , r2 ) = [ a (r1 ) b (r2 ) a (r2 ) b (r1 )] w/. E=Ea+Eb
2
r r r r r r 1 r r r r
[H (r1 ) + H (r2 )] (r1 , r2 ) = [H (r1 ) + H (r2 )] [ a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + a (r2 ) b (r1 )]
1 r r 2r r r r
= [H (r1 ) a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + H (r1 ) a (r2 ) b (r1 )]
2
1 r r r r r r
+ [H (r2 ) a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + H (r2 ) a (r2 ) b (r1 )]
2
1 r r r r
= [E a a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + E b a (r2 ) b (r1 )]
2
1 r r r r
+ [E b a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + E a a (r2 ) b (r1 )]
2
1 r r r r r r
= (E a + E b ) [ a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + a (r2 ) b (r1 )] = (E a + E b ) (r1 , r2 )
2
Interchange particles r1 r2
r r 1 r r r r
(r1 , r2 ) = [ a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + a (r2 ) b (r1 )]
S 2 Identical !
r r 1 r r r r
(r2 , r1 ) = [ a (r2 ) b (r1 ) + a (r1 ) b (r2 )]
2
symmetric

r r 1 r r r r
A(r1 , r2 ) = [ a (r1 ) b (r2 ) a (r2 ) b (r1 )]
2
r r 1 r r r r r r
(r2 , r1 ) = [ a (r2 ) b (r1 ) a (r1 ) b (r2 )] = (r1 , r2 )
2
anti-symmetric
Both satisfy the Exchange Symmetry Principles
r r 2 r r 2
(r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r1 ) No observable difference
For both the symmetric and antisymmetric total eigenfunctions,
the probability density function are not changed
by an exchange of the particle labels.
 A two electron system : such as the Helium atom

h 2 2 r 2e( e ) r r
r
a ( r1 ) 1 a ( r1 ) + a (r1 ) = E a a (r1 )
2m e 4 o r1
r r
2e+ h(1) a ( r1 ) = E a a ( r1 )
h 2
r 2e( e ) r r
r
b (r2 ) 2 b ( r2 ) +
2
b (r2 ) = E b b (r2 )
2m 4 o r2
r r
h(2) b ( r2 ) = E b b ( r2 )
r r 1 r r r r
S (r1 , r2 ) = [ a (r1 ) b (r2 ) + a (r2 ) b (r1 )]
2
r r 1 r r r r
(
A r1 , r2 =) [ ( ) ( ) (
a r1 b r2 a r2 b r1 ) ( )] Pauli exclusion
principle
2

Total wave (rr ) = r A for Fermions

space ( r )
function
spin
S for Bosons
The symmetry character of various particles

particle symmetry Spin (s)

Electron Antisymmetric 1/2
Fermion
Positron Antisymmetric 1/2 half-integer spin
Proton Antisymmetric 1/2
Neutron Antisymmetric 1/2
Muon Antisymmetric 1/2
particle symmetric 0
Boson
He atom (G) symmetric 0 zero or integer spin
meson symmetric 0
Photon symmetric 1
Deuteron symmetric 1
Ex. Ground state of the Helium atom

Construct explicitly the two electron ground state wave function

for the Helium atom in the independently particle approximation.
Each Helium electron sees only the
doubly charged Helium nucleus.
Hydrogen like atom with the lowest energy, Z=2
3/ 2
1 2
100 (r ) = e 2r a o w/. energy E1=22(13.6eV)
ao
Total eigenfunction= (space eigenfunction) (spin eigenfunction)
r r
a (r1 ) = 100 (r1 ) 1/ 2 100 (r1 )
r

r r r and Ea= Eb=54.4eV

b (r2 ) = 100 ( r2 ) 1/ 2 100 (r2 )

Experimentally, 24.6eV
Space eigenfunction
r r 1 r r r r
S (r1 , r2 ) = [ 100 (r1 ) 100 (r2 ) + 100 (r2 ) 100 (r1 )]
2 E=108.8eV
r r 1 r r r r
A (r1 , r2 ) = [ 100 (r1 ) 100 (r2 ) 100 (r2 ) 100 (r1 )]
2
Spin eigenfunction

A =
1
2
[(
+ 1 , 1 1 ,+ 1
2 2 2
)(
2
)] Singlet
state
s=0, ms=0

(+ 1 ,+ 1 )
2 2
m =1 s

S
1
=
2
[(+ 1 , 1 )+ ( 1 , + 1 )]
2 2 2 2
m =0 s
Triplet
state


( 1 2 , 12 ) m =1
s=1, ms=0, 1

s
The ground state : only one choice 1S2, spin singlet E=108.8eV
r r r r 1 r r r r
A ( r1 , r2 ) = s ( r1 , r2 ) A = [ 100+ (r1 ) 100 (r2 ) 100+ (r2 ) 100 (r1 )]
2
The first excited state : 1S2S and E=13.6eV[(4/1)+(4/4)]=68eV

E (eV)

data
expectation S
-50 n=1, l=0; n=2, l=1
T

n=1; n=2 S n=1, l=0; n=2, l=0

-70 T

singlet
n=1, l=0;
-90 n=1, l=0

n=1; n=1
-110
Electron interactions and Screening effects
r r ( e )( e )
Helium atom H ( r1 , r2 ) ?
= h(1) + h(2) +
4 o r1 r2
Each electron sees not only the attractive Helium nucleus
but also the other electron.
Repulsive interaction weakens the attractive potential.

Is the charge of nucleus +2e from electrons point of view ?

Inner electrons screen the positive charge of nucleus and
hence, reduce the effective Z and the attractive potential.
smaller negative
Especially, for multi-electron atoms. potential energy

Energy is lower for lower l/ more-elliptical orbits.

Fill electrons to states : according to the lowest value of n+l
with preference given to n
 Build a multiple electron atom
Chemical properties of an atom are
determined by the least tightly bound electrons.

Occupancy of subshell
Energy separation between the subshell and the next higher subshell

s shell Helium and Neon and

n l=0
Argon are inert
their outer subshell
1 is closed.

2 p shell
l=1
3
Hydrogen: (n, l, m, ms) = (1, 0, 0, ) in ground state.
In the absence of a magnetic field, the state ms = is degenerate
with the ms = state.

Helium: (1, 0, 0, ) for the first electron.

(1, 0, 0, ) for the second electron.
Electrons have anti-aligned spins (ms = + and ms = ) .

The principle quantum number has letter codes.

n= 1 2 3 4...
n = shells (eg: K shell, L shell, etc.)
Letter = K L M N

How many electrons may be in each subshell?

Total
For each m: two values of ms 2
For each l : (2 l + 1) values of m 2(2l + 1)

l = 0 1 2 3 4 5
nl = subshells (e.g.: 1s, 2p, 3d)
Letter = s p d f g h
1s
1s2
1s22s
1s22s2
1s22s22p1
1s22s22p2
1s22s22p3
1s22s22p4
1s22s22p5

1s22s22p6
1s22s22p63s
1s22s22p63s2
Energies of orbital subshells increase with increasing l.
 n+l
The lower l values have more elliptical orbits
8
than the higher l values.
8
Electrons with higher l values are more shielded 7
from the nuclear charge.
Electrons lie higher in energy than those with 7
6
lower l values.
6
4s fills before 3d. 6
5
7s 7p 7d 7f 7g 7h 7i 5
6s 6p 6d 6f 6g 6h 5
4
5s 5p 5d 5f 5g
4
4s 4p 4d 4f 3
3s 3p 3d
3
2s 2p 2
1s
1
Groups:
Vertical columns.
Same number of
electrons in an l orbit.
Can form similar
chemical bonds.

Periods:
Horizontal rows.
Correspond to filling
of the subshells.
Inert Gases:
z Last group of the periodic table
z Closed p subshell except helium
z Zero net spin and large ionization energy
z Their atoms interact weakly with each other

Alkalis:
z Single s electron outside an inner core
z Easily form positive ions with a charge +1e
z Lowest ionization energies
z Electrical conductivity is relatively good

Alkaline Earths:
z Two s electrons in outer subshell
z Largest atomic radii
z High electrical conductivity
Halogens:
z Need one more electron to fill outermost subshell
z Form strong ionic bonds with the alkalis
z More stable configurations occur as the p subshell is filled

Transition Metals:
z Three rows of elements in which the 3d3 , 4d
4 , and 5d
5 are being filled
z Properties primarily determined by the s electrons, rather than by the
d subshell being filled
z Have d-shell electrons with unpaired spins
z As the d subshell is filled, the magnetic moments, and the tendency
for neighboring atoms to align spins are reduced
Lanthanides (rare earths): Z=57~Z=70
z Have the outside 6s2 subshell completed
z As occurs in the 3d subshell, the electrons in the 4f subshell have
unpaired electrons that align themselves
z The large orbital angular momentum contributes to the large
ferromagnetic effects

Actinides: Z=89~Z=102
z Inner subshells are being filled while the 7s2 subshell is complete
z Difficult to obtain chemical data because they are all radioactive
z Have longer half-lives
 X-ray spectra and Moseleys law
Target :W Moseley

1887~1915

series of sharp lines: characteristic spectrum

Characteristic of the target material
1913 Moseley measured characteristic X-ray spectra of 40 elements.
Observed series of X-ray energy levels
called K, L, M, etc.
Analogous to optical series for Hydrogen
(e.g. Lyman, Balmer, Paschen)
Rigaku Miniflex X-ray tube Target : Cu
The characteristic spectrum Hole in K-shell
discovered by Bragg
systematized by Moseley
Ejected
K-shell electron

Scattered
Incident incident electron
electron

The characteristic peak is created Hole in L-shell

when a hole in the inner shell
created by a collision event is filled
by an electron from higher energy
shell.
X-ray
When a K-shell electron be knocked out, the vacancy can be
filled by an electron from L-shell (K radiation) or
the M-shell (K radiation).

O n=5
N N
N n=4
M M M
M n=3

L L L L
L n=2

K K K K K

K n=1
 Moseley plot

K series : n=2,3, to n=1

hc 1
EK = (
= 13.6eV1 2 z 1)2
Re L series
n
L series : n=3,4, to n=2 L
hc 1 1 Pm
= 13.6eV 2 2 ( z 7.4 )
2
EL =
2 n
n+1 n
n+2 n Tc
K
n+3 n
: n+4 n
K series
: n+5 n
Mo, z=42 K
1
E K = 13.6eV1 2 (42 1) = 17.15keV
2

2
= 7.23 10 11 m
Phil. Mag. (1913), p. 1024