Cutting processes I

Cutting Cutting processes

~ Process planning, Cost, Quality, Rate and Flexibility

Processes I
Reading assignment:
Modeling: Orthogonal cutting
~ Video, geometry, forces and power

~ 20.1 20.3, 20.5 Demonstration

Cutting equipment/tools

Design for Manufacturing: Cutting

Process variation

Material removal processes

Mechanical removal processes
Market Conceptual Design for
research design manufacture ~ Milling Turning Shaping

~ Grinding Broaching

Unit mfg. Others

processes
~ Thermal Electrochemical Chemical
Machining
Assembly Injection molding
Casting
Welding
Stamping
In general:
Factory, systems Bolting Forging
& enterprise Cost Flexibility Quality Rate
Riveting Others
Expensive Complex shapes Depends Slow
Soldering
Others

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Understanding what is going on Process planning & cutting process
Key issues
~ How does cutting work?

~ Linking the Cost, Flexibility, Quality and Rate to process parameters Today Next Next2
Settings: Materials: Equipment:
- Speed - Tool - Tool geometry
- Tool orientation - Coating - Machine tool
- Feed/depth - Lubricant - Fixture
Available methods to design process parameters:
~ Analytic Numerical Experimental
Inputs: Outputs:
- Material Cutting - Parts
- Energy - Chips
- Others Process - Energy
- Others

Steps we will take to get there Basic cutting geometries

z

Step I: z
Geometry & Tool and material
Motion
x
x
Step II:
Cutting, shearing, friction
Forces y
y
Orthogonal (2D) Oblique (3D)
Specific energy Step III:
Material &
Cutting, shearing, friction Power Orthogonal Provides insight for understanding

Oblique Complex, diminishing returns

Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

2
Orthogonal cutting in a lathe Orthogonal cutting zone geometry
Important Angles tc
- Shear angle:
- Rake angle:
- Relief angle: Chip
Shear plane +
Motion
w
Tool
to

Work piece

Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

Velocity diagram of cutting zone

Need velocities to obtain power estimates t

90+
Vc c

CUTTING VIDEO

90
Vs

Chip

Vc
Key issue: V

~Motion and material flow V Vs Vc Tool

= =
sin ( )
sin + sin V Vs
~Types of chips 2 2

~How chip type relates to material V

=
Vs
=
Vc
cos( ) cos( ) sin ( )

Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

3
Cutting ratio, r Analysis of shear strain
From mass conservation: d x
A
to w V = tc w Vc a b

tc

From velocity diagram:

Chip d
V Vc c
=
cos( ) sin ( ) +
x bc + cd
= = = cot ( ) + tan ( )
w A ac 90
Tool b
Cutting ratio:
to a
Vc to sin ( )
= =r= What does this mean:
V tc cos( )
Work piece
~ =

Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

Cutting forces and power Cutting forces

Why do we need to know the cutting force/power? Forces: t

~ Designing parts / machine tools (power and stiffness) ~ Thrust Ft

~ Cutting Fc Chip Ft c
~ Part, machine and tool deflection
~ Friction Ff
+
~ Trade offs in process planning, CFQR ~ Tool normal N Ff
Fc
~ Equipment suitability ~ Shear Fs
N
~ Chip normal Fn
~ Others.
Tool
Fs

Fn
Work piece

Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

4
Merchants diagram: Force relationships Cutting and thrust forces
Shear plane forces: Ft = Fc tan ( ) Fc

Fs = Fc cos( ) Ft sin ( )
R
Ff R ~ < tool is pulled into part
Ft
Fn = Fc sin ( ) + Ft cos( )
R
Fs Ft
N Fc ~ > tool is pushed away Ff
Fn
R ~ = no thrust force

Fs
Tool-chip forces: N

Fc F f = Fc sin ( ) + Ft cos( )
Use high for thin cuts?
Fn N = Fc cos( ) Ft sin ( )
R
Ft
Ff
Ff

= = tan ( )
N

N Typcially : 0.5 < < 2
Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

and s Merchants relationship

Magnitude of shear stress varies with angle of shear plane Merchants assumption:
Fs Fc cos( ) Ft sin ( )
s = = ~ Shear angle adjusts to maximize s
As to w
sin ( )
Fs Fc cos( ) Ft sin ( ) Ft
= tan ( )
s = =
max 35 degrees
Shear stress along shear plane As to w Fc
0.61 radians
100000 sin ( )
Fc 225 lbf
20 degrees 90000
0.35 radians 80000 d s F F
= c cos2 ( ) sin 2 ( ) t 2 sin ( ) cos( ) = c cos(2 ) t sin (2 )
40 degrees
F F
d to w
70000
0.70 radians
60000
Fc to w Fc
s [psi]

to 0.015 inches
cos(2 ) Ft cos(2 ) sin ( )
w 0.075 inches 50000
s d s
70021 psi 40000 =0 =0=
30000 d sin (2 ) Fc sin (2 ) cos( )
20000
10000 cos(2 ) cos( ) sin (2 ) sin ( ) = 0 = cos(2 + )
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
2 + = = + Merchants relationship [radians]
[degrees] 2 4 2 2
Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

5
The use of Merchants relationship Power/energy requirements
What happens to energy you put in?

= + Merchants relationship [radians]
~ Shear
4 2 2
~ Friction
As rake angle or as friction angle ~ Others?
Chip

~ Shear angle

~ Chip thickness

~ Energy dissipation via shear Tool

~ Heat generation

~ Temperature
Work piece

Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

Specific energy (table from Kalpajkian) Power and specific energy

Energy Specific energies to consider:
us =
Volume certain conditions Shear + Friction + Others = Total
Fs Vs F f Vc Fc V
Approximate Energy Requirements in Cutting Operations us = uf = Others ut =
w to V w to V w to V
Assumed for 80 % motor efficiency
J / mm3 s Vs
us =
Aluminum alloys 0.40 1.10 sin ( ) V
Copper alloys 1.40 3.30
Cast irons 1.60 5.50 us = s
Steels 2.70 9.30
Stainless steels 3.00 5.20 ~75% ~20% ~5% 100%

Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power Geometry & Motion Forces Material & Energy/Power

6
 Cutting processes II
Cutting processes

Cutting ~ Process planning, Cost, Quality, Rate and Flexibility

Modeling: Orthogonal Cutting

Processes II ~ Video, geometry, forces and power

Demonstration

Reading assignment: Equipment and tools

20.6 20.8
~
Design for Manufacturing
~ 21.1 21.6, 21.13
Process variation

Process planning & cutting process

Market Conceptual Design for
research design manufacture
Last Today Next
Settings: Materials: Equipment:
- Speed - Tool - Tool geometry
- Tool orientation - Coating - Machine tool
Unit mfg. - Feed/depth - Lubricant - Fixture
processes

Machining Inputs: Outputs:

Assembly Injection molding - Material Cutting - Parts
- Energy - Chips
Welding
Casting
Stamping
- Others Process - Energy
Factory, systems - Others
Bolting Forging
& enterprise
Riveting Others
Soldering
Others

7
Review: Cutting forces Merchants minimum energy assumption
Forces: t Assumption: adjusts to value that minimizes cutting energy
~ Thrust Ft ~ If Energy need to cut is minimized, Fc is minimized for a given V

~ Cutting Fc Chip Ft c (E cut ) = P cut = Fc V
t
~ Friction Ff
+ Minimize Minimized Minimized Constant
~ Tool normal N Ff
Fc ~ Fc is minimum when shear plane is plane of maximum shear stress
~ Shear Fs
N Example: Fc = minimum and s = maximum for = 35o (for same and )
~ Chip normal Fn ~

Fc dependance on of s on shear plane if shear plane at

1000 80000
Tool 900
70000
Fs 800
60000
700
600 50000

s [psi]
Fc [lbf]
Fn 500
400
40000

30000
Work piece 300
20000
200
10000
100
0 0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
[degrees] [degrees]

Merchants relationship Review: Power and specific energy

Merchants relationship: Specific energies to consider:

~ = + Shear energy + Friction energy + Others = Total energy
4 2 2
~ It is an idealization, not always accurate, BUT the trend is consistent Fs Vs F f Vc Fc V
us = uf = Others ut =
w to V w to V w to V

s Vs
us =
sin ( ) V

us = s

~75% ~20% ~5% 100%

Chart adapted from: Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, Stephenson and Agapiou

8
 Caution on modeling and reality
Our assumptions:
~ Slow, orthogonal cutting
Plastically
Deformed ~ Material properties invariant

Chip ~ Constant temperature

+ ~ Simple sliding friction

~ No strain hardening
Not deformed Vchip Fc

Fs V Use our analysis for:

Ff
Vs
~ Trends & building intuition

~ Basis for detailed study

Chip types (source: Kalpajkian) Chip types (source: Kalpajkian)

A) Continuous chip with narrow primary shear zone D) Continuous chip with build up edge (BUE)
~ Ductile materials @ high speed ~ High plastic working and bad for automation

~ Bad for automation (use chip breakers)

E) Serrated chip:
B) Secondary shear zone at chip-tool interface ~ Low thermal conductivity materials

~ Secondary shear zone -> increased energy dissipation

F) Discontinuous chip (good chips)
~ Low ductility materials and/or negative rake angles
A B
D E F

Source: Kalpajkian Source: Kalpajkian

9
 Example
Given:
~ to w Plathe

CUTTING Find:
~ Velocity at which lathe stalls

DEMONSTRATION ~ Cutting force

Cutting tool requirements

Maintain:
~ Hardness at operating temperature

TOOL
~ Toughness

~ Low wear rate

MATERIALS Should be easy to repair/sharpen

AND TOOL WEAR Tool-part combination should be chemically inert

~ Diamond and steel.

10
Cutting tool characteristics Cutting tools: Geometry
Why do we worry about tool wear?
~ Tool can cease to cut Dimensional accuracy

~ Surface finish Cutting force/power

~ Cost Flexibility Rate Quality

Is a function of many parameters

~ Coolant Geometry Lubricant Process parameters

Cutting tools: Geometry Tooling hardness and temperature

Things to note:
~ Performance

~ Rate of change

time

Source: Kalpajkian Source: Kalpajkian

11
Temperature and wear Tool wear up close
Diffusion is thought to dominate crater wear Crater wear affected by same parameters as flank wear

In addition:
This is a function of temperature
~ Material affinity and temperature

Flank wear

Source: Kalpajkian Depth of cut Crater wear Source: Kalpajkian

Taylors wear relationship (flank wear) Defining tool failure

Relationship between tool life and cutting speed Wear snowballs to set limit
~ Use to set optimum cutting speed for CFRQ

~ Represents a given wear condition

Force/power increase to set limit
~ Define wear condition for failure

Surface finish becomes unacceptable

Wear land size for given process

Source: Kalpajkian

12
Taylors wear relationship (flank wear) Taylors tool life curves (Experimental)
C = constant & n = exponent (from experimental data) Coefficient n varies from:
v tn = C Steels Ceramics Source: Kalpajkian

v = cutting velocity ( fpm ) t = time to failure (min) 0.1 0.7

v tn = C

v = cutting velocity ( fpm )

t = time to failure (min)

As n , wear is less sensitive to cutting speed

Source: Kalpajkian

Preventing tool failure with coatings

Tools may be coated for many reasons:
~ Chemically inert

CUTTING
~ Temperature resistance

~ Surface energy/specific energy Multi-phase coating

Layers 10 m thick

PROCESS
~ Low friction

Common coatings
~

~
Titanium nitride (TiN)

Cubic boron nitride (cBN)

DFM
~ Multi-phase coatings

13
DFM for cutting: Surface roughness Finish by process (source = machinery handbook)
Surface roughness:
~ Definition

Depends on :
~ Mass removed

~ Size of tool

~ Cutter

~ Speed

DFM for cutting: Part geometry DFM for cutting: Ala features
Thin sections and tubes (vibration) Use common dimensions / parts / shapes / sizes
~ Proper tolerance

~ Use common/important datums

Overhanging parts
~ Standard features (i.e. dont use octagon shaped holes)

Inclined planes and drilling.

14
DFM for cutting: Ala tooling DFM for cutting: Ala equipment
Avoid deep pockets and holes Beware of fixturing needs
~ Minimize number of fixture cycles

~ Design an interface for part-fixture

Design should include real shape tool makes

~ Tapped holes Machine and tool access to create features

~ Pocket corners

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