Note Module 1 & 3

[AR12 42 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTURAL SYSTEM- II] 1
The glass
The glass is one of the most surprising discoveries of the man and its history is full of
mysteries. Although the historians do not have the precise data about its origin, glass objects
have been found in the Egyptian necropolis, therefore, it is thought that the glass was already
known at least 4,000 years B.C. and that it was discovered occasionally.
Some authors point the Phoenician navigators as the pioneers of the glass industry. Anchored
in a beach of Syria coast, the Phoenicians improvised a fire using saltpetre and soda and,
sometime after, they noticed that from the fire was pouring a shining substance that would
solidify immediately. There the glass was borne.
Development
Only close to the year 100 B.C., the manufacturing techniques were developed. It was when
the Romans started to blow inside moulds in the manufacturing of glass, which made possible
its series production. The apogee of this process happened on the XIII century in Venice.
After the fires provoked by the glass furnace of the time, the glass industry was transferred to
Murano, an island close to Venice. The glassware from Murano produced glass in several
colours, a milestone of the glass history and the reputation of its crystals and mirrors lives on.
Until 1900, the production of this raw material was still considered an almost secret art.
France was manufacturing glass since the Romans era. However, only in the end of the XVIII
century the industry has flourished and reached a degree of notable perfection. In the middle
of this century, the French King, Louis XIV, gathered some glass masters and created the
Company Saint-Gobain, so that the mirrors for the Palace of Versailles in France were made,
one of the most ancient companies of the world, today, a private company.
The modern industry of the glass emerged with the industrial revolution and the
mechanization of the processes. In 1952, in England, Pilkington developed the process to
produce the Float glass, also known as crystal, which caused a revolution in the technology of
this prosperous industry.
Definition
Glass is an inorganic, homogeneous and amorphous substance obtained through the cooling
of a molten mass. Its main qualities are the transparency and hardness. The glass has
uncountable applications in the most varied industries, given its inalterability characteristics,
hardness, resistance and thermal, optical and acoustic properties, becoming one of the few
materials yet irreplaceable, being every time more present in the technological development
researches for the well-being of the man.
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Qualities & Features
Recyclability
Transparency (permeable to light)
Hardness
Non absorbance
Great dielectric insulator
Low thermal conductivity
Abundant resources in the nature
Durability
Composition of Glass
its not a single compound and its difficult to give it a particular chemical formula
commonly expressed as combination of alkali oxides, metal oxides and silica dioxides
aX2O, bYO, 6SiO2
Where,
a, b are no. of molecules;
X is an atom of an alkali metal i.e. Na, K etc.
Y is an atom of a bivalent metal i.e. Ca, Pb
etc. For example,
Soda-lime Glass - Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2
Potash-lead Glass - K2O, PbO, 6SiO2
Important properties of glass
1. Absorbs, refracts and transmits light

2. Amorphous substance having no definite crystalline structure which makes it easy to
fuse it and mould it as many times as possible
3. No sharp melting point
4. Does not react with water and other atmospheric agents but is affected by alkalis
5. Characteristics, both physical and chemical, vary considerably with addition of other
materials (B2O3, if added with glass makes its alkali resistant)
6. Excellent electrical insulator at elevated temperatures
7. Easy to clean and maintain it from stains
8. Easy to add colour to glass
9. Considerable compressive strength up to certain point but does not deform but breaks
highly brittle substance
10. Thermal conductivity is less
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Manufacturing of Glass
Stage I Collection of raw materials depending on the type of the glass
Say, Soda-lime Glass preparation needs Chalk (CaO), Soda ash (Na2O) and Clean
sand (SiO2)
Collets in the form of waste glass or broken glass are added to increase the fusibility
as well as to prevent the loss of alkali through volatilisation.
Decolourisers are also added to eliminate the yellowish tint of Ferric Oxides and
greenish tint of Ferrous Oxides Antimony Oxide, Arsenic Oxide, Cobalt Oxide,
Manganese Oxide, Nickel Oxide are the most commonly used decolourisers.
Stage II Preparation of batch
- By adding ingredients in correct proportion, and
- mixing them uniformly
Stage III Melting in furnace
- In pot furnace or tank furnace depending on the scale of operation small scale in
pot and large scale in tank furnace
- Refractory lining of fire clay
Stage IV Fabrication of glass
Float Glass makes the molten glass float over liquid tin;
Plate Glass rolled over either two layers of roller or combination of plate and rolled
Cast glass cast by pouring molten glass or pressing them in moulds
Stage V Annealing of glass
- Its of process of making glass objects cool down gradually from a very high
temperature
- Due to high thermal insulation of glass rapid cooling creates thermal stress between
inner and outer layers of glass leading to a state of strain
- Makes glass highly vulnerable to minor shocks and disturbances thus annealing is
a crucial process
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Flue method of annealing glass objects being passed through a flue with varying
temperature allowing it to cool down gradually a constant process applied for large
scale annealing.
Oven method of annealing temperature variation achieved by cooling the oven itself
from high temperature an intermittent process suitable for small scale annealing.
Test for waviness
- Apply a coating of silver on one surface protected by metallic copper film (similar
to making of mirror out of glass)
- Sketch comprising broad straight bands at 45 to the horizontal in a rectangle
waved in front of the mirror which should be vertically placed.
- Image of bands free from distortion means that the glass is free from waviness or
distortion free.
Types of glass
A. Soda lime glass
- contains 70-74 percent Silica, 8-13 percent calcium oxide and 13-28 percent
sodium oxide
- comprises of 90 percent of the glass manufactured
- used for flat glass panels, window glass and tableware
B. Lead Glass
- composition similar to soda lime glass but lead oxide replaces calcium oxide
- highly resistant to electricity
- refractive index around 2.2 characteristic sparkle in cut glass
- extensively used in manufacturing luminaries and shielding nuclear radiation
C. Boro-silicate glass
- contains 10-20 percent of boron oxide, 80-87 percent silica, and sodium oxide less
than 10 percent
- possess high shock resistance and electrical insulation properties
- low co-efficient of thermal expansion and excellent chemical stability
D. Laminated glass
- made of two or more layers of glass which are laminated to an interlayer of clear
or tinted Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB)
- resistant to shattering as the pieces remain in places after breaking

E. Tinted glass
- used for reflecting or absorbing solar radiation
- Green glass has highest day light transmittance and grey glass has the lowest
F. Coated glass
- Clear glass panel with a very thin metallic coating
- reflects heat and thermally insulates the internal space
G. Wired Glass
- Molten glass rolled with a wire mesh embedded
- resist splintering of glass even after breaking
- Wired glass has application in high temperature environment
- should satisfy flameproof requirements as per the IS
H. Coloured glass
- Various colours by incorporating Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Se etc.
Glass products
Glass Tiles
- made for the purpose of glazing, wall finish, partitions, ceilings, curtain walls and
swimming pool application
- Wide variety ranging from clear to tinted glass, plain, polished, textured,
roughened, laminated with interlays of polymers, wired etc.
Glass Fibres
- fibres made out of glass and drawn into threads

- Diameter up to 5 micron.
- contains silica 50-55 percent, calcium oxide 15-20 percent, boron oxide 8-12
percent and sodium and potassium oxide less than 1 percent
- used in gypsum plaster with epoxy resin or cement as binders
- low silica content makes them alkali resistant suitable for cement matrix composites
- glass fibre reinforced composites are extensively used in preparation of water
pipes, tanks and panels

Glass Wool
- composition similar to boro-silicate glass

- glass melted at 1500-1600 C and blown through holes of a platinum alloy plate
molten material after passing through holes is subjected to high speed gaseous jets
and the resultant woolly mass is moved over a conveyor belt
- glass wool is more cost effective than rock wool
- extensively used for thermal insulation and acoustic insulation
- glass wool used as core material in ply woods and metallic sheets or plastics used
for ceiling and partition wall panels, door shutters etc.
Glass Blocks
- glass blocks typically have compressive strength in the range of 3-4 MPa
- can be either hollow (made of two pressed glass shapes fused together into a
single unit at an elevated temperature with the air trapped inside dehydrated and
partially evacuated) or solid
- chemical composition similar to the glass used in door/window panels
- can have various colours, textures, transparency and dimension
- used mostly as partition walls where light transmission, insulation and glare
control are of major importance
- mortar used in glass block masonry is cement lime mortar where cement in 1
part, lime in 0.5 part and sand in 3 parts are used
Waste Utilisation
- glass manufacturing is a relatively environment friendly process and its offers

ample scope for reuse
- waste glass in form of cullets is fed back to glass furnaces for reuse
- this leads to significant waste minimization and lower mining of raw materials
- broken glass in powdered form is mixed with clay for moulding bricks
imparting high strength
- waste glass has application in special grade concrete the chemical resistance
increases but the compressive strength decreases
Glass Products for the Construction Sector
Glass strongly influences modern architectural design. The creative use of large windows,
glass doors, roof lights, and atria, among many other applications, makes buildings and
houses bright, airy, and inviting and energy efficient.
Uses & applications
The main uses of glass in buildings and houses are, of course, the most obvious and visible ones:
facades and windows. Today's glass products for commercial and residential buildings represent
highly developed technologies, nothing like the simple window panes of the past. Light, comfort,
well-being, style, safety and security, and sustainability are among the benefits of today's high-
performing windows and glass building facades. The ability to control heat, light, and sound
transmission to a high degree enables architects to design buildings that

have a greatly reduced impact on the environment and dwellings that are quiet, comfortable
and safe. Glass also finds application in interior decoration and furniture.
Glass in residential houses
Glass proves to be a very attractive and modern alternative to other building materials, such
as brick, polycarbonate, or wood. The more glass is used, the more natural light enters the
home. This makes the home even more pleasant and comfortable, and, with today's high-tech
glass options, this can come at no cost to security, safety, or environmental sustainability.
Glass in commercial buildings
Today's glass technologies allow large commercial buildings to be energy efficient structures
that make the most of natural daylight while protecting the environment and the climate and
conserving energy.
Interior design
Glass offers dynamic interior design solutions that can maximise the impression of light and
space, and add colour and movement to a room. High glass strength, made possible by
modern glass technology, extends the range of applications of this attractive material beyond
the merely decorative, to functional and even structural roles.
Glass in buildings: characteristics and functions
The glass used in today's window and facades does more things than many people perhaps
realise. From prime concerns like safety, security, and environmental protection to
convenient functions like self-cleaning or practical qualities like scratch resistance or design
aspects, the choices are many and varied.
Thermal insulation
Thermal insulating glass for windows and facades, also known as

"low-E" (for low-emissivity) glass, usually forms the inner pane of
an insulating glass unit (IGU). A transparent metallic coating
reflects heat back into the room rather than allowing it to escape
through the windows. At the same time, low-E glass allows solar
heat to pass into a building and warm the interior (this is known as
"passive solar heat gain").
Recent regulations call for the use of energy-efficient products to

cut CO2 emissions and protect the environment. Thermally
insulating double glazing is a way to meet national government
targets and cut domestic fuel bills.
Thermally insulating glass can be one of several desirable properties such as maintenance,
solar control, noise reduction, decorative glass and enhanced safety and security.
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Solar control
Solar control glass is glass designed to reduce or prevent solar heating of buildings. There are two
approaches that can be used: the glass is either tinted (coloured) throughout the material (called a
"body tint"), or else it has a microscopically thin and transparent coating on one side.
In the body tint approach, the colour causes the glass to absorb solar energy, which is then re-
radiated back out and away from the building. Coated glasses immediately reflect the heat
away.
These technologies reduce the solar heating that tends to take place in large buildings, and
thus reduce the need for air conditioning. It is therefore an energy-saving technology.
In dwellings it helps prevent uncomfortable overheating in conservatories and other rooms

with large areas of glazing, and it can also reduce irritating glare from direct sunlight.
Solar control glass can be combined with many other features for multifunctional glazing,
such as thermal insulation, self-cleaning, noise reduction, decorative glass and enhanced
safety and security.
Safety and security
To improve its resistance to impact and breakage, glass can be either toughened or laminated,
depending on where and how it is being used.
Toughened glass offers a distinct safety advantage, not only being less likely to break but
also, when it does break, producing very small fragments that are relatively harmless.
Laminated glass can be made so strong that it is practically impossible to break, making it
feasible to use glass wherever desired, even where high security requirements apply,
including bullet-resistant applications. In the case of breakage, fragments adhere to the
flexible "interlayer" between glass layers, reducing the chance of injuries.
These features can be combined with other glass functions for additional comfort: thermal
insulation, solar control, acoustic insulation, low-maintenance and decorative glass.
Fire resistance
A range of fire-resistant glass types is available that offers increasing levels of protection,
which is measured in defined time periods (30, 60, 90, 120, 180 minutes). Fire-resistant glass
must meet strict levels of integrity and insulation, or integrity only which are set down by
European CE standards. Fire-resistant glass must always be specified as part of a tested and
approved glazing system and installed by specialists to be sure of reaching expected fire
performance, if required.

Noise control
Acoustically insulating glazing can be a major contributor to comfort levels in buildings and
houses. Its benefits are greatest for people living or working near busy high streets, urban
traffic, motorways, railway lines and airports,
or on a flight path.
The acoustic glass in a double-glazed unit

uses a special interlayer that acts as a
dampening core so that sound energy is
effectively blocked from passing from the
outside to the inside pane of glass.
Acoustic glass can be combined with many

other products for multifunctional glazing,
such as thermal insulation, solar control, and
self-cleaning glass.
Decorative: interior design
Glass can transform living spaces and work

environments. A wide range of effects, patterns and
colours allows interior designers endless possibilities in
look and atmosphere. Glass can be combined with stone,
wood or metal for a strong visual and tactile effect. In
offices and other professional settings, glass offers a
fresh, light yet serious aesthetic and has the advantage of
being a material that wears exceptionally well and is
impervious to moisture and most cleaning products.
Self-cleaning glass
Self-cleaning glass has been coated with a special dual function layer that harnesses the
elements to which windows and facades are exposed - namely the sun and rain - to break
down and wash away dirt. This first function is photo-catalytic; in other words, it is activated
by light to break down the dirt that collects on it. The second function is to spread rain water
evenly over the glass. Most glass is hydrophobic (water repellent), causing water to bead into
droplets before it runs off, thus touching only a fraction of the surface. The hydrophilic self-
cleaning coating prevents this beading into droplets, causing water to run across the entire
surface, washing away the components that the dirt has been broken down into.
Glass building blocks
Glass blocks have been around for a long time. The first glass blocks were handmade solid
blocks used to draw light into cellars. Today, the glass block plays a leading role not only in
conventional construction, but also in interior design. Available in an extensive range of
colours, patterns and sizes, glass blocks present flexible and innovative options to create
stunning interiors and decorative elements to external architecture. And, because of their

unique insulation and light dispersing qualities, they are the first choice for comfortable,
energy efficient living. The functionality and aesthetics of glass blocks makes it a most
versatile building material with almost unlimited applications.
Features and Benefits
Extensive range of colours, patterns & sizes

heat and glare control
sound insulation properties
increases, reflects and diffuses light
Security against break-ins
Fire-rated for boundary walls
provides privacy
Easily installed and maintained
creates aesthetically pleasing screen walls
Interior and exterior applications
Structural Glazing
Definition
Structural glazing is a system of bonding glass to a buildings structural framing members

utilizing a high strength, high performance silicone sealant specifically designed and tested
for structural glazing. In structural glazing applications, dynamic wind loads are transferred
from the glass, by the structural silicone sealant, to the perimeter structural support. The net
results of this glazing technique are either four-sided systems, which yield an unobstructed
glass surface; or two-sided systems, where horizontal or vertical accents can be achieved.
Advantages of Structural Glazing
Allows for broader architectural design flexibility

Increases the thermal efficiency of buildings, because the exterior exposure of metal
framing is either reduced or eliminated
Reduces or eliminates water and air infiltration
Reduces the potential for thermal breakage of glass
Curtain wall
In strictest architectural parlance, a curtain wall is any non-load-bearing exterior wall that
hangs (like a curtain) from the face of floor slabs, regardless of construction or cladding
material. However, in common usage, the term curtain wall usually refers to aluminium
framed systems carrying glass, panels, louvers, or occasionally, granite or marble.
The distinctions between the systems types discussed in the following slides are not absolute,
and its often difficult to clearly differentiate between one system type and another.
Two-side structural silicone glazing can be done in the field, however, four-side silicone
glazing should always be done under factory-controlled conditions.

Curtain wall types
Storefront
Storefronts are non-load-bearing glazed systems that occur on the ground floor, which
typically include commercial aluminium entrances. They are installed between floor slabs, or
between a floor slab and building structure above.
Typically field-fabricated and glazed, storefronts employ exterior glazing stops at one side
only. Provision for anchorage is made at perimeter conditions.
While sometimes used as a low-cost alternative to curtain wall systems for low rise buildings,
performance requirements for storefront are generally less stringent, and materials may
require more frequent maintenance.
Stick curtain wall
This systems are shipped in pieces for field-fabrication and/or assembly. These systems can
be furnished by the manufacturer as stock lengths to be cut, machined, assembled, and
sealed in the field, or knocked down parts pre-machined in the factory, for field-assembly
and - sealing only.
All stick curtain walls are field-glazed.
Frame assembly requires the use of either, a) shear blocks to connect vertical and horizontal
framing elements, or b) screw-spline construction, in which assembly fasteners feed through
holes in interlocking vertical stacking mullions into extruded races in horizontals.
I-Beam Walls
Once very popular, I-Beam walls have seen market penetration decrease. I or H
shaped, structural, vertical back members are set into openings in the field, with horizontals
then clipped to verticals.
After glazing, extruded aluminium interior trim is cut and snapped into place at vision areas.
Since unexposed spandrel areas receive no interior trim, savings in material and finish
(painting or anodizing) can result, partially offset by added field labour.
Of course, maintaining vapour retardant continuity at interior trim joints can be challenging if
any positive building pressure is present.
Pressure Walls
Many stick curtain walls are called pressure walls, because exterior extruded aluminium
plates are screw applied to compress glass between interior and exterior bedding gaskets. A
Snap-On cover or beauty cap is then used to conceal pressure plate fasteners.
Performance of any field-assembled or field-glazed curtain wall is only as good as field

workmanship allows, limited by variables such as weather, access, and job site dirt and dust.

Many critical seals are necessary, even in systems that are designed to drain or weep rain
penetration from the system back to the exterior.
Unitized Walls
To accomplish as many critical seals as possible in controlled factory conditions, and

minimize dependence on field labour, unitized curtain wall systems have been developed.
Unitized curtain walls are factory assembled and -glazed, then shipped to the job site in units
that are typically one lite wide by one floor tall.
Most unitized curtain wall systems are installed in a sequential manner around each floor
level, moving from the bottom to the top of the building.
Only one unit-to-unit splice, usually a translucent silicone sheet or patch, needs to be field-
sealed. Seal bedding is visible through the sheet.
Only one anchor per mullion needs to be attached to the face of the floor slab. The horizontal
gutter weather-seal is sometimes called a chicken head detail, due to its unique configuration.
Interlocking unitized curtain wall frame members are weather-stripped to seal to one another,
both horizontally and vertically. This accommodates thermal expansion and contraction, inter-
story differential movement, concrete creep, column foreshortening, and/or seismic movement.
Window Wall
Window wall systems span from the top of one floor slab to the underside of the slab above.
Window wall employs large, side stacking window units, contained in head and sill receptors,
also called starters, which accommodate movement and drainage, but require field-applied
perimeter sealants.
Slab covers can be fabricated from aluminium extrusions, sheet, panels, or even glass.
Window walls easily accept operable windows, and unlike curtain wall, can easily be
installed non-sequentially.

Introduction
An elevator (or lift in the Commonwealth excluding Canada) is a type of vertical transport
equipment that efficiently moves people or goods between floors (levels, decks) of a
building, vessel or other structures. Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that
either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, or pump hydraulic fluid to
raise a cylindrical piston like a jack. There are three types of convoying methods in buildings,
Elevators & Escalators & Ramps, and they have different dimensions and uses according to
building type & number of users in it.
Elevator Types
1. According to hoist mechanism.
2. According to building height.
3. According to building type.
4. According to elevator Location.
5. According to Special uses.
1- According to hoist mechanism:
Elevators will be classified according to hoist mechanism to 4 main types as follows:

1. Hydraulic Elevators
2. Traction Elevators
3. Climbing elevator
4. Pneumatic Elevators
1- Hydraulic Elevators (Push Elevators)
Hydraulic elevators are

supported by a piston at
the bottom of the elevator
that pushes the elevator
up. They are used for low-
rise applications of 2-8
stories and travel at a
maximum speed of 200
feet per minute. The
machine room for
hydraulic elevators is
located at the lowest level
adjacent to the elevator
shaft. Hydraulic elevators
have many two main
types as follows:

A- Holed (Conventional) Hydraulic Elevators
They have a sheave that extends below the floor of the elevator pit,
which accepts the retracting piston as the elevator descends. Some
configurations have a telescoping piston that collapses and requires a
shallower hole below the pit. Max travel distance is approximately 60
feet.
B- Hole-less Hydraulic Elevators
They have a piston on either side of the cab. It can be divided to 3

different types as follows:
a- Telescopic Hydraulic Elevators:
In this configuration, the telescoping pistons are fixed at the base of the
pit and do not require a sheave or hole below the pit and has 2 or 3 pieces
of telescoping pistons. Telescoping pistons allow up to 50 feet of travel
distance.
b- Non-telescoping (single stage) Hydraulic Elevators:
It has one piston and only allows about 20 feet of travel distance.
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c- Roped Hydraulic Elevators
They use a combination of ropes and a piston to move the elevator.

Maximum travel distance is about 60 feet.
2- Traction Elevators (Pull Elevators)
Traction elevators are lifted by ropes, which pass over a wheel attached to
an electric motor above the elevator shaft. They are used for mid and high-
rise applications and have much higher travel speeds than hydraulic
elevators. A counter weight makes the elevators more efficient. Traction
elevators have 3 main types as follows:
A- Geared Traction Elevators:
They have a gearbox that is attached to the motor, which drives

the wheel that moves the ropes. Geared traction elevators are
capable of travel speeds up to 500 feet per minute.

B- Gear-less Traction Elevators:
They have the wheel attached directly to the

motor. Gear-less traction elevators are capable of
speeds up to 2000 feet per minute.
C- Machine-Room-Less Elevators:
They are typically traction elevators

that do not have a dedicated machine
room above the elevator shaft. The
machine sits in the override space
and the controls sit above the ceiling
adjacent to the elevator shaft.
Machine-room-less elevators are
becoming more common; however,
many maintenance departments do
not like them due to the hassle of
working on a ladder as opposed to
within a room.

3- Climbing elevator
They hold their own power device on them, mostly electric or

combustion engine. Climbing elevators are often used in work
and construction areas.
4- Pneumatic Elevators
Pneumatic elevators are

raised and lowered by
controlling air pressure in a
chamber in which the
elevator sits. By simple
principles of physics; the
difference in air pressure
above and beneath the
vacuum elevator cab literally
transports cab by air. It is the
vacuum pumps or turbines
that pull cab up to the next
Floor and the slow release of
air pressure that floats cab
down. They are especially
ideal for existing homes due
to their compact design
because excavating a pit and
hoist way are not required.
2- According to building height
A- Low-Rise buildings (1- 3 stories) Buildings up to about (1 to 3) stories typically use

hydraulic elevators because of their lower initial cost
B- Mid-Rise buildings (4 -11 stories) Buildings up to about (4 to 11) stories typically use
Geared Traction Elevators
C- High-Rise buildings (12 + stories) Buildings up to about 12+ stories typically use Gear-
Less Traction Elevators

3- According to building type
Elevators will be classified according to building type to 6 main types as follows:

1. Hospital Elevators.
2. Residential /Domestic Elevators.
3. Agricultural Elevators.
4. Industrial Elevators.
5. Commercial Elevators.
6. Parking buildings Elevators.
1- Hospital Elevators
A- Hospital Bed Elevators

Hospital bed elevators generally transport
patients who are not well enough to sit up
even in a wheelchair. One of the features of
bed elevators should be its ability to
transport the patient has smoothly as
possible with minimal amount of bumping
and jostling. Many contemporary bed
elevators are manufactured to consume
extremely low amounts of power and to be
durable with a number of safety features
built-in. Hospital bed elevators generally
draw very little power so that should there
be a power outage they are still operational
off the hospital's backup power supply.
Most often there will be a rear and a front
entry to the elevator cabin.
B- Hospital Stretcher Elevator
They usually are smaller than bed elevators.
This particular type of elevator is usually
hydraulic or traction based depending on the
location of the machine room. They are
specifically manufactured to be low-noise
bed elevators that smoothly transport patients, doctors, nurses and hospital staff between
floors, allowing them the utmost in comfort. Because hospital bed elevators are only used for
transporting patients and hospital staff they arrived at their location quite quickly, eliminating
lengthy waits. Many of these bed elevators are key operated so as to prohibit use by the
general public.
2- Residential /Domestic Elevators
They are usually just on a much smaller scale than industrial or commercial elevators.

A- Passenger Elevators
Domestic elevators which are intended to move

passengers up and down stairs in a multilevel
residence are quite similar to those used in large
public buildings. They can be built either inside the
home or outside the home and can be pneumatic
vacuum, electric, hydraulic or cable elevators. Most
often domestic elevators designed for carrying
passengers in a residential setting only carry perhaps
two to four people safely and comfortably.
B- Stairway Elevators
Stairway elevators are generally installed in homes

where someone in the family has problems with
mobility. This type of domestic elevators simply
runs on a rail up and down and existing staircase.
They can run either in a straight line or around a
curved stairway. Stairway elevators can be
constructed both inside and outside the home.

b.1 - Vertical Wheelchair Elevators
Interior vertical wheelchair elevators can easily be installed when

space is limited. They can be constructed in such a way as to allow
both front and rear entry and the platform is generally 4.5 feet by 5
feet, unless a custom size is called for. Vertical elevators are called
for when the staircase winds around several levels.
b.2 - Wheelchair Elevators on an Incline
Wheelchair elevators on an incline are generally

installed when the staircase simply goes up one level
or perhaps two. If there are several winds in the
staircase, wheelchair elevators on an incline would not
be well suited. Most often this type of elevator is
called for when there is not adequate space to facilitate
a more spacious vertical wheelchair elevator.
C- Dumbwaiters Elevators
They are small freight elevators intended to carry objects rather than people,
whenever groceries or laundry need to be sent up and down the stairs without
making unnecessary trips that can quickly tire people, people can simply place
what needs to be transported in the dumbwaiter and press the button to send it
up or down stairs. Dumbwaiters are most often built into or adjacent to a wall.
A simple dumbwaiter is a movable frame in a shaft, dropped by a rope on a

pulley, guided by rails; most dumbwaiters have a shaft, car, and capacity
smaller than those of passenger elevators, usually 100 to 1000 lbs

3- Agricultural applications:
A- Bucket Elevators
Bucket elevator used to move crops which have been newly harvested up and into silo. Bucket
elevators are manufactured in such a way that they can move heavy loads quite easily. They can
be belt driven or chain driven and they can move vertically, horizontally or at an incline.
A.1- Centrifugal discharge elevators
Bucket elevators are sometimes referred to as conveyor

buckets, most often when the movement is horizontal or
on an incline. However, technically speaking, vertical
movement is also accomplished with a conveyor belt or
chain. The centrifugal discharge bucket elevator is
perhaps the most common type. Of course, as the name
implies the elevator is driven by centrifugal force. This
type of elevator has lower speeds and the buckets are
often placed relatively closely together.
A.2 Vertical bucket Elevators
Vertical bucket elevators usually have buckets that are well spaced with
bottoms that are rounded, and are often referred to as grain legs. Part of
the reason for this is balance which keeps the contents in the buckets as
they move up the elevator so that spillage isn't a problem. Vertical
bucket elevators need to be used at a much slower pace both to avoid
spilling contents and also because much of the time they carry loads that
are quite heavy.

4- Industrial Elevators
The most common types of industrial elevators are hoist elevators and incline elevators. These
types of elevators are built to carry huge amounts of weight effortlessly, therefore the term
industrial elevators. This type of elevators is used in construction, warehouses, and shipyards.
A-Hoist Elevators
Hoist elevators are operated by a pulley or series

of pulleys and they can be a simple platform or a
cage in which humans or heavy materials are
moved up and down during industrial
applications. Generally, a pulley operates a rope
or chain that wraps around a drum causing the
elevator to rise or descend. It is said that hoist
elevators are powered by either electricity or air,
but even that isn't quite true because electricity is
needed to pump air. Hoist elevators carrying
materials and equipment to upper levels as needed
while the building is being constructed. They are
also commonly used to load equipment and
supplies on large seagoing vessels.
B- Incline Elevators
The equipment and supplies are placed on a form of

conveyor belt that continues turning bringing the
cargo up to its destination where it is quickly
unloaded as the belt continues turning around. This
is a much quicker method of loading and unloading
cargo than with a hoist elevator because there is no
stopping to unload. Everything happens in one fluid
motion. Incline elevators when used for industrial
purposes are usually temporary and mobile. Many
are on wheels and can be easily moved from one
dock or location to the next.

5- Parking Elevators
A- Parking Elevators for Passengers
Most parking garages have parking

elevators for passengers that allow them
the convenience of going up or down
several levels without the necessity of
climbing stairs. Sometimes these
elevators have front and rear entry and
can be built with a number of optional
features such as key access to certain
floors. Most underground garages have
parking elevators for passengers.
B- Conventional Parking Elevators

The conventional parking
elevators are built to move
vehicles to upper or lower
levels of the building because
of their space saving feature.
With ramps on and off parking
levels consume a lot of space
which could be better utilized
as parking spaces for vehicles.
With the addition of parking
elevators, vehicles can be
transported up and down as
many levels as necessary by
taking up only the space
required for that vehicle. But
maintain the need for
attendants to sit in the car,
in the elevator and park it on the floor on which there is space.
C- Auto Car Parking Elevators As

against cars being driven (on ramps)
or carried (in car lifts) to different
levels in conventional multi-level
parking, cars are driven at only one
level for parking or retrieval, Cars
are parked in steel pallets and a
target pallet comes up or down to the
driveway level at the

press of a button, for parking or retrieval. Such car parking systems or auto parking systems
are also referred to by various other names in different parts of the world, such as auto-
parking, "stack-parking", "mechanized parking", "mechanical parking", "park mat",
modular parking etc.
This type can be divided to many different types as follows:
C.1 Square Type

The system arranges many carriers on several intended floors and a lift installed either at
either ends or at the centre goes up and down with vehicles loaded. It is designed so that
vehicles can be parked and retrieved by moving a pallet horizontally. It is safer than other
systems and the cutting -edge mechanical car parking system, and operates very smoothly. It
is fit for installation in a narrow and long shaped lot or an underground of a building.
C.2 Level Type
The system is designed so that car parking lots move both horizontally and circularly to park
vehicles. Many carriers are arrayed in more than one row in the car parking lot and the
system works by moving both horizontally and circularly the carriers at both ends of level.
C.3 Rotary Type
A system that two sprockets as a set are fixed; one onto an upper part of a structure and the
other onto a lower part and then a cage hung to an attachment of a special chain circulates
with vehicles loaded. This system with simple operation and low installation cost requires a
small lot for installing equipments and may be divided to subsystems as follows:
1. Bottom entering type: A type that cars are parted and retrieved at the bottom of parking
equipments. 2. Middle entering type: A type that cars are parked and retrieved at the
middle of parking equipments. 3. Top entering type: This type that cars are parked and
retrieved at the top of parking equipments.

C.4 story Type

A system is featured by using all parking lots on the first floor as the place for car
parking/retrieval. Carriers are arranged on two levels, where cars are parked through both
vertical and horizontal movements. With short construction period and easy installation, it is
fit household use or a small scale parking lot.
C.5 Puzzle Type
The carriers are arranged on 3-storey and more than 3-story, a specific carrier moves both
vertically and horizontally to and from more than one car entrance on the same level, It is an
economical system, has safe structures, and designed to utilize space efficiently to install
parking equipments. As there are few laws and regulations on this system and the
installation period is short. It is fit for utilizing an idle lot in residential areas.
C.6 Turn Table
A turntable is equipment which changes directions itself utilize efficiently a limited space.
The turntable installed in front of parking equipments provides drivers with convenience and
safety.
C.7 Elevator Type
This System is arranged on multi-levels and designed to automatically Carry and park Cars by a
lift and a Carrier installed inside parking lots a pallet for parking is built in independently on each
level that is carried by a Cage from parking lots to the lift that moves vertically to an
entrance/exit. This System one of the most Up-to-date mechanical Car parking System, is
featured With Speedy parking/retrieval, widely installed In a City area, and fit for a large Scale
Car parking equipment that can maximize Utilization of a limited parking Space.
C.8 Lift Traverser Type
This is a full automatically mechanical car parking system that minimizes the time for
parking/retrieval by the simultaneous movements, both horizontally and vertically, of a car
lift. As the utilization of both parking space and floor space can be maximized and easy
forward parking/ retrieval of vehicles is possible from any moving lane, and the convenience
of user can be maximized. The noise level is low and the durability of car bay is semi-
permanent. The scale of car parking can be proportionally balanced and properly coordinated
with the building's shape.
C.9 Cart Type
This is a multi-levelled car parking system and is designed to park vehicles into each parking
lots by conveying vehicles automatically with both an up-and-down lift and a parking cart.
The carts independently installed on each parking level can retrieve vehicles from parking
lots, and more than one lift move simultaneously for car parking/retrieval. This is one of most
up-to-date mechanical parking systems with speedy car parking/retrieval and fits a large scale
of car parking that can maximize the utilization of the underground space by installing many
rows of the carts in the underground.
6- Commercial Elevators
A- Commercial passenger elevators
A passenger elevator is designed to move people between a building's floors. Passenger
elevators capacity is related to the available floor space.

B- Freight elevators
A freight elevator, or
goods lift, is An
elevator designed To
carry goods, Rather
than passengers.
Freight elevators Are
generally required To
display a Written
notice in the car that
the use by passengers
is prohibited (though
not Necessarily
illegal), though certain
freight elevators allow
dual use through The
use of An
inconspicuous riser.
Freight elevators Are
typically larger And
capable of Carrying
heavier loads than a
passenger elevator,
generally from 2,300
to 4,500 kg. Freight
elevators may have manually operated doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to
prevent damage while loading and unloading. Although hydraulic freight elevators exist,
electric elevators are more energy efficient for the work of freight lifting.
Freight elevators include the following classes:
Class A: General Freight Loading
Where the load is distributed, the weight of any single piece is not more than 1/4 the capacity
of the elevator and the load is handled on and off the car platform manually or by means of
hand trucks.
Class B: Motor Vehicle Loading

The freight elevator is used solely to carry automobile trucks or passenger automobiles up to
the rated capacity of the elevator.
Class C1: Industrial Truck Loading
A four-wheeled vehicle may be used to load and unload the elevator. The combined weight of the
vehicle and the load cannot exceed the rated capacity and may be rolled onto the platform
as a single unit.

Class C2: Industrial Truck Loading
During loading and unloading, max load on the platform may be up to 150% of the rated
capacity. This enables you to use a forklift to load a car with freight weighing up to the rated
capacity.
Class C3: Other forms of Industrial Truck Loading
During the loading and unloading process, the rated capacity must never be exceeded.
C- Commercial Dumbwaiter
They are economic solution for moving material

from floor to floor in a multi-level commercial
environment. They can carry loads up to 750 lbs.
Commercial Dumbwaiter used to Save manpower,
save space, save time, save energy and help avoid
workplace injuries. Typical materials handled

in a commercial environment can be Food,
Dishes & Cutlery, Documents, Clothing, Carts
or Shoes. Commercial Dumbwaiter can have
one of the following types or configurations:

Forth: Elevators classification according to elevator

location A- Outdoor Elevators
Common types of outdoor elevators are cargo elevators, platform elevators, and incline and
vertical elevators.
A.1 Observation elevator
The observation elevator puts the cab on the outside of

the building. Glass-walled elevator cars allow
passengers to view the cityscape or the buildings atrium
as they travel. By eliminating the hoist ways, the
observation elevator also offers owners, architects and
builders valuable space-saving advantages.
A.2 Incline Elevators
Outdoor elevators built on an incline can also be used to

transport passengers or goods. Incline elevators are
most often recognized as passenger elevators called ski
lifts. However, outdoor elevators that move cargo on an
incline are generally constructed with a conveyor belt
and most often seen when loading cargo on ships and
some types of aircraft.
A.3 Platform Elevators
While it is possible to use platform elevators indoors

they are generally classified as outdoor elevators
because that is where they are most often used.
Platform elevators usually are not enclosed by
having a have a fence or gate running around the
perimeter to keep cargo from slipping off during
transport. Platform elevators usually use a system of
pulleys as the working mechanism. Outdoor
elevators consisting of a platform are most often
used at new construction sites but they can also be
used for such things as elevating workmen
renovating the faade of a building or washing
windows on a high-rise.

A.4 Freight Elevators
Freight elevators are almost always outdoor elevators even though some smaller versions are
designed for indoor use such as those used in warehouses. They are most often extremely heavy-
duty and can facilitate a great amount of weight. This type of elevator can either be on an incline
or vertical, but will most often be industrial grade to accommodate those heavy loads. In fact, the
first type of elevator which comes to mind when thinking of outdoor elevators is
actually freight elevators.
B- Indoor elevators
All elevators installed inside a building which usually need a hoist ways and pits.
Fifth: Elevators classification according to special uses
A- Handicap Elevators
In reality, any type of elevator that can assist
a handicapped person in going up and down
various levels of the building could be
considered a handicap elevator. However,
specific types of elevators are manufactured
with handicapped persons in mind. A good
example of this would be a wheelchair lift
that gets a handicapped person in and out of
vans. The lift comes out the sliding doors and
descends in order to allow the wheelchair on
the platform. Then the lift is raised up and
backs into the vehicle. Most city buses have
this type of handicap elevators installed on
them, but they are also manufactured for
privately owned vehicles as well. Most
handicap elevators within a home are electric
elevators, but some are pneumatic vacuum
models as well and
operated by air pressure. Stairway lifts are also considered to be a type of handicap elevator
and this type can either be installed on a straight stairway or a curved staircase.

B- Grain Elevators
A grain elevator is a tower containing a

bucket elevator, which scoops up,
elevates, and then uses gravity to deposit
grain in a silo or other storage facility.
They can be classified as either
country or terminal elevators, with
terminal elevators further categorized as
inland or export types. Operations other
than storage, such as cleaning, drying,
and blending, often are performed at
elevators. The principal grains and
oilseeds handled include wheat, corn,
oats, rice, soybeans, and sorghum.
C- Double-deck elevator
Double-deck elevators
save time and space in
high-occupancy buildings
by mounting one car upon
another. One car stops at
even floors and the other
stops at the odd floors.
Depending on their
destination, passengers
can mount one car in the
lobby or take an escalator
to a landing for the
alternate car.

D- Sky Lobby
In very tall buildings, elevator efficiency can be
increased by a system that combines express and
local elevators. The express elevators stop at
designated floors called sky lobbies. There,
passengers can transfer to local elevators that will
take them to their desired floor. By dividing the
building into levels served by the express
elevators, the local elevators can be stacked to
occupy the same shaft space. That way, each zone
can be served simultaneously by its own
bank of local elevators.

Basic
Elevator Components:
The standard elevators

will include the following
basic components:
1. Car.
2. Hoist way.(Shaft)
3. Machine/drive
system.
4. Control system.
5. Safety system.
Elevator Car and Shaft (Hoist way)

The elevator car holds people and objects for transport and is encased in the elevator
shaft. Elevator cars can be of various sizes have at least one door and are pulled up
and down using a motor or a hydraulic system. Motorized elevators are the most
common and offer the best value for building construction. Elevator shafts also
contain guide tracks for the elevator itself as well as the counterweight, both of which
help reduce strain on the elevator motor.
The Sheave and Motor
Motorized elevators are raised and lowered using steel ropes that are attached to the
elevator car as well as a counterweight. The counter simulates the weight of the
elevator car at 40 percent capacity in order to help reduce the overall strain on the
motor. The sheave is simply a pulley that has groves and moves the rope to lift and
lower the elevator. The motor moves the sheave in the direction that the elevator
needs to go in to move passengers up and down.

Control Unit
The control unit is housed with both the motor and the sheave in the control room,
usually located above the elevator shaft. It receives the signal from each floor's
controls and translates that to movements for the motor, either up or down. When the
elevator car reaches its destination, the control receives a signal to stop the elevator
car to allow passengers to enter or exit. The control unit also has a computer built-in
to monitor travel patterns and specific instructions that are programmed into it for rest
locations and signal priorities.
Counterweight and Guide Rails
The counterweight is used to reduce strain on the motor as it creates constant energy
that can be used to lift or lower the elevator car similar to the action of a children's
seesaw. The motor uses the counterweight or the elevator car to propel the elevator
car in either direction. The guide rails are in place for both the elevator car and
counterweight to keep them from swaying --- thereby creating a smooth elevator ride
in either direction.

Escalator
An escalator is a moving staircase a conveyor transport device for carrying people between
floors of a building. The device consists of a motor-driven chain of individual, linked steps
that move up or down on tracks, allowing the step treads to remain horizontal.
Escalators are used around the world to move pedestrian traffic in places where elevators
would be impractical. Principal areas of usage include department stores, shopping malls,
airports, transit systems, convention centres, hotels, arenas, stadiums, train stations (subways)
and public buildings.
Escalators have the capacity to move large numbers of people, and they can be placed in the
same physical space as one might install a staircase. They have no waiting interval (except
during very heavy traffic), they can be used to guide people toward main exits or special
exhibits, and they may be weatherproofed for outdoor use. A non-functioning escalator can
function as a normal staircase, whereas many other conveyances become useless when they
break down.
Components
Landing platforms
These two platforms house the curved sections of the tracks, as well as the gears and motors
that drive the stairs. The top platform contains the motor assembly and the main drive gear,
while the bottom holds the step return idler sprockets. These sections also anchor the ends of

the escalator truss. In addition, the platforms contain a floor plate and a combplate. The floor
plate provides a place for the passengers to stand before they step onto the moving stairs. This
plate is flush with the finished floor and is either hinged or removable to allow easy access to
the machinery below. The combplate is the piece between the stationary floor plate and the
moving step. It is so named because its edge has a series of cleats that resemble the teeth of a
comb. These teeth mesh with matching cleats on the edges of the steps. This design is
necessary to minimize the gap between the stair and the landing, which helps prevent objects
from getting caught in the gap.
Truss
The truss is a hollow metal structure that bridges the lower and upper landings. It is
composed of two side sections joined together with cross braces across the bottom and just
below the top. The ends of the truss are attached to the top and bottom landing platforms via
steel or concrete supports. The truss carries all the straight track sections connecting the
upper and lower sections.
Tracks
The track system is built into the truss to guide the step chain, which continuously pulls the
steps from the bottom platform and back to the top in an endless loop. There are actually two
tracks: one for the front wheels of the steps (called the step-wheel track) and one for the back
wheels of the steps (called the trailer-wheel track). The relative positions of these tracks
cause the steps to form a staircase as they move out from under the combplate. Along the
straight section of the truss the tracks are at their maximum distance apart. This configuration
forces the back of one step to be at a 90-degree angle relative to the step behind it. This right
angle bends the steps into a shape resembling a staircase. At the top and bottom of the
escalator, the two tracks converge so that the front and back wheels of the steps are almost in
a straight line. This causes the stairs to lay in a flat sheet like arrangement, one after another,
so they can easily travel around the bend in the curved section of track. The tracks carry the
steps down along the underside of the truss until they reach the bottom landing, where they
pass through another curved section of track before exiting the bottom landing. At this point
the tracks separate and the steps once again assume a staircase configuration. This cycle is
repeated continually as the steps are pulled from bottom to top and back to the bottom again.
Steps
The steps themselves are solid, one piece, die-cast aluminium or steel. Yellow demarcation
lines may be added to clearly indicate their edges. In most escalator models manufactured
after 1950, both the riser and the tread of each step is cleated (given a ribbed appearance)
with comblike protrusions that mesh with the combplates on the top and bottom platforms
and the succeeding steps in the chain. Seeberger- or "step-type" escalators (see below)
featured flat treads and smooth risers; other escalator models have cleated treads and smooth
risers. The steps are linked by a continuous metal chain that forms a closed loop. The front
and back edges of the steps are each connected to two wheels. The rear wheels are set further
apart to fit into the back track and the front wheels have shorter axles to fit into the narrower
front track. As described above, the position of the tracks controls the orientation of the steps.

Handrail
The handrail provides a convenient handhold for passengers while they are riding the
escalator. In an escalator, the handrail is pulled along its track by a chain that is connected to
the main drive gear by a series of pulleys. It is constructed of four distinct sections. At the
centre of the handrail is a "slider", also known as a "glider ply", which is a layer of a cotton
or synthetic textile. The purpose of the slider layer is to allow the handrail to move smoothly
along its track. The next layer, known as the "tension member", consists of either steel cable
or flat steel tape, and provides the handrail with tensile strength and flexibility. On top of
tension member are the inner construction components, which are made of chemically treated
rubber designed to prevent the layers from separating. Finally, the outer layer the only part
that passengers actually see is the cover, which is a blend of synthetic polymers and rubber.
This cover is designed to resist degradation from environmental conditions, mechanical wear
and tear, and human vandalism.
In the factory, handrails are constructed by feeding rubber through a computer-controlled
extrusion machine to produce layers of the required size and type in order to match specific
orders. The component layers of fabric, rubber, and steel are shaped by skilled workers
before being fed into the presses, where they are fused together.
In the mid-twentieth century, some handrail designs consisted of a rubber bellows, with rings
of smooth metal cladding called "bracelets" placed between each coil. This gave the handrail
a rigid yet flexible feel. Additionally, each bellows section was no more than a few feet long,
so if part of the handrail was damaged, only the bad segment needed to be replaced. These
forms of handrail have largely been replaced with conventional fabric-and-rubber railings.

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[AR12 42 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTURAL SYSTEM- II] 1

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Qualities & Features

aX2O, bYO, 6SiO2

a, b are no. of molecules;

X is an atom of an alkali metal i.e. Na, K etc.

Y is an atom of a bivalent metal i.e. Ca, Pb

etc. For example,

Soda-lime Glass - Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2

Potash-lead Glass - K2O, PbO, 6SiO2

Important properties of glass

1. Absorbs, refracts and transmits light

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Stage I Collection of raw materials depending on the type of the glass

Stage II Preparation of batch

- By adding ingredients in correct proportion, and

- mixing them uniformly

Stage III Melting in furnace

- Refractory lining of fire clay

Stage IV Fabrication of glass

Cast glass cast by pouring molten glass or pressing them in moulds

Stage V Annealing of glass

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Test for waviness

A. Soda lime glass

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- used for reflecting or absorbing solar radiation

- Clear glass panel with a very thin metallic coating

- reflects heat and thermally insulates the internal space

- Molten glass rolled with a wire mesh embedded

- resist splintering of glass even after breaking

- Wired glass has application in high temperature environment

- should satisfy flameproof requirements as per the IS

- fibres made out of glass and drawn into threads

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- composition similar to boro-silicate glass

- glass manufacturing is a relatively environment friendly process and its offers

Glass Products for the Construction Sector

Uses & applications

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Glass in residential houses

Glass in commercial buildings

Glass in buildings: characteristics and functions

Thermal insulating glass for windows and facades, also known as

Recent regulations call for the use of energy-efficient products to

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In dwellings it helps prevent uncomfortable overheating in conservatories and other rooms

Safety and security

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The acoustic glass in a double-glazed unit

Acoustic glass can be combined with many

Decorative: interior design

Glass can transform living spaces and work

Glass building blocks

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Features and Benefits

Extensive range of colours, patterns & sizes

Structural glazing is a system of bonding glass to a buildings structural framing members

Advantages of Structural Glazing

Allows for broader architectural design flexibility

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Curtain wall types