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1: Title
MATH1081
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Se tion 3
Proof
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.2: Introduction
1 1 1
Example. 1000 1001 < 1 000 000 .
Proof. We have
1 1 10011000 1
1000 1001 = 10001001 = 1 001 000 .
But 1 001 000 > 1 000 000, and both are positive numbers, so
1 1
1 001 000 < 1 000 000 .
Therefore
1 1 1
1000 1001 < 1 000 000 .
that is,
1 1 1
1000 1001 < 1 000 000 .
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.6: Pros & cons
8
Example. 8! < 9 9!
Proof. Clearly 1 < 9, 2 < 9, . . . and 8 < 9, so
1 2 8 < 9 9 9 ,
| {z }
8 times
that is,
1 2 8 < 98 .
Multiplying both sides by (1 2 8)8 gives
Rearranging terms,
or in factorial notation
GENERALISATION
The results which we have just proved are of very little interest
in themselves, mainly because they refer only to specific
numbers. However, it seems clear that in proving
1 1 1
1000 1001 < 10002
we did not use any special properties of the numbers 1000 and
1001, other than that they are consecutive positive integers.
Thus we should expect a similar result to hold if 1000 is
replaced by any n Z+ and 1001 by n + 1. This process of
guessing (and if possible proving) a result more inclusive than
one already known is called generalisation. A statement
such as
1 1 1
for all n Z+ we have < 2
n n+1 n
is called a universal statement, or an all statement.
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.10: Generalised reciprocals
But
n(n + 1) > n2 ,
and both sides are positive, so
1 1
< 2 .
n(n + 1) n
Thus
1 1 1
< 2
n n+1 n
as claimed.
|x 3| x2 3x + 4 .
x 3 x2 3x + 4 .
But |x 3| = x 3 since x 3 0; so
|x 3| x2 3x + 4 .
|x 3| = (x 3)
=3x
x2 3x + 4 .
n 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (mod 6) .
Simplifying,
n3 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (mod 6)
respectively. Clearly in every case n3 n (mod 6).
f (x) = f (x)
f (0) = f (0) ,
that is,
f (0) = f (0) .
Therefore 2f (0) = 0, and so
f (0) = 0 .
WRITING PROOFS
n2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ) .
. . . continued
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.19: . . . continued
. . . continued
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.20: . . . continued
Examples.
The statement
if you live in NSW then you live in Australia
is true; its converse,
if you live in Australia then you live in NSW,
is false.
The converse of the true statement
if a triangle has three equal sides then it has
three equal angles
is
if a triangle has three equal angles then it has
three equal sides,
which is also true.
The statement
all squares are quadrilaterals
is true; its converse,
all quadrilaterals are squares,
is false.
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.23: Disproof of converse
0 x
y = f (x)
Examples.
A triangle has three equal sides if and only if it has three
equal angles.
The real number x has a real square root if and only if
x 0.
The set A equals the set B.
An integer is divisible by 6 if and only if it is divisible
both by 2 and by 3.
n = 2 3k ,
and 3k Z, so 2 | n. Similarly 3 | n.
Conversely, let 2 | n and 3 | n. Since 3 | n we have n = 3l for
some integer l. Now 2 | 3l, so 3l is even; and obviously 2l is
even; so 3l 2l is even. That is, l is even. Therefore l = 2m
for some m Z and we have
n = 6m
with m Z. Hence 6 | n.
Both parts of the theorem have been proved.
SOME STATEMENTS
x18 + x16 + + x4 + x2 + 1 = 0 .
that is,
x20 1 = 0 .
So in fact there exist two solutions, x = 1 and x = 1.
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.33: Non-constructive proofs
a = bq + r and 0 r < b .
0 = b(q1 q2 ) + (r1 r2 )
and hence
r2 r1
q1 q2 = .
b
But r2 < b, r1 0, so r2 r1 < b; similarly r2 r1 > b; so
1 < q1 q2 < 1 .
MULTIPLE QUANTIFIERS
Examples.
For every x Z, there exists y Z such that y > x.
There exists y Z such that for every x Z, y > x.
229 1 is composite.
For any prime there is a larger prime.
(6, 1, 5) is a linear combination of (1, 1, 2) and (1, 2, 3).
There is a function f : R R which is equal to its own
derivative.
Every positive real number has a real square root.
For all A, B, C U, A (B C) = (A B) C.
The function f : X Y is onto.
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.38: Factors
So in either
case we have found a factor c of n such that
1 < c n.
4x2 + 7x + 19
Theorem. lim = 2.
x 2x2 + 3
Note. According to the definition of a limit, we must show
that for every > 0 there exists a real number M such that
4x2 + 7x + 19
if x > M then 2 <.
2x2 + 3
4x2 + 7x + 19
Therefore lim = 2.
x 2x2 + 3
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.40: Limits: lessons
3x2
1. (easier) lim 2 = 3.
x x + 1
2. (harder) lim x2 + 5x + 3 = 3.
x2
since both statements assert that there exist two real numbers
satisfying the equation. Likewise,
A U B U AB =BA
and
B U A U AB =BA
both say that the equation is true for any two subsets of U.
However, . . .
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.43: Changing all & some
x Z y Z y>x
or
t P person P can be fooled at time t ,
but which of these did the original speaker (Abraham Lincoln,
18091865) mean?
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.44: Example
w x y z . . .
w x z y . . . .
then
lim (f (x) + g(x)) = a + b .
x
A or (A)
Examples.
The negation of
2+2=5
is it is false that 2 + 2 = 5, or more simply
2 + 2 6= 5 .
The negation of
1 1 1
< 2
n n+1 n
is
1 1 1
2 ,
n n+1 n
but. . .
. . . beware! The negation of A B is not A B. It
is A 6 B, which cannot in general be simplified further.
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.48: Square roots
3690240 = 3690241 .
But this is false. Hence our original supposition was false; that
is,
8 + 31 15 6= 20 41 .
N = p1 p2 pn + 1 .
p|N and p | p1 p2 pn ,
Examples.
Let f : X Y . The contrapositive of
if x1 6= x2 , then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )
is
if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .
The contrapositive of
all horses are animals
is
anything which is not an animal cannot be a
horse.
Let n Z. The contrapositive of
if n2 is even, then n is even
is
if n is not even, then n2 is not even,
or more simply
if n is odd, then n2 is odd.
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.53: Odd & even
n = 2k + 1
n2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 ,
Theorem. 2 is irrational.
Proof by contradiction. Suppose that 2 is not irrational.
Then we can write m
2= ,
n
where m and n are integers with no common factor. Squaring
both sides leads to
m2 = 2n2 .
Hence m2 is even, so m is even and we can write m = 2k.
Substituting into the previous equation,
4k 2 = 2n2 ,
so
n2 = 2k 2 .
Therefore n2 is even; hence, n is even. So m and n have a
common factor, namely, 2.But this is false. Therefore our
original assumption (that 2 is not irrational) must be false;
that is,
2 is irrational .
x y z ... .
that is,
x y z ... ,
or
x y z ... ,
or finally
x y z ... .
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.59: Open
Proof. Choose x = 1.
Let > 0.
Choose y = 1 12 .
Then
|x y| = | 12 | < ;
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Likewise,
for all n n0 , . . .
can be proved by mathematical induction:
(i) prove . . . for n = n0 ;
(ii) prove for all k n0 that if . . . is true when n = k, then
. . . is true when n = k + 1.
Step (i) is called the basis of the proof, and step (ii) the
inductive step.
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.62: Sum of squares
(1 x)n 1 nx .
(1 x)n 1 nx .
(1 x)k 1 kx . ()
(1 x)k+1 1 (k + 1)x .
u0 = 2 , u1 = 6 ,
un+2 = 6un+1 8un for all n 0 .
Now
LHS = uk+2 = 6uk+1 8uk
(given), and substituting the assumed equalities for uk and
uk+1 ,
k+1 k+1
k k
LHS = 6 4 +2 8 4 +2
= (6 4 8) 4k + (6 2 8) 2k
= 42 4k + 22 2k
= RHS .
Theorem. Let
= 314159 = d0 d1 d2 d3
un+1 = d0 un + d1 un1 + + dn u0
un 9 10n1 .
uk+1 9 10k .
Now
LHS = d0 uk + d1 uk1 + + dk1 u1 + dk u0
9 (uk + uk1 + + u1 + u0 )
9 (9 10k1 + 9 10k2 + + 9 + 1)
n = q(k + 1) + r with 0 r k .
. . . continued
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.72: . . . continued
k+1r 1 1 1
= + + + .
n(q + 1) d1 d2 ds
and so
d>q+1 .
Therefore all denominators on the right hand side of
k+1 1 1 1 1
= + + ++
n q + 1 d1 d2 ds
Comments.
Why did we need to treat r = 0 as a separate case?
Actually, rational numbers greater than 1 can also be
written as sums of distinct unit fractions. This is a bit
harder to prove (try it!).
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.73: Prime factorisation
b = q1 q2 qt
where q1 , q2 , . . . , qt are primes. Hence
k + 1 = p1 p2 ps q1 q2 qt ,
and k + 1 is again a product of primes.
In both cases P (k + 1) is true; hence, by induction, the result
is true for all n 2.
MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics 3.74: . . . lessons