Neurotransmitters

A Neuron is a specialized nerve cell that receives, processes, and transmits information to other cells in the body. We have a fixed
number of neurons, which means they do not regenerate. About 10,000 neurons die everyday, but since we start out with between ten
and 100 billion (Hooper & Teresi, 1987), we only lose about 2% over our lifetime.

Information comes into the neuron through the Dendrites from other neurons. It then
continues to the Cell Body (soma) which is the main part of the neuron, which contains
the nucleus and maintains the life sustaining functions of the neuron. The soma processes
information and then passes it along the Axon. At the end of the axon are bulb-like
structures called Terminal Buttons that pass the information on to glands, muscles, or
other neurons.

Anatomy of a Neuron

Information is carried by biochemical substances called neurotransmitters, which we will

talk about in more detail shortly. The terminal buttons and the dendrites of other neurons
do not touch, but instead pass the information containing neurotransmitters through a
Synapse. Once the neurotransmitter leaves the axon, and passes through the synapse, it is caught on the dendrite by what are termed
Receptor Sites.

Neurotransmitters have been studied quite a bit in relation to psychology and human behavior. What we have found is that several
neurotransmitters play a role in the way we behave, learn, the way we feel, and sleep. And, some play a role in mental illnesses. The
following are those neurotransmitters which play a significant role in our mental health.

Acetylcholine involved in voluntarymovement, learning, memory, and sleep.

Too much acetylcholine is associated with depression, and too little in the hippocampus has been associated with dementia.

Dopamine correlated with movement, attention, and learning

Too much dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia, and too little is associated with some forms of depression as well as the
muscular rigidity and tremors found in Parkinsons disease.

Norepinephrine associated with eating, alertness

Too little norepinephrine has been associated with depression, while an excess has been associated with schizophrenia.

Epinephrine involved in energy, and glucose metabolism

Too little epinephrine has been associated with depression.

Serotonin plays a role in mood, sleep, appetite, and impulsive and aggressive behavior

Too little serotonin is associated with depression and some anxiety disorders, especially obsessive-compulsive disorder. Some
antidepressant medications increase the availability of serotonin at the receptor sites.

GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid) inhibits excitation and anxiety

Too little GABA is associated with anxiety and anxiety disorders. Some antianxiety medication increases GABA at the receptor sites.

Endorphins involved in pain relief and feelings of pleasure and contentedness

Please note that these associations are merely correlations, and do not necessarily demonstrate any cause and effect relationship. We
dont know what other variables may be affecting both the neurotransmitter and the mental illness, and we dont know if the change
in the neurotransmitter causes the illness, or the illness causes the change in the neurotransmitter.
Anatomy and histology
Neurons are highly specialized for the processing and transmission of cellular signals. Given the
diversity of functions performed by neurons in different parts of the nervous system, there is, as
expected, a wide variety in the shape, size, and electrochemical properties of neurons. For instance,
the soma of a neuron can vary in size from 4 to 100 micrometers in diameter.[1]
The soma, is the central part of the neuron. It contains the nucleus of the cell, and therefore is
where most protein synthesis occurs. The nucleus ranges from 3 to 18 micrometers in
diameter. [2]
The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches, and are referred to,
therefore, as a dendritic tree. The overall shape and structure of a neuron's dendrites is called
its dendritic tree, and is where the majority of input to the neuron occurs. However, information
outflow (i.e. from dendrites to other neurons) can also occur.
The axon is a finer, cable-like projection which can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of
thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon carries nerve signals away from
the soma (and also carry some types of information back to it). Many neurons have only one
axon, but this axon may - and usually will - undergo extensive branching, enabling
communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is
called the 'axon hillock'. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock is also the part
of the neuron that has the greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes it
the most easily-excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon: in
neurological terms it has the greatest hyperpolarized action potential threshold. While the axon
and axon hillock are generally involved in information outflow, this region can also receive input
from other neurons as well.
The axon terminal is a specialized structure at the end of the axon that is used to
releaseneurotransmitter chemicals and communicate with target neurons.

Although the canonical view of the neuron attributes dedicated functions to its various anatomical
components, dendrites and axons often act in ways contrary to their so-called main function.

Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system are typically only about a micrometer thick, while
some in the peripheral nervous system are much thicker. The soma is usually about 1025 micrometers
in diameter and often is not much larger than the cell nucleus it contains. The longest axon of a
human motoneuron can be over a meter long, reaching from the base of the spine to the toes. Sensory
neurons have axons that run from the toes to the dorsal columns, over 1.5 meters in adults. Giraffes
have single axons several meters in length running along the entire length of their necks. Much of
what is known about axonal function comes from studying the squid giant axon, an ideal experimental
preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.51 millimeters thick, several centimeters long)..

Structural classification
Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as:

Unipolar or Pseudounipolar: dendrite and axon emerging from same process.

Bipolar: single axon and single dendrite on opposite ends of the soma.
Multipolar: more than two dendrites
Golgi I: neurons with long-projecting axonal processes.
Golgi II: neurons whose axonal process projects locally.
Some unique neuronal types can be identified according to their location in the nervous system and
distinct shape. Some examples are basket, Betz, medium spiny, Purkinje, pyramidal and Renshawcells.
Functional classification Edit

Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system.
Efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells and are
sometimes called motor neurons.
Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the central nervous system. These are
the most abundant neurons.
Afferent and efferent can also refer generally to neurons which, respectively, bring information to or
send information from brain region.
Classification by action on other neurons
Excitatory neurons excite their target neurons. Excitatory neurons in the brain are
often glutamatergic.Spinal motoneurons, which synapse on muscle cells, use acetylcholine as
their neurotransmitter.
Inhibitory neurons inhibit their target neurons. Inhibitory neurons are often interneurons. The
output of some brain structures (neostriatum, globus pallidus, cerebellum) are inhibitory. The
primary inhibitory neurotransmitters are GABA and glycine.
Modulatory neurons evoke more complex effects termed neuromodulation. These neurons use
such neurotransmitters as dopamine, acetylcholine, serotonin and others.
Classification by discharge patterns
Neurons can be classified according to their electrophysiological characteristics:
Tonic or regular spiking. Some neurons are typically constantly (or tonically) active. Example:
interneurons in neurostriatum.
Phasic or bursting. Neurons that fire in bursts are called phasic.
Fast spiking. Some neurons are notable for their fast firing rates, for example some types of
cortical inhibitory interneurons, cells in globus pallidus.
Thin-spike. Action potentials of some neurons are more narrow compared to the others. For
example, interneurons in prefrontal cortex are thin-spike neurons.
Classification by neurotransmitter released

Some examples are cholinergic, GABAergic, glutamatergic and dopaminergic neurons.

Connectivity

Neurons communicate with one another via synapses, where the axon terminal of one cell impinges
upon a dendrite or soma of another (or less commonly to an axon). Neurons such as Purkinje cells in
the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of thousands of
other cells; other neurons, such as the magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic nucleus, have only one
or two dendrites, each of which receives thousands of synapses. Synapses can
be excitatory or inhibitoryand will either increase or decrease activity in the target neuron. Some
neurons also communicate via electrical synapses, which are direct, electrically-
conductive junctions between cells.
In a chemical synapse, the process of synaptic transmission is as follows: when an action potential
reaches the axon terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium ions to enter the
terminal. Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the
membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the
synaptic cleft and activate receptorson the postsynaptic neuron.
The human brain has a huge number of synapses. Each of the 1012 neurons (1,000 billion, i.e. 1 trillion)
has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons. Most authors estimate that the brain of a
three-year-old child has about 1016 synapses (10,000 trillion). This number declines with age, stabilizing
by adulthood. Estimates vary for an adult, ranging from 1015 to 5 x 1015 synapses (1,000 to 5,000
trillion).

Neurons in the brain

The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species. The human brain has
about 100 billion ( ) neurons and 100 trillion ( ) synapses. By contrast, the nematode worm
(Caenorhabditis elegans) has just 302 neurons making it an ideal experimental subject as scientists
have been able to map all of the organism's neurons. Many properties of neurons, from the type of
neurotransmitters used to ion channelcomposition, are maintained across species, allowing scientists
to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental systems.