Mobile and Cellular

Communication Systems

( ) 55406

Prof. M. Bank lectures

12. 09. 2006
Dear student.
I would like to help you in this course study. For this purpose I have
prepared slides which I show in auditorium.
But these slides are not lectures outline. They are only illustrations.
During a lectures I give explanations, proves, show connections with
other courses, solve exercises.
It is impossible to get ready to exam without attending lectures.
I wish you successful course study.
See you in lectures.

2
 Color Meaning

V = I R
E = mC 2

Important formula. You There is formula, which

have to know it. you have seen in one of
previous slides.

Rin,CC > Rin,CE

To draw your
@
Original slide
*
Additional
attention. slide

3
Bibliography:
1. Lee, W.C.Y., Mobile Communications Design Fundamentals, 2nd Ed., Wiley, 1993.
2. Prasad, R. Universal Wireless Personal Communications, Artech House, 1998.
3. Rappaport, Wireless Communications. Principle & Practice (2ndad)
4. A. Mehrotra, Cellular Radio Performance Engineering, Artech House,1994.
5. R. Steele, Mobile Radio Communications, Pentech press, 1992.
6. Okunev, Y., Phase and Phase Difference Modulation in Digital Communications, Artech House,
1997
7. B. Sklar, Digital communications Pearson Education, 2001
8. Gavan, J., Perez, R., Handbook of Electromagnetic Compatibility, Academic Press, 1995. (Chapters 1, 19, 20)
9. Hess, G.C., Handbook of Land Mobile Radio Systems. Artech House, 1998.
10. IEEE and IEE Transactions and Magazine papers on Mobile, Cellular Communications and Vehicular
Technology.
11. Stuber L. G. Principle of Mobile Communications, Kluwer 1996
12. Tafazoli R. Technologies for the Wireless Future Wiley 2005.
13. Paulraj A. Nabar R. and Gore D. Introduction to Space-Time wireless communications Cambridge Press 2003.

4
 Table of contents

3G Systems Abbreviations Slides6

1. Cellular system Principles 11
2. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) 43
3. Cellular Systems Modulation Methods 60

4. CDMA. Spread Spectrum Technologies 83

5. Spreading Codes 119
6. The real example: The short and long PRN
Gold codes in Global Positioning System (GPS) 171
7. 7. OFDM Method 182

8. Third Generations 192

9. New WLAN Systems Examples 230
10. UMTS Receiver Techniques 235
11. One of Possible Cellular System next Generation 242
Appendix 1. Irradiation problems. 259
Appendix 2. Signaling System 7 274
Appendix 3. Auxiliary source for MATLAB OFDMA simulation 278
Appendix 4. Questions for self checking 300
5
 3G Systems Abbreviations

6
EDMA Enhanced Division Multiply Access

7
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiply Access

8
9
10
 1. Cellular system Principles.
Generations

11
 1.1 Mobile Communication Systems Generations
1G

12
 TDMA Cellular System (GSM, D-AMPS)
In this system different frequencies (N)
are used to separate the cells.
There are different methods in the
allocation of these frequencies
between the cells.

D = 3N R
q = D = 3N
R
For N = 7, q = 4.57
 Frequency Distribution in each zone of the
conventional system
A cell

B cell Fi f
F

K cell
f
F = Ruse
Fi
From the aforementioned figures it is clear that the same
frequency can be repeated only in Rth cell after the main
working cell. Therefore, simultaneously only 1/Ruse of the
frequency range is being used (Ruse is reuse factor).
@
One of possible scenarios for different systems comparison

Tx

Vkm/h
Rx
L km

Ai
AR,i

There is one cell with radius L(km) (0.3 30).

Transmitter or receiver is moving with velocity V(km/h) (0 200),
together with direct beam with amplitude Ai , deliver reflection beams
with amplitude AR,i (Ai/AR,i = 0.1 10) and with delay corresponding
length LR (km) [LR = (0.1 1)L].

15The middle signal frequency is f0 (GHz) (0.1 10)

 1. 2 2rd Generation Mobile Communication
Systems

16
 Diversity methods before 2rd Generation
FDMA In this case information is divided corresponding to frequency. As usual, it
is impossible to give the nearest frequency for the nearest cell, because each
signal has an additional radiation in neighboring frequencies (side lobes, not
only main lobe). Orthogonal method (OFDM) can not help in cellular system
today, because Doppler Shift can change the frequency difference between two
neighboring signals.
TDMA In this case information is divided in time. In other words, several signals are
transmitting at the same frequency one after another. Transmitting velocity in this
frequency is increasing, but this increase needs wider frequency band. Disadvantages for
cellular system are: - bigger influence of reflection signals,
- -problems with multiplexing of signals from different places.
CDMA In this case group of signals is transmitting in the same frequency band and at the same
time. The signals are divided corresponding to spreading code. CDMA systems have a two
advantages: better frequency efficiency and soft handover.
But another communication signals in this and in neighboring cells effect decoding precision of
the useful signal.

Before decoding After decoding

17
In order to avoid the influence of interference smaller communications number is used.
 Multi Path Propagation Problems Solutions

(TS - symbol duration, - reflected signal delay.)

TS TS >> TS <<

TDMA + Equalizing OFDM CDMA

TS TS
TS

18
@
Israel Cellular Telephone Systems
(non official data)
AMPS DAMPS(Cellcom) GSM-900/1800 iDEN (Mirs) CD-900
(Phelephone Digital AMPS Group Special Integrated IS-93
analog.) IS-54 Mobile Dispatch (Pelephone dig)
Advanced Mobile Enhanced
Phone Systems Network
Eur. standard Up 824-848 890-915 825-849 (USA)
Down 869-894 935-960 870-894
Israel Up 825-835,845-847 835-845,847-849 902-912 806-821
(MHz) Down 870-880,890-892 880-890,892-894 947-957 851-866

Channel spacing, 30 30 200 25

kHz 1230
Users/channel 1 3 8/16 6 62 (for isolated
cell)
Modulation FM /4DQPSK 0.3GMSK 4*16QAM DQPSK/OQPSK

Multiple Access - TDMA-3 TDMA-8 TDMA-6 CDMA

Fr.hopping FDMA-4
Encoder - VSELP/ACELP RELP-LTP VSELP QSELP
Rb before ECC kb/s - 8/7.4 13/6.5 7.4 9.6/4.8/2.4/1/2
+ECC kb/s - 5.05/5.6 block 15 block,conv 7.4 ciclick 9.6 block,conv
User/cell relative 1 3 3/5 5 6

19
 Cellular Systems Data-rate Evolution

20
 1.3 Global System for Mobile (GSM)

Maximal delay which compensated in

equalizing system is 16 s.
Maximal delay which compensated in
synchronization system is 233 s (35 km).

Some of parameters:
Transmitting and receiving frequency difference
45 MHz
Bit rate in channel (8/16 sound signals) 270.833
kbit/s
Bite rate sound signal 13/6.5 kbit/s
One channel bandwidth 200 kHz
Maximal channel number in BSS is 16 - 20
Modulation GMSK
Modulation index 0.3
Gaussian filter frequency band- 81.2 kHz

21 Frequency hopping rate 217 in one sec

Transmitter is not working in sound signal absence.
* Base Station Subsystems Network and Switching
Subsystems
OSS - Operation Subsystem interacts between External environment
infrastructure equipment including charging and billing.

NSS - Network and Switching Subsystems,

which manages the communication between GSM users
and other communication users.

BSS - Base Station System

MS - Mobile station

Internal structure

BTS Tx and Rx

Mobile equipment
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

Home Location Register (HLR) includes database of its subscribers International Module Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
Authentication Centre (AUC) manages subscriber security data with help IMSI.
22 Gateway Mobile Service Switching Center (GMCS) coordinates call set-up to and from GSM users.
MSC finds correct ISMI and Visitor Location Register (VLR) holds current subscriber location information.
 TDMA frame in GSM
* One hipper frame = 2048 super
frames = 2715648 frames

T = 12533.76 s > 3 hours

8 slots 8 usera
One super frame = 1326 TDMA frames = 51 multi frames NB - Normal Burst,
FB Frequency Correct Burst,
s
SB Synchro Burst,
s
DB Dummy Burst,
AB Access Burst.
Multi frame = 26 TDMA frames Multi frame = 51 TDMA frames
ED 57 bits information,
TB Tail bits (end-bits),
S - Stealing flag,
One TDMA frame = 8 slots
TS Training Sequence for BER
and impulse response estimation,
G Guard period is equals to
twice maximal delay for maximal
cell with radius 35 km.

Zero bits

Synchro 64 bits

Synchro 41 bits

23
 GMSK modulator schematic diagram

Power Spectral Density and Reuse

Factor

24
 Power control

Frequency Hopping

Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum System

25
 GSM Network
Stage A

EIC=Encryption Information register

NSS=Network Switching center

26
 Global System for Mobile (GSM)
Stage B Today`s GSM System Architecture
Integrated Service B
Digital Network (ISDN)

B
B
See next slide
B
B

Base Station
Controller (BSC)

Base Transceiver
Station (BTS)

GSM system architecture consist of Core Network Domain (CN) and Radio Access Domain
(RAN).
CN is divided into two domains: Circuit Switched network (CS) and Packet Switched network
(PS) in GSM 2+ is denoted General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).
27
 Today`s GSM System Architecture (continuation)
Stage B
MSC is Mobile Services Switching Center,
which are inter-connected by circuit switched
transmission lines, today using Synchronous
Transfer Mode Technology (STM)
MSC consist of ordinary MSC and Gateway
MSC (GMSC), which include some functions
for setup calls between GSM and external
networks with help Home Location Register
(HLR). HLR includes a record all subscriber
information.
Visitors Location Register (VLR) contains the data of users within the serving area of MSC
The PS domain GSM core network consist of Serving GPRS Support Nodes (SGSN) and
Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GGSN). SGSN and GGSN are connected through an Internet
Protocol (IP) based backbone network. Signaling System Protocol No7 (SS7) are used for
exchange for control information MSC/GMSC and HLR.
Radio Access Network consists of several Base Station Subsystems (BSS). A BSS consists of a
Base Station Controller (BSC), which is connected to one specific MSC through an open
interface referred to as A-Interface, and a number of Base Transceiver Stations (BTS or BS or
RBS). A BTC is the node that provides radio service for a single cell. If GPRS is supported, a
BSC is also connected to a SGSN through the Cb-Interface.
28
* 2G GSM Network
Stage C

29
@
Establishment of connection, Authentication, Roaming

MS is switching on.
MS scans all channels, it selects channel with the
maximum level, searches for control signal Broadcast
Control Channel (BCCH). If BTS does not transfer
BCCH, then MS is selected following BTS. MS
deciphers the data about BTS and is made decision
about the work with it.
1. MS scans either all channels or only control
channels in the standby mode.
2. All BTS transfer the call signals by the control
Authentication.
channels.
1. Network transfers the random number RAND.
3. MS answers on one of the free control channels.
2. MS calculates in SIM Cart the response SRES.
4. BTS transfers MS signal to the commutation center.
The center chooses BTS, which received maximal 3. Network compares obtained and its responses.
signal.
4. Network checks number on the black list.
Expectation.
Roaming.
1. Confirmation of calls.
1. MS it makes call
2. Confirmation of fitness for work
2. The center of commutation checks this MS presence in
3. Transfer: level of its BTS, level to 16 adjacent BTS, its HLR.
level BER to the second decoder.
3. If no that will bring in it in VLR and inquires data from its
4. MSC is fixed cell, in which MS. If several times MS HLR.
does not answer, then it is considered turned-off.
(The payment of services is realizing through it HLR)

30
 1.3 CDMA Cellular System

With regard to this system, each cell works on the same frequency.
In fact there is more than one cell in the system, for example: in any three
tangent (overlapping) cells, the number of possible communication
signals will be reduced to approximately N/3

Moreover, in real conditions, the frequency efficiency decreases even more :

instead of 64 users in one channel (IS95), only 18 or less.

31
 Spectrum Distribute

f0 f0
D-AMPS
critical area
( DQPSK )
4
TDMA
and
f0 f0 FDMA
GSM
( 0.3 GMSK ) critical area

f0 f0
CDMA
critical area

32
@
CDMA principle

S1
0 1

11001100 00110011 11001100 11001100 S1 A

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
A 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
S2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 =4
B 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
10011001 01100110 01100110 10011001 S2 B 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

S1+ S2
2 1 0 1,2 1 0 1 0 1 2 1,0 1 2 1 1 2 1 0,1 2 1 0 2 1 0 1,2 1 0 1 C

6 2 6 6 (CA) C > 4 1
C <40
6 2 2 6 (CB)

Any signal is not sum or difference of other signals.

*

34
 Spreading process

35
 Regulatory To isolate paths indoors, would require:

10n sec W > 100 MHz

Complexity Too many paths require too many parallel demodulators (too refined
a rake)

Is there an Optimum bandwidth?

Broad region of bandwidth-compromise among constraints- Probably 1 MHz to 10 MHz
other considerations, such as a bit rate, may dictate choice.
Outdoors delay spread is extensive (typically 3 to 50 microseconds) thus, e.g., (or
collection of paths) more than 1 microsecond apart, smearing together path elements
closer than 1 sec. Causes fading (through phase cancellation) of resulting smeared
path groups, but diversity among several groups at 1 sec. spacing recovers
performance.
Indoors delay spread much less than 1 sec diversity must be provided by
artificial multipath: distributed antennas.
Many (all) users occupy same (entire) bandwidth allocation Universal Frequency
Reuse.
Forward link (BS to MS), single unmodulated pilot provides continuous
measurement capability for all MS.

36
 Alternative to Isolated Narrow Pulses: Spread spectrum Modulator
Employs Pseudorandom Sequence Carrier

37
 IS-95 channel structure
Uses entire allocation of 1.25 MHz
Sequence generator with chip rate: 1.2288 Mchips/sec = 128*9600
Channel spacing is 1230 kHz
QPSK (DQPSK /OQPSK) Modulation with rectangular wave-shaping filter
Encoder - QSELP
Rb before ECC 9.6 kbit/s
ECC (block and convolutional) 9.6 kbit/s
Soft hand over
Power control

38
 Reverse CDMA channel modulation process

Physical layer
coding

The reverse channel (Up-link)

uses group of data into 6-bit
symbols. Each symbol
generates an appropriate
64chip Walsh code which is
then combined with both the
Frequency band long PRBS to bring the rate
widening up to 1.2288 Mchip/s, and the
short code to launch it onto
the quadrature modulation
Number MS coding
channels.
(channel label)

39
Forward CDMA channel modulation process

Physical
layer Frequency band widening
coding and BS distinguishing
Enciphering
The multiplex symbol (19.2 kb/s) is changed to
40 1.2288 Mchip/s by the Walsh code Wi assigned to
the users traffic channel
Channel label.
@
CDMA problems
Reusing

With regard to this system, each cell works on the

same frequency.
In fact there is more than one cell in the system, for
example: in any three tangent (overlapping) cells,
the number of possible communication signals will
be reduced to approximately N/3

There are large number of CDMA versions, including Direct Sequence (DS) Spreading, Frequency
Hopping (FH), Time Hopping (TH), Chirp Modulation, Multi-Carrier CDMA etc.
Spreading codes may be divided into some groups, such as Orthogonal codes, Quasi-orthogonal codes
or Pseudo-noise (PN) codes (sequences), Gold Codes, Complementary Code Keying (CCK), Chaotic
Spreading Code, etc

All these CDMA varieties with short chip duration causes the ISI (inter symbol interference)
problem, multi-path and multi-user interferences and result in throughput decreasing. The
problem is worsening due to non-ideal receiver synchronization. Moreover, in real conditions, the
frequency efficiency decreases even more :
instead of 64 users in one channel (IS95), only 18 or less.

41
 Frequency efficiency in CDMA
Base Band CDMA
K

Inf. CDMA CDMA Inf.

If K < Kmax, BER = 0

PRBS PRBS
1
RF CDMA
K

Inf. CDMA Inf.

MOD DEMOD
CDMA
PRBS 1 PRBS

ES ES Eb 1 BER 0
1
= K 1

N0 N0 K max
N 0 + Ec
N0 +
42 Eb G G is spread factor
K =1
 2. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

43
 2.1 One packet basis is ATM Cell

Header

Payload
Information
field

UNI User Network Interface VCI Virtual Channel Identifier

NNI Network node interface PTI Payload Type Identificator
GFC Generic Flow Control CLP- Cell Loss Priority
VPI Virtual Path Identifier HEC- Header Error control

Different Systems Common layers

Layers Clarifications
Application Supplements, games, editing
Transfer Protocol TCP, bytes sequence,
source, destination.

44 Message relay Retransmit, packets storage.

Link Physical layer, Error correcting.
 2.2 Internet Protocol (IP)

Transmission
Control
Protocol
(TCP)
OSI=Open System
Interconnection
* Mobile IPv6

Mobile IPv6 Approach

46
*There are other protocols. For example: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP),
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and many Application Layer Protocols

IPv6 Packets

47
*

48
* IP Addresses Format

49
* TCP Format

50
 Application Layer Protocols

51
* Convergence in Implementation
UDP=User Datagram
Protocol

52
*
...

SAP - Service Access Point

BCCH - Broadcast Control
Channel
PCCH Paging Control
Channel
S Synchronization
CC Common Control
DT Dedicated Channel

UM Unacknowledged Mode
PDU Protocol Data Unit
SDU Service Data Unit

53
*
2.3 GPRS
Protocol
Stack
GTP=GPRS Tunneling Protocol,
LLC=Local Link Control,
RLC=Radio Link Control,
MAC=Medium Access Control

54
GSM Frames and Multiframes

GPRS Multiframe

55
 GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP)
*
UDP=User Datagram Protocol,
PPP=Point to pint Protocol,
ID=Identifier

56
 GPRS Special Packets Examples
*

(regulation)

UDP User Datagram Protocol

AAL ATM Adaptation Layer, can be divided into CS and

SAR,
PDU Protocol Data Unit,
CS Convergence Sub layer,
SAR Segmentation and Reassembly,
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check,
PDP Packet Data Protocol,
PDN Packet Data Network,
RA Routing Area, LA Location Area.

57
* 2.4 Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM)

58
 IP and GPRS

There are three GPRS and GSM

modes A, B and Sluice
C. VLR GMSC
PSTN
A Circuit and
Packet
MS BTS
simultaneously,
HLR
B Both system BSS
are wiretap but
works or Circuit
or Packet ,
SGSN GGSN
C MS is wiretap
only to circuit or to Sluice Internet
packet.
59
 3. Cellular Systems Modulation Methods
Common principals

Interferences
Information
Modulator Channel ~ Receiver

Noise
Ev mV/m
Reflections

Inf
f
f fc

There are several important problems: Neighboring

zone influence, Multi-Pass Propagation (MPP),
Doppler Effect and Interferences .
60
@ 3.1 Digital Modulation Signal Space 2G
Any signals Space of signals in time 0,T by sight: S = A sin (k0t + )
0 = 2 T , k = const.
y S1
y

{0 2 }, A > 0
e2 d e2
S2 d
A1 sin 1

e1 2 e1
x 1 x
A1 cos 1

S1 = A1 sin (k0t + 1 ), S 2 = A2 sin (k0t + 2 ) Signal energy is:

T T

A sin 2 (k0t + )dt = A2 T = e2

2
1 2 is scale 2
e A, E = e 2 0

T
2
= 0, if x(t ) y (t ) = 0
d 2 = e12 + e22 2e1e2 cos( 2 1 )
or e1e2 cos(1 2 ) = 0
d 2 = Ex + E y 2 Ex E y Correlation coefficient between two
signals equals zero if inner
x(t ) y (t ) x y x y
T
production of two signals equals
= dt = zero.
0 Ex E y x y
61 ASint and Bcost are
orthogonal signals.
 Correlation Coefficient

( x(t ), y (t ) )
x(t ) y (t )
T 1 -1
x(t ) y (t )dt =1 when x(t)=ky(t) (k>0)
= 0

Ex Ey

In vector presentation y
x y
= cos =
xy x
62
 Orthogonal signals examples

Sin. and Cos. y

e2 d
A1 sin1

2 e1 x
1
A1 cos1

T
QPSK
10

BPSK A1 sin 1 d
e
A1 sin 1 11
e e A1 cos 1 e e A1 cos 1
00
e
0 d 1 01
e= E
e= E Ts = 2T
63 d = 2 E = 2 PT
d = 2 E = 2 P 2T = 2 PT
 Increasing M in MPSK

BPSK QPSK 8PSK

d =2 E d= 2 E d =0.765 E
1 R 1 Rb 1
RS =Rb = RS = b = RS = =
T 2 2T 3 3T
P P P
ES = =PT ES = = 2PT ES = =3PT
RS RS RS
dS =2 ES =2 PT dS = 2 ES = 2 PT dS =1.33 PT

64
 BPSK QPSK
(2PSK) (4PSK)
E
E

F f F f
(FT=1) 1 bit/s/Hz.. (FT =1) 2 bit/s/Hz..

In case of QPSK we have from 1bit/s per Hz till 2bit/s per Hz. It depends on
band pass filter, pulls shaping and decoding method (see next slide)

Bandwidth of MPSK signal

65
 FT = 2

FT = 1

With help the band-pass filter, which

support needed pulse shaping and
with help coherent demodulator, we
can get F = Rb without noticeable
BER increasing.
FT = 2 includes 94.8% of he
whole of power.
FT = 1 includes 90.2% of he
whole of power.

66
 QPSK I-Q modulation
2
2 u (t ) = A sin k 0t + r =
inf = r , r = 0,1,...m 1 m
m
2 2
= A sin k 0 t cos( r ) + A cos k 0 t sin( r )
m m
In communication system sinusoidal signal is presented frequently like cos not like sin.

2 2
u ( t ) = A cos( k 0 t + ) cos( r ) + A sin( k 0 t + ) sin( r ) =
4 m 4 m
2 2
= I cos( r ) Q sin( r )
m m

I = A sin k 0 t = A cos( k 0 t + ) Q = A cos k 0 t = A sin( k 0 t + )
4 4
Another explonation of sign minus.

[
u (t ) = Re g (t )e jk0t ]
g(t) = x k + jy k e jk0t = cosk0t + jsink0t
u (t ) = Re[(x k + jy k )(cos k0t yk sin k0t )] =
= xk cos k0t yk sin k0t

67 = Acos( k0t + )
4
 Pulse shaping filter IQ Modulator

A sin 2f 0t

I(t)

s m (t )
+
Q(t)

68 A cos 2f 0t
QPSK
modulator I sin
Q cos

From W. Tomasi.Electronic Communications

Systems, Prenttice Hall, 1988.
I-Q
modulator

I cos
Q sin

69 From M.K. SimonDigital Communication

Techniques, Prenttice Hall, 1995.
 QPSK problems and solutions
There are phase jumps on 1800. These jumps effect on BER and on wave
form after shaping filter and limiter.

I I

Q Q

QPSK Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

Wave form after shaping filter and after limiter.

QPSK
Phase jumps
on 1800

OQPSK

70 OQPSK has a smaller peak factor and smaller side lobes.

71
 3.2 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
This is orthogonal method, the phase arc
wise in time changes by 900 (continuous-
phase frequency shift keying).
I
1
1 = 2 f 0 + t 2f 0t
4T
Q
1
0 = 2f 0t 2 f 0 t
Offset QPSK (OQPSK) 4T

d
s (t ) = cos 2 f 0 + k t + xk kT < t < (k + 1)T
4T
f 0 is carrier frequency
1 1
d k if d k = 1, f f 0 + if d k = 1, f f 0 , d k is bipolar data sin( x y ) = sin x cos y cos x sin y
4T 4T
cos( x y ) = cos x cos y m sin x sin y
R= 1
T
xk is phase constant (0 or )
t t
During each T-second data interval, the value of xk s (t ) = ak cos cos 2f 0t bk sin sin 2f 0t
is a constant, that is, xk = 0 or , determinate by the 2T 2T
requirement that the phase of the waveform be I Q
continuous at t = kT. This requirement results in the
following recursive phase constraint for xk : kT < t < (k + 1)T
k ak = cos xk = 1, bk = d k cos xk = 1
x k = x k 1 + (d k 1 d k ) mod ulo 2
72 2 t t
s (t ) = d I (t ) cos cos 2f 0t + d Q (t ) sin sin 2f 0t
2T 2T
 2 2 2 Bd2 2
ht (t ) = Bd exp t
ln 2 ln 2

73
* Power Spectral Density
2
sin fT
NRZ S P ( f ) = V 2T
fT
2 sin [( f f c )T ]
2

S
BPSK P ( f ) = V T
( f f c ) T
sin[( f f c ) 2T ]
QPSK S P ( f ) = V 2T
2

( f f c ) 2T
16V 2T cos[( f f c ) 2T ]
MSK S P ( f ) =
2 1 16( f f c )2 T 2

74
3.3 8PSK in Enchanced Data rate for Global Evolution (EDGE)

75
 Wave form after shaping filter and after limiter.
It is like OQPSK
solution QPSK
Phase
jumps on
1800 OQPSK
76
OQPSK has a smaller peak factor and smaller side lobes.
77
78
*

79
*

80
*

81
*

82
4. CDMA. Spread Spectrum Technologies

83
@
4.1 Direct Sequences

CDMA In this case group of signals is transmitting in the same frequency

band and at the same time. The signals are divided corresponding to
spreading method. CDMA systems have a two advantages: better
frequency efficiency and soft handover. The spreading one can make by
spreading code.

It is possible to divide all spreading codes for two groups:

- Orthogonal codes,
- Quasi-orthogonal codes or Pseudo-noise (PN) codes (sequences).
It can be possible to divide the quasi-orthogonal codes for to sub-
groups:
-short codes,
-long codes.
Besides, it can be pick out the group of codes for synchronization.

84
85
86
 Nc

Nc

Nc

87
 4.2 CDMA Equipment

88
 Direct-sequence Spread Spectrum Demodulator
*

89
 Rake receiver
*
We can

90
*

91
 Narrowband Interference Influence

92
 Bandwidth problems
Channel Measurement
Channel Control and Modification
Multiple User Channel Isolation
We have to isolate separate impulses: Uncertainty Principle:
-The wider the bandwidth, the better the measurement.
-Measurements should be done more frequently than rate of change of channel
to achieve accuracy, sufficient energy must be accumulated.

k demodulators
k
Regulatory To isolate paths indoors, would require:
BW
Complexity Too many paths require too many parallel
demodulators (too refined a rake) 10n sec BW > 100MHz
93
 Is there an Optimum bandwidth?
Broad region of bandwidth-compromise among constraints- Probably 1 MHz to 10 MHz
other considerations, such as a bit rate, may dictate choice.
Outdoors delay spread is extensive (typically 3 to 50 microseconds) thus, e.g., (or
collection of paths) more than 1 microsecond apart, smearing together path elements
closer than 1 sec. Causes fading (through phase cancellation) of resulting smeared
path groups, but diversity among several groups at 1 sec. spacing recovers
performance.
Indoors delay spread much less than 1 sec diversity must be provided by
artificial multipath: distributed antennas.
Many (all) users occupy same (entire) bandwidth allocation Universal Frequency
Reuse.
Forward link (BS to MS), single unmodulated pilot provides continuous
measurement capability for all MS.

94
 4.3 Transmitter - Receiver

95
 Options for Modulation and Spreading

Here

96
97
*

98
 4.4 Direct Sequence Implementation

99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
 4.5 Another Spreading methods
Frequency Hopping

109
 Time Hopping (Chirp Modulation)

R. Steele Mobile Communication Radio.

Penthech Press, 1992.
TC 1
110 =
T
*

111
 4.6 Special CDMA Filters
Pulse Shaping Filter

112
 Frequency Up-conversion Filters
*

113
 4.7 Hybrid Access Methods

114
115
116
117
118
@
5. Spreading Codes
It is possible to divide all spreading codes for two groups:
- Orthogonal codes,
- Quasi-orthogonal codes or Pseudo-noise (PN) codes (sequences).
It can be possible to divide the quasi-orthogonal codes for to sub-groups:
-short codes,
-long codes.
Besides, it can be pick out the group of codes for synchronization.

119
@ 5.1 Orthogonal Sequence

Rademacher Functions Walsh Functions

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
These are
orthogonal signals,
which means that
any signal is not
Rectangular Sinus sum or difference
Rectangular Wave
of other signals.

There is 64-Walsh function In IS-95

W0 for pilot signal, W32- for synchrony signal,
W1 W7 for dial, the rest of functions for talk.
120
121
* Hadamard (Walsh) Codes

122
123
*

124
*

125
 5.2 Quasi-orthogonal Sequence Nc

Value In this course In other sources

Register number n, L n
Chips number in sequence Nc N, L

Processing gain Gp G
Data symbol duration Ts
Chip duration Tc

In a DS CDMA System, the number of chips per bit (N) and the chip-pulse waveform are the
same for each user (given equal bit-rates).
There are several obvious questions regarding the issue of sequence design:
- How to choose a spreading sequence?
- How to generate a spreading sequence?
- How to choose and generate a set of sequences when more than one sequences are
needed, for example in DS-CDMA systems?
There are couple of important properties we want to the spreading sequences to posses:
- The elements of chip sequence should be pseudo-random,
- It should be easy to distinguish a spreading signal from a time-shifted version of it,
- It should be easy to distinguish a spreading signal from other sequences, including time-
shifted versions of them,
- It should be easy for the transmitter and the intended receiver to generate chip sequences,
126
- It should difficult for any unintended receiver to acquire and regenerate the chip sequence.
 5.3 Quasi-orthogonal Sequences Properties

127
@
Autocorrelation and Spectral Density
*
Autocorrelation Function:
rx ( ) = [x(t ) x(t + )]

( ) =
Autocorrelation Coefficient: Rx ( )
Rx ( 0)

Autocorrelation Function: r ( k ) =
n =
x (n ) x
(n k )

Furrier transform x ( ) =
n =
x (n )e jn

Power Spectral Density

S k ( ) = x ( n )e jn 2
= x(n) x
n , m =

( m )e jn
e jm
= x(n) x
n , m =

( m ) e j ( n m )

nm = k m = nk

128 S k ( ) =
k = n =
x (n ) x (n k )e jk
=
k =
r ( k )e jk
@ *

S P ( f ) = [R x ( ) ] = x ( )
R e j 2 f
d
SP(f) Power Spectral
Density

- Fourier Transform
[ ] S
rx ( ) = 1 S P ( f ) = P( f )e j 2 t
df

() Real signal Accidental signal

SP(f)
Accidental signal Real signal

129
 ( rx ( ) ) (S P( f ))

130
131
 Ran is chips number successively.

Desirable

N/2
N/4
N/8

132 N
133
 Linear and nonlinear code generation

Linear generator with n

stages (shift registers)
has 2n -1 unique states.
@
Four stage shift register generator

D1 D2 D3 + D4

1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1

Binary-to-decimal conversion

Good sequences
Not too good
sequences

135 We have 24 1 different states

*

136
*
After some steps we get from
above

NNc c

Nc
L

137
* Nc

Nc

Maximal sequences has number of ones and number of zeroes equal 2n/2 and 2n/2 1.
Maximal number of maximal sequences equals to [ (2 n
1 )]
n
where (2 1 ) is an Euler number the number of positive integers including 1 that are
n

relatively prime to and less than 2n 1.

For example for five stage register we have 2n 1 = 31. because 31 is itself prime, all positive
integers less than 31 are relatively prime to it. So we have:
138 [ (2 n
1 )] = 30
= 6
n 5
PN

139
140
141
@

It is possible using toggle shift

register generator. This method
allows getting some different
maximal sequences with help of one
generator.

Here binary code is presented by a

polynomial, where the degree of the
polynomial is equal to the number of
stages in the generating register.
As an example, 1 + x + x2 + x4 + x 7 is a
seven-stage code generator with
feedback from stages 1, 2, and 4, with
of course, 7.

142
* 5.4 Autocorrelation Function

143
*

144
*

145
*

146
* 5.5 Cross-correlation Function

147
*

148
 5.6 Gold Codes

149
The autocorrelation properties of the
m-sequences cannot be bettered. But
a multi-user environment (CDMA)
needs a set of codes with the same
length and with good cross-correlation
properties.
This Gold Codes produced by combining the two output
R. Gold proposed method for getting maximal codes with different initial offsets; that is, the two
product codes (Gold Codes) in code generators are started with initial conditions offset by
various amounts to give different output codes.
year1966.Gold Codes achieved by the
exclusive or-ing (modulo 2 adding) of Thus, from this Gold sequence generator, 33 maximal-length
two base codes with the same length. codes are available. (2L - 1 maximal sequences plus the two
maximal base sequences)>
There are two five-stage sequence
generators connected in the Gold
configuration.

150
Gold has presented a method for choosing the linear maximal codes used as components
to Gold sequences that gives a set of sequences, each of whose members has cross-
correlation, and autocorrelation side lobes, bounded by:
( ) 2( L +1) / 2 + 1 for L odd
( ) 2( L + 2) / 2 1 for L even

An equivalent result is given by Anderson for the Gold Codes:

1/ 2
2 1 +1/ Nc + 1/ 2
( )
2

2
If N c , ( )
Nc
For maximal sequences we have:
1/ 2
1 + 1 / N c 1 / N c2
( )
L
1
If N c , ( )
Nc

Increasing cross-correlation bound by 2 is Gold Code pays for increasing number of

good codes.

151
152
153
154
155
156
* 5.7 Orthogonal Gold Codes
Nc
Nc

Nc

Nc

157
* 5.8 Codes for synchronization

Barker Code

158
The main Barker Code implementation is synchronization word.
*
In designing prefix sequence we have to obtain minimum correlation
of the sequence with truncated shifted versions of itself. The
truncated correlation, for a shift of k positions, is given by
mk
C k or Rk or B = xi xi + k
i =1

where xi is either or +1 or -1 , and m is the length of the prefix. (After

and before code Barker are zeros.)

159
* Neuman-Hofman and Barker Codes

Max. value
Correlation function under shift
of Corr.
Code-word Function.

Barker

Barker

160
 5.9 Complementary Code Keying (CCK)

In comparison with Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) CCK has a

better correlation properties.
But there are another solutions, for example Gold Code, Neuman-Hofman
Codes, Barker Codes and new opportunities like Chaotic Code

161
162
163
@ Another explanation

L L U L L U U
L L U U L U U

164
 If we transmit sequence 1 by I and sequence 2 by Q we will get
autocorrelation function (cj +dj) equals zero for each shift, except
zero.
165
* The IEEE 802.11 complementary spreading codes have a code
length 8 and a chipping rate of 11Mchip/s. The 8 complex
comprise a single symbol.

The data bit stream is partitioned into bytes

as (d7, d6, d5, d4, d3, d2, d1, d0)where d0 is The encoding bases on
LSB and is first in time. The 8 bits are used to differential QPSK modulation as
encode the phase parameters 1 4, specified in following table.
according to following table.

(d1, d0) 1 di+1, di Phase

00 0
(d3, d2) 2
01
(d5, d4) 3 10 /2
166 11 -/2
(d7, d6) 4
*

The phase
167 parameter 1 is contained in all 8 chips of the code word so it essentially
rotates the whole vector.
*

168
*

169
* 5.10 Chaotic Spreading Code

Proceedings 2005, XXYIII General Assembly of International Union Radio Science (URSI)

170
 6. The real example: The short and long PRN
*@ Gold codes in Global Positioning System
(GPS)
GPS Principles

In three dimensions this means that

we really need to make four
measurements to cancel out an error.
Fore decreasing red triangle we have
to decrease pulse (chip) duration and
increase PRN sequence length.
There are two PRN codes in GPS: Coarse/Acquisition Code C/A-code and Precision
Code P-code. Both codes are Gold Codes.
C/A-code has 1.023 MHz of frequency, 10 bits registers, 1 ms sequence length.
P-code has 10.23 MHz of frequency, 12 bits registers, 7 days sequence length.
171 Holmes, J,K., Coherent Spread Spectrum systems, Malabor, FL: Robert E.
Krieger Publishing Company, 1990,pp. 344-394.
*

172
*

The function of the two taps on the G2 shift register is to shift the code phase in G2 with
respect to the code phase in G1 without the need for an additional shift register to perform
this delay. Each C/A-code PRN number is associated with the two tap positions on G2
173
* The GPS P-code is generated by PN
sequences using four 12-bit shift
registers designated X1A, V1B, X2A
and X2B.
With this shift register architecture, the
P-code sequence length would be more
than 38 weeks in length, but is
portioned into 37 unique sequences
that are truncated at the end of 1 week..
Therefore, the sequence length of each
PRN code is 6.1871*1012 chips and the
repetition period is 7 days.

174
 Repetition: Autocorrelation Functions, Power Spectral Densities
* Single rectangular pulse
f1 (t ) = A t Tc / 2
Function
f1 (t ) = 0 elsewhere
T
sin c
FT F1 ( ) = ATc 2 ,
Fourier transform of f1 (t) Tc

2
= 2f (rad / sec)
where
f = Hz

The autocorrelation
R1 ( ) = f (t ) f (t + )dt

1 1

The autocorrelation
of f1 (t) R1 ( ) = A2Tc 1 Tc
Tc
R1 ( ) = 0 elsewhere

Because power S1( ) = R ( ) cos d

1

spectrum is Fourier Tc

A (T )cos d
transform of the S1( ) = 2
c
autocorrelation Tc
function: 2
T
sin c T
S1( ) = A2Tc2 2 A2Tc2 sin c 2 c
175 Tc 2

2
 Random binary code
*

It is known, that for R ( ) = A2 1 Tc
Tc
random signal:
R ( ) = 0 elsewhere

2
T
sin c T
S ( ) = A2Tc2 2 A2Tc2 sin c 2 c
Tc 2

2

176
 Pseudo random binary code
*

R( ) = A2 1 Tc
It is known, that for pseudo random Tc
signal (PN sequences):

NTc
1
RPN ( ) =
NTc PN (t )PN (t + )dt
0

We have got for maximum length sequence (N = 2n - 1) the infinite

series of the triangle function R() with period NTc.
Using Dirac delta function we can get autocorrelation function by
the convolution with an infinite series of the phase-shifted unit Tc
S ( ) = A2Tc2 sin c 2
impulse function: 2

A2 N + 1
RPN ( ) = + R( ) ( + mNTc )
N N m =

After Fourier transform :

A2
m m2
S PN ( ) = 2 ( ) + ( N + 1) sin c 2 +

N m = 0 N NTc
sin x
sin c( X ) = , m = 1, 2, 3, ...
x The problem
is side lobes.
The GPS PRN codes are not shift register
sequences
177 of maximum length. For example C/A
code (n = 10 ) uses 30 length sequence.
 C/A code is Gold code The C/A code autocorrelation

*
Using the exclusive-or of two maximum length
functions a series of correlation
triangles with a period of 1.023
C/A code chips, or 1 msec
shift registers, G1 and G@ (with a
programmable delay), there are 2n 1possible
delays. There are 1.023 possible Gold codes for
the GPS C/A-code generator architecture (plus
two additional maximum length sequences).
The 32 Gold codes with the best properties
were selected for the GPS space segment.
The autocorrelation function of the GPS C/A-
code is:
t =1023
1
RG ( ) =
1.023TC / A G (t )G (t + )d
t =0
i i

where
Gt (t ) = C/A code Gold code sequence as a function of time t for SVi
TCA C/A code chipping period (977.5 nsec)
phase of the time shift in the autocorrelation function

SV are space vehicles

178
* C/A Gold code

It is as maximum length PN sequences.

P(Y) code

t = 6.18711012
1
RP ( ) =
6.18711012 TCP P (t ) P (t + )d
t =0
i i

where
Pi (t ) = P(Y) code Gold code sequence as a function of time t for SVi
TCP = P(Y) code chipping period (97.8 nsec)
= phase of the time shift in the autocorrelation function

179
*

180
* Cross-Correlation Functions and CDMA Performance

Each SV PRN code used in the CDMA system must be minimally cross-correlated with
any other SV's PRN code for any phase or Doppler shift combination within the entire
code period. The ideal cross correlation functions of the GPS codes are defined by the
following equation:
Rij ( ) = PN (t ) PN

i j (t + ) = 0

where
PN i (t ) = PN code sequence for satellite I

PN j (t ) = PN code sequence for all other satellites J under the condition that J I
Because the code length is 6.1871*1012 chips the cross-correlation level of the GPS
P(Y)-codes with any other GPS P(Y) code approaches 127 dB with respect to
maximum autocorrelation. Hence, the cross-correlation of the P(Y) code of any GPS SV
can be treated as a uncorrelated with any other GPS SV signals for any phase shift .

Because the GPS C/A-code length was a

compromise at 1.023 chips, the cross-correlation
properties can be poor under certain circumstances.
As shown in table, the C/A-code cross-correlation
function have peak levels that can be as poor as -24
dB with respect to is maximum autocorrelation for a
zero Doppler
181 difference between any two codes.
@
7. OFDM Method

E E

f f
fc fci fci+1
Single Carrier Multi - Carrier
E

OFDM
f
182
fcifci+1
 Multi Carrier
Single Carrier
E
f
f

fc f

For QPSK we have from 1 2 bit/s per Hz. It

depends on band pass filter, pulse shaping and
decoding method. 1 1
f1 = k f2 = ( k + 1)
T T
1
S 1 = A 1 sin[ 2 k t + 1]
OFDM T
1
Single Source S 2 = A 2 sin[ 2 ( k + 1 ) t + 2]
T
E
Let us A1 = A 2 = 1 1 = 2 = 0
T
1 1

0
[sin 2 k
T
t ][sin 2 ( k + 1)
T
t ] dt = 0
f
fci fci+1
In case of QPSK
Orthogonality f = f c ,i +1 f c ,i = 1
Ts

we have 2bit/s per Hz

condition: f i = kf

183 The main advantages: - Minimal Multipath propagation influence,

- High frequency efficiency.
 MPP and OFDM Signal

E
M 1
1
S OFDM = Ai Sin[2 (k + i )t + i ]
i =0 T
f
fci fci+1

For decreasing Multipath propagation (MPP) influence, each symbol includes Guard
interval wit duration TG
TG

TS

TG T

184
@
Doppler in OFDM
Distance increasing or decreasing causes the change in the receiving symbol
duration by kd. Symbol period number does not depend on moving Tx or Rx ,
therefore the frequency changes by kd as well.

V
There are frequency and time f kd and T / kd where kd = 1 + cos
changing. C
Without Doppler.
( f k +i +1 f k +i )T = 1
With Doppler. [( fi +1 fi ) kd ] [T / kd ] = 1
So Doppler shift does not effect orthogonally condition, but
1. The receiver does not change symbol time instantly.
2. The receiver does not change FFT parameters instantly.
It is possible to assume, that in Doppler shift situation T is constant due to symbol
synchronization system in receiver.
In this case we get:
a additional phase shift t,
b orthogonallity disturbance,
c additional phase shift due to incompatibility carrier frequencies and spectral
components after FFT.
185
@

Doppler in OFDM
In the case of constant symbol duration (IFFT interval) T:

1 1 1
f i = ( k + i ) k d ( k + i ) = ( k + i )( k d 1)
T T T
1 1 1
f i+ n = ( k + i + n )( k d 1) = k ( k d 1) + (i + n )( k d 1)
T T T

In the case of Doppler the frequency shift consists of two parts:

1
- constant part k (kd 1)
T
1
- small changing part, which proportional to carrier number (i + n)(kd 1)
T
T = 100 s = 10 4 , f = 1 = 10 4 , f = 1GHz ,
Example. T
9 1 / 30
FFT is made on receiving k = 10 4 = 10 , k d , cos =1 = 1 +
5
= 1 + 10 7
10 300000
frequencies: 7
f1 = 10 10 10 = 100 .000 Hz
4 5

f 2 = 10 4 (10 5 + 1) 10 7 = 100 .001 Hz

Conclusion: frequency shift on all carriers and corresponding Phase

Shift (D) are approximately the same.
186
@

Delay in OFDM
1 1 1
i = [ 2 ( k + i )(t + t ) 2 ( k + i )]t = 2 ( k + i ) t
T T T
1 1 1
i +1 = [ 2 ( k + i + 1)(t + t ) 2 ( k + i + 1)t ] = 2 ( k + i + 1) t
T T T
t t
i +1 i = 2 or i + n i = n 2
T T

In the case of delay, the phase shift consists of two parts:

t
-constant part 2 k
T
t
- Small changing part, which is proportional to carrier number 2 i
T

This conclusion is truth for the cases where delay (t) is comparable with
symbol duration (T). For example, is transmitters are located with
different distance.

187
@

Short Delay in OFDM

In case of moving transmitter the following symbol can be received

slightly earlier or later. This delay depend on moving speed and
direction. In this case t << T.
300 120000
1 = = 0.3m, V = = 33.3...m / s,
Example: T = 0.1 ms, f1 = 1GHz = 1000 1000 60 60
MHz, V = 120 km/h. In this case, on first
LT =100s = 33.3...m / s 104 s = 0.3...cm
carriers we have phase shifts due to delay
equal 3.60. = 2 0.3...30 = 3.60
In case of FBS-8 with f = 10 kHz the
eighth frequency (f8) will be 1000.07 MHz.
Eighth carrier will have phase shift equals
3.60010.

Conclusion: phase shifts coursed by moving transmitter

distance changing are approximately the same on all carriers.

188
@

MMP in OFDM
In the case of Guard Interval, using Multipath Propagation (MPP) causes the phase
shift which depends on k, i, t, A/AR.
The reflection signal is one more signal with the same frequency and with two
additional phase shift part. First phase shift part does not depend on sub-carrier
number and second one is proportional to sub-carrier number.
1
Direct signal: si (t) = Asin[2 (k + i) t + i ]
T
Reflection signal:
1 1 1
si,R (t ) = AR sin[2 (k + i) (t + t ) + i ] = AR sin[2 k (t + t ) + i ] + 2 i (t + t)
T T T
1
2 k t
First phase shift part T
Second phase shift part 1
2 i t
T
One can see that MMP phase shift does not depend on modulation phase.
Moreover it is possible to assume that A/AR does not change essentially
during one symbol.
So MMP phase shift is a serious problem, but amplitude shift can be
compensated by well known Amplitude Gain Control (AGC) methods.
189
@
Delay, Doppler and MPP in OFDM
All three factors result in BER increasing.
First of all, errors number increases due to amplitude and phase changing.
The second cause is orthogonallity disturbance and the third is due to incompatibility of
carrier frequencies and spectral components after FFT.
Orthogonallity disturbance and incompatibility carrier frequencies and spectral
components after FFT can cause additional phase shift increasing and ISI appearance.
All channel influences, such as Delay, Doppler and MMP, have on all sub-carriers the same
value, in addition to the , which is proportional to the carrier frequency . The second part
may be much smaller in comparison with the constant part.
1
In the general case, instead of transmitted cub-carrier: si ,Tx (t ) = Ai Sin[2 (k + i )t + i ]
T
we have sub- carrier with Delay, Doppler and MPP influences:

1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~
si , Rx (t ) = Ai Sin[ 2 ( k + i )t + i + + D + i + i D ] + AR ,i Sin[ 2 ( k + i )t + i + , R + D , R + i , R + i D , R ]
T T

Where: ~ the same and different part of phase shift due to Delay accordingly,
+ i
~
D + +iD the same and different part of phase shift due to Doppler accordingly,
~
,R + i ,R reflection signal the same and different part of phase shift due to accordingly Delay
~
D,R + iD,R reflection signal the same and different part of phase shift due to accordingly
Doppler

190
@ Todays OFDM Solutions

Doppler shift influence is becoming more and more critical point in radio modems
design.
- The Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) system may represent a possible solution of
this problem by means of differential modulation. Nevertheless, it is impossible in
the case of QAM modulation.
- In the OFDM systems we may use the pilot signals on the same additional carriers
like in Terrestrial Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB-T) system, but this does not work
in the case of OFDMA system, where various sources use various carriers.
Symbol
i Multiplie LP
r F
Reference
Symbol

191 This solution requires noticeable redundancy increasing. If time conditions changing is
comparable with symbol duration, this redundancy increasing can be 100% and more.
 8. Third Generations
8.1 3G Standardization, UMTS Architecture

192
* Orange 3G in Israel

"
orange ,
- , - !!!

USB , kbps384
10
GPRS-
"

GPRS- :orange
-

GPRS-


193
 8.2 IMT 2000 of ITU

ITU is International Communication

Union

(D-AMPS)
194
 IMT-2000 standards are referred to as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), cdma2000,
and radio transmission technology Universal Wireless Communications 136 (UWC-136).

In January 1998 ETSI selected two radio transmission technologies (from originally 4 different
proposals) for UMTS terrestrial radio access (UTRA), referred to as UTRA FDD (Frequency Division
Duplex) and UTRA TDD (Time Division Duplex), which were submitted to ITU as candidates for IMT-
2000.
The IMT-2000 family of 3G systems includes
three types of Core Network technology:
1.GSM based (using Mobile Application Part
(MAP) protocols on top of SS7 protocols for ITU IMT-2000 family
signaling) of 3G systems
2. ANSI-41 based (IS-634 protocols for signaling)
3. Internet Protocol based (in future, to be
specified)

Five types of Radio Access Network

technologies
1. UTRA FDD (W-CDMA)
2. UTRA TDD (W-CDMA combined with
TDMA)
3. cdma2000-MC (N-CDMA with multiple
carriers on downlink, W-CDMA uplink)
4. UWC-136 (TDMA, TDD and FDD
modes)
5. DECT (TDMA, TDD); an extension to
todays DECT technology to enable the
support of 3G services in wireless phones.
195
 UMTS
Mobile Systems Convergence

196
 8.3 3G UMTS Network

197
* UMTS/3G Architecture

Architecture UTRAN consist of one of several Radio Network Systems (RNS) which corresponds
to a BSS in GSM radio access networks. An RNS is comprised of a Radio Network Controller
(RNC) which controls several Node B.
198
 UMTS Architecture

UE is a UMTS mobile phone with a Universal Subscriber

Identity Module (USIM) inserted.

UMTS Teleservices
199 GSM speech, emergency call, New email, file transfer, Web
short message service (SMS) browsing, Voice over IP, etc.
 Some of Teleservices

200
*
Today`s GSM System Very reductive Architecture

PSTN
MSC is Mobile Services
Switching Center
MSC MSC
Base Station
Subsystems BSS

RBS (BTS, BS) RBS (BTS, BS) RBS (BTS, BS)

RBS is Radio Base

Station

MS (UE)
201
 UMTS Architecture and GSM

The strategy of introduction of UMTS is to integrate UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access

Network (UTRAN) into existing GSM Network. Initially UMTS service will likely be
establishes in certain hot-spot areas like cities, airport, etc.
New introduced UMTS services will require upgraded Core Network Nodes (3G-MSC) and
(3G-GSN).
The UMTS Ie interface employs Adaptive transport mode (ATM) technology for data
transport
202
which enables efficient data transport of both circuit switched and packet switched
cervices, whereas in today`s GSM network Synchronous Transform Mode (STM) is applied.
 UTRAN Architecture

Architecture UTRAN consist of one of several Radio Network Systems (RNS) which
corresponds to a BSS in GSM radio access networks. An RNS is comprised of a Radio
Network Controller (RNC) which controls several Node B.

203
 UTRAN Architecture (continuation)

The term Node B refers to a site where

several radio base stations are co-located,
with each such radio base station serving one
cell. A Node B is connected to an RNC via
the Iub Interface.

There is also an interface between RNCs, referred tu as Iur interface. Such an interface does not
exist in GSM access networks. In GSM, there is only a small amount of communication between
different RNS entities needed which is handled through the Core network but which requires
radio access network dependent functions in the core Network domain.

User Equipment (UE) can simultaneously be served by multiply cells, i.e. it can be connected
with multiply Node Bs. If a UE is connected to Node Bs of different RNC, the Iur interface is
needed to exchange the data with the serving RNC (S-RNC), which at a given time provides the
connection with the Core Network via the Iu interface.

204
*

205
*

206
 UTRAN Transport Protocols
*

UMTS air Transmission

207
 UTRAN
8.3 Air Transmission UTRA FDD UTRA TDDD

GSM

208 RNS
* Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
GSM

PSTN

Mobile Services
Switching Center MSC MSC

Radio Base
Station
RBS (BTS, BS) RBS (BTS, BS) RBS (BTS, BS)

PSTN
UMTS
Home Location
Register (HLR)
Controller Display Visitor Location
Register (VLR)
Authentication server

Apparatus Register
Switchboard Central Controller

Controller Terminal

209
RBS
 Radio Network Controller

RNS
210
 Node B

211
 Node B
Radio Base Station (RBS or BTS or BS )

Splitter Adder

Rx 1 Rx N Tx 1 Tx N

Controller (RNC)

A-Interface

to MSC

212 RNS
 User Equipment

213
*

214
 Mobile Station MS or UE (in UMTS)

Receiver

Microprocessor Synthesizer

Transmitter
Control Antenna
Block Block

Control Block includes microphone, loud speaker, keyboard and display.

Antenna Block includes antenna and commutator.
Synthesizer gives out transmitting carrier and receiving signal carrier.
UE includes Identity Module (USIM) and Voice Activity detector also.

215
8.4 UTRA FDD, UTRA TDD and cdma-2000-MC Signals
EDMA is Enhanced Division Multiply Access
ETSI proposes five conceptions for SG (see table) TMS320C6000 of texas Instrument

WB CDMA () OFDMA () WB-TDMA () WB-TD-CDMA () OFDMA ()

Access CDMA SFH-TDMA OFDM TDMA TDMA/CDMA CDMA/EDMA

Carriers separation 200kHz 100 kHz 1.6 MHz 1.6 MHz 1 MHz
in 4.2 5.2 MHz (24 carriers) 4MHz
Bit-rate, 4.096 Mch/s 4.17 kbit/s*24 2.6 Mbit/s 2.1667 Mbit/s 0.8125 Mch/s
3.25 Mch/s
In Europe there is one paired frequency band in the range 1920 1980 MHz and 2110
2170 MHz to be used for UTRA FDD and there are two unpaired bands from 1900 1920 MHz
Today we can talk and 2010 2025 MHz intended for operation of UTRA TDD. In the USA 3G systems shall
about two systems in initially be operated in the PCS band which is already partly used for 2G systems. MSS refers to
Europe: UTRA FDD spectrum reserved for 3G mobile satellite systems (1980 - 2010 MHz and 2170 2200 MHz).
and UTRA TDD and The PCS band in the USA was already divided into chunks of 5 MHz and mostly sold in form of
one system in USA: MHz paired band to PSC network operators before any 3G systems were proposed. This52
cdma-2000. situation in the USA has imposed the requirement that it must be possible to operate a 3G system
In Israel CELLCOM MHz paired frequency band. Operation of the 3G system must even be possible5 within a 2
uses UTRA TDD and when a different standard possibly working at a different power level is installed in the
ORANGE uses UTRA immediate neighboring bands without any additional guard band between these neighboring
FDD. bands
The UMTS band in Europe is therefore divided into twelve 5 MHz paired frequency slots,
suitable for UTRA FDD, and four plus three 5 MHz unpaired frequency slots suitable for UTRA
TDD mode.
In May further frequency bands for UMTS/IMT-2000 was identified by the ITU World Radio Conference
(WRC-2000). These bands (more than 160 MHz additional spectrum) shall ensure future extension of UMTS.

216 SFH is Slow Frequency Hopping. See: New Concepts and Technologies for Achieving Highly Reliable and High-Capacity
Multimedia Wireless Communications Systems Norihiko Morinaga, Osaka University Masao Nakagawa, Keio University
Ryuji Kohno, Yokohama National University. IEEE Communications Magazine. Januar 1997
 In all three systems:
- Bite rate of one user after channel encoder Rbe = 15 kbit/s
- Time of radio frame is 10 ms
In UTRA FDD and in UTRA TDD:
- Chip rate before modulator is 3.84 Mcps
- 5 MHz frequency slots
In cdma-200-MC:
- Chip rate in uplink 3.6864 Mcps, in downlink 1.2288 Mcps

217
 UTRA FDD

Inf. MOD
15 kBit/s
3.84 Mcps
PRBS

218
 UTRA TDD

Inf.

15 kBit/s MUX MOD

Inf. 3.84 Mcps

15 kBit/s
PRBS

219
220
 cdma-2000-MC Downlink

f1
f2
Inf. MOD. f3 3*1.2288 = 3.6864
15 kBit/s Mcps
1.2288 Mcps

PRBS

221
 cdma-2000-MC Uplink

Inf. MOD.
15 kBit/s
3.6864 Mcps

PRBS

222
223
 UWC - 136

This slid

224
 UWC - 136

225
 IMT 2000 specification

226
*
8.5 Shortly about Protocol Design Principals

227
*

228
* Layer-to-Layer Communication

229
* 9. New WLAN Systems Examples
WiMax

230
*

231
*
OFDM method has a difficult problems. Doppler Effect, partial loss of Synchronization, Amplitude variations
etc.. To overcome above in case of MQAM modulation, Pilots and equalizing signals signal to be used. These
redundant signals sufficiently decrease the throughput.

Car speed 60km/h

232 In case of car speed 120 km/h Pilot

signals number increases significantly.
* HSDPA

233
*

234
* 10. UMTS Receiver Techniques

235
*

236
*

237
*

238
*

239
*

240
* Power Control

241
* 11. One of Possible Cellular System next
@
Generation
11.1 Phase Distortion Compensation in PAL

( ) (
E = EY + EQ Sin C t + 33 E I Cos C t + 33 )

45 450 45
0 0
Line n Summing
Returning

45
45 45 0
0 0

45
0
Line n + 1
Before transmitting color signal its phase are turned off every other line from to
. In decoder phase sign is returned from to and summing with phases
of neighboring lines, which phases are not changed. As a result phase changing in
242
cannel are compensated.
* 11.2 Basic Idea
@ From single carrier to FBS

For explanation simplification let M = 4. Each symbol of each

signal is transmitted four times in four carriers. Sign of phase i
(+ or -) corresponds to Walsh function.
Symbol of a single signal is transmitted four times, but
frequency band is expanded only twice due to orthogonality.
Four signals are transmitted in the same frequency band.

1111 ++++
1100 ++ - -
1010 or +- + -
100 +- - +
1

243
*
@ There are the same frequency
Present invention band, bite rate and power. Proposed invention

1
OFDM FBS
2 +/-1
Rb/N 1 1 Rb/N
Rb/N +/-2 Rb/N
N -1
+/-N - 1
N -1 f Rb/N
Rb/N N -1

The phase sign correspond to

Walsh function of order N

All phase shifts due to channel influence are

compensated after opposite phase sign changing in
244 receiver .
* Three Cell Signals in FBS S1 Receiver
@

** **
S1 S1
S2 Receiver 1 S2
S3 S3

Receiver 1 changes the phase sign in frequencies 3 and 4.

For signal S1 we get all equal phases (without inversion).

For signals S2 and S3 we can get phases compensation, meaning
that the S2 and S3 do not effect the receiving of the S1.

245
* 11.3 FBS signal
@
N 1
s( kl ), FBS = El e j [ 2f k t + ( 1)Wkl ( + i )]
,
k =0
Where
Wkl
- - El is component magnitude,
l/k 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- is certain phase, which we choose for certain system. 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
For example, it is 300 or another, 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1

- i is information symbol of the lst FBS signal (BPSK or 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1

QPSK representation), i.e. for BPSK or for QPSK, 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2

4 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
- fk = f0+kf is FBS carrier frequencies, k = 0,, N -1 ,
5 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
where , 6 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
7 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1
- Wkl is sequence of phases of the lst FBS carrier
pattern.

246
* FBS Tx and Rx
@

247
* The Power Spectral Density
@
For the same signal to noise ratio, FBS and OFDM signals require the same power. But in
the case of OFDMA we have M signals with one spectral component with amplitude
equal V. In the case of FBS we have M signals, each of them includes M spectral
V
component with amplitude VFBS, where: V FBS = OFDMA
M

a b
One OFDMA signal spectrum (a) and M components of one FBS signal (b)
with the same power.
This result was checked by some simulations. The result of one of them you can
see in the next slide. For signal to noise ratio equal h, BER equal 0.43 was
obtained in OFDMA. After that BER in FBS was calculated at decreasing signal
value. For chosen phases the h value is turned out equal 0.34, which is near 1
8
In spite of the fact that the powers of OFDMA signal with amplitude V and
FBS signal with M components with amplitudes VFBS are the same, the
248
first signal is more dangerous.
* 11.4 Phase shift influence in FBS
In the case of non-symmetrical Walsh function (for example 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 ) we
@ have additional phase shift, which does not depend on phase information. In the case
of symmetrical Walsh function (for example 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 ) Doppler Shift and
Delay do not have any influence on FBS receiving.
Doppler Shift (D)
Before phase
changing in
receiver
+D +D + D +D +D +D +D +D
After phase
changing in
receiver
+ D D D + D + D D D + D = 8
Delay (id)
Before phase
changing in
receiver
+ d + 2d +3d + 4d +5d +6d +7
After phase
changing in
receiver
249
d 2d + 3d + 4d 5d 6d + 7d = 8
* Selective Fading in FBS
@

We transmit four FBS signals S4, S5, S6 and S7.

This is transmitted signal.

We have deep fading on frequency number

4.
This fading results in receiving signal phase S 4 = 9.880
shift. A phase shift dependence on the
transmitted phases has the normal S 5 = 8.140
distribution. The mean value of each signal S 6 = 14.380
has following magnitudes: S 7 = 14.70

In the case of OFDMA the deep

250
fading results in total signal loss!
 11.5 Simulation Results
* The critical situation example simulation
@
There is receiver in center of zone (cell) with diameter 10 km. Receiver gets signals from
three transmitters on border of zone. First transmitter nears or moves off with speed 120 km
per our. It is possible to suppose that reflection signal with maximal delay has 5 km
additional way, that is maximal delay equals T = 10 s. Let us choose symbol duration 100
s. So frequency difference between sub carriers will be f = 1/T = 10 kHz. First transmitter
moving causes phase shift and Doppler shift. Let central carrier frequency will be 109 Hz. So
the phase shift per one symbol time due to delay will be 3.60. Doppler shift by these
conditions can be 1% of f. FBS modulation is 16QAM.
Tx

S2 Ti
Tx
Doppler
Rx S1

t
S3 Tx
5 km
OFDMA FBS
S2
251 S1
S2 S1 S3 S3
*
@ Without Doppler shift and Multipath Propagation

Bit error rate for MPSK

252
* There are one signal in OFDMA-8 and in FBS-8. In this signal there is
@
Doppler shift

60

50
You can see Doppler
shift influence on
40
signal phase

30

20

10

f d
kd = 1 +
253 f
This is example for S 4 with information phase 400.
* Simulation results of the intermediate scenario
@

Pilot signal with

power 3 dB greater
than information
signal power is
transmitted after 9
information
symbols

Pilot signal with

power 3 dB greater
than information
signal power is
transmitted after
each information
symbols.
254
* FBS in 3G
@
FBS system can be implemented in all wireless communications including
broadcasting systems, personal telephone systems, military systems and so on. Let
us illustrate this first of all in the case of one of third generation (3G) cellular
telephone systems: UTRA TDD. In this method signal after multiplexer is spreaded
into 16 times with the help Pseudorandom Sequence (PRS) and input to modulator
QPSK G3 G3+
UTRA TDD UTRA TDD
16
FBS

MUX QPSK
16
PRS
MUX QPSK

In the case of UTRA TDD FBS signal after multiplexer is input to modulator QPSK
and after this it is spreaded into 16 times with the help of Walsh functions for M =
16. The changeover from UTA TDD to UTRA TDD FBS allows getting either
frequency band to twice narrower, or user number twice bigger. Like in usual CDMA
system case, we can divide users from one UTRA TDD FBS group between several
255
neighboring cells. Like in CDMA system case, there is soft handover possibility in
FBS Method.
* Anyway you can get:
@
- Decreasing Doppler shift, delays, reflections and fading
influence,
- Decreasing output power density,
- Decreasing narrow band interference influence,
-Using soft hand over,
-FBS does not need any test or pilot signals or equalizing
process
- There is one more advantage of the FBS signal. It can be
transmitted with random frequencies changing. Thus, it
will impossible to determine Doppler shift presence or
whether the signal source is moving or not.
256 You are getting these without frequency-band and power increasing.
* Appendix 1. Irradiation Problems
ENERGY PROPAGATION

c = *f S(W/m2) = E(V/m) * H(A/m)

- +
257
* Wave impedance

Z = E/H = (0/0)1/2 = 120 = 377

258
- permeability(F/m) - permittivity(H/m)
* Near/Far Fields and Plane Waves

dnf= D2/8 = A/ 2 Dff = 2D2/

D A E = (30GP)1/2/r

S = 16P/D2 = 4P/A S = GP/4r2

A-area of antenna G-gain P-average power r-distance

259
*
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

260
 ENERGY TRANSFER

261
 RESONANCE

262
 BODY RESONANCE

263
264
 EMR - BASIC TERMS AND UNITS
-V/m; (V/m)2 ELECTRIC - FIELD INTENSITY
-A/m; (A/m)2 MAGNETIC - FIELD INTENSITY
-W/m2 or mW/cm2 POWER DENSITY
PD = P/A = P/4r2
PD = E2/377 = H2 x 377
PD = ExH (POINTING VECTOR)

SPECIFIC ABSORBTION RATE - SAR =ET2/ (W/kg)

Et - ELECTRIC FIELD IN TISSUE (V/m)
- ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (SIEMENS/m)
- TISSUE DENSITY (kg/m3)

SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE (SAR)

SAR = E2t/
THE TIME RATE OF ENERGY ABSORPTION PER GRAM OF TISSUE FROM
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OR ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS.
SAR DISTRIBUTION - SAR PATTERN INSIDE THE BODY. INCIDENT
RADIATION, BODY GEOMETRY, AND ORIENTATION AS WELL AS
265 DIELECTRIC PROPERTY EFFECTS THE SAR DISTRIBUTION.
 SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE (SAR)

Typical SAR from a Cell Phone

266
267
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NON-
IONIZING RADIATION
TYPES OF EFFECTS
THERMAL VERSUS NON-THERMAL
1.THERMAL EFFECTS CAUSED BY CELLULAR DAMAGE
PRODUCED BY HEAT OR THE BODYS ADJUSTMENT TO A
HEAT LOAD.

2. NON - THERMAL EFFECTS ARE THOSE SEEN AT POWER

DENSITIES THAT DO NOT INCREASE TISSUE
TEMPERATURE - EXAMPLE IS THE POSSIBLE CALCIUM
EFFLUX FROM SELECTED TISSUE.

268
270
271


272


273
Appendix 2
Signaling System 7 (SS7)

Over the same path

Voice
Signaling

Associated signaling
 SS7 Signaling Architecture

SS7 essential components

A flag marks the end of one SU and the start of the new.
Check Sum is parity check bit.
The length indicator indicates the number of octets between itself and the checksum.
Octets BSN/BIB/FSN/FIB hold the backwards sequence number (BSN), the backwards indicator
in bit (BIB), the forward sequence number (FSN), and the forward indicator bit (FIB).
Appendix 3

Auxiliary source for MATLAB OFDMA simulation

278 Dr. V. Tsingauz

279
280
 Fragments of simulation in code MATLAB 7

281
282
 Creation of the spectrum OFDM signal

Fi matrix of phases I and Q channels QPSK.

283
 BPSK

284
 QPSK

285
286
 Phases correction of OFDM with QPSK

287
 8PSK

288
289
 BPSK

290
 QPSK

8PSK

291
 BPSK

292
 QPSK

8PSK

293
294
 BPSK

QPSK 8PSK

295
 BPSK

296
 QPSK

297
 8PSK

298
299
Appendix 4.

Questions for self checking, Part 1

1. Why cells, but not one big antenna.
2. Distance between two cells with the same frequencies.
3. Reuse factor, meaning and order of values.
4. Possible scenarios for system estimation.
5. Delay and multiplexing system.
6. Basic GSM network components
7. GSM system parameters.
8. From one bit to hipper frame.
10. Why we use GMSK, Power control and Frequency hopping.
11. Establishment of connection process.
12. Using Echo-Crusher reason.
13. CDMA principle by example.
14. CDMA, advantages and disadvantages.
15. Uplink modulator.
16. Downlink modulator.
17. Signal to Noise peculiarity in CDMA.

300
 Questions for self checking, Parts 2 and 3
1. ATM principles
2. TCP in IP, peculiarities and goal
3. GPRS in GSM, functions of SGSN and GGSN
4. Signal Space method, Correlation Coefficient.
5. Increasing M in MPSK influence
6. I-Q modulation
7. OQPSK, advantages and principles explanation
8. 0.3GMSK, advantages and principles explanation
9. 8PSK in EDGE standard

Questions for self checking, Parts 4

1. Different approaches for spread spectrum method. Difference and particularities.
2. Direct spreading sequences method.
3. Optimum bandwidth, examples.
4. Options for Modulation and Spreading.
5. DS-CDMA detection principals.
6. PN matched filter principal.
7. PN active correlator principal.
8. Multi-path problems in CDMA.
9. Jamming problems.
10. The main goal of Pulse Shaping Filter implementation.
11. Hybrid (CDMA and OFDMA) Access Methods
301
 Questions for self checking, Parts 5
1. Spreading codes groups.
2. Orthogonal Sequences.
3. Hadamard (Walsh) Codes, order matrix increasing.
4. Pseudo-noise sequences.
5. Maximum-length sequences, method receiving and quantity.
6. Gold codes and they advantages.
7. Complementary Code Keying and its advantages

Questions for self checking, Parts 7

1. Prove that FDMA is orthogonal system.
2. Explain Guard Interval implementation
3. Doppler Effect in OFDMA
4. Short delay in OFDMA
5. Multi-Path propagation in OFDMA
6. Explain Pilot signal implementation in OFDMA

302
 Questions for self checking, Parts 8
1. IMT 2000 of ITU structure.
2. 3G UMTS Network.
3. 3G Node B functions.
4. 3G User Equipment functions.
5. UTRA FDD UTRA TDDD systems comparison.
6. cdma-2000-MC Downlink and Uplink.
7. 3G UWC 136.

303