5 Lorentz Covariance of the Dirac Equation

We will set ~ = c = 1 from now on.

In E&M, we write down Maxwells equations in a given inertial frame, x, t, with the
electric and magnetic fields E, B. Maxwells equations are covariant with respecct
to Lorentz transformations, i.e., in a new Lorentz frame, x0 , t0 , the equations have
the same form, but the fields E 0 (x0 , t0 ), B 0 (x0 , t0 ) are different.
Similarly, Dirac equation is Lorentz covariant, but the wavefunction will change
when we make a Lorentz transformation. Consider a frame F with an observer O
and coordinates x . O describes a particle by the wavefunction (x ) which obeys
 

i m (x ). (97)
x

In another inertial frame F 0 with an observer O 0 and coordinates x0 given by

x0 = x , (98)

O 0 describes the same particle by 0 (x0 ) and 0 (x0 ) satisfies

 

i 0
m 0 (x0 ). (99)
x

Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation means that the matrices are the same
in both frames.
What is the transformation matrix S which takes to 0 under the Lorentz trans-
formation?
0 (x) = S(x). (100)
Applying S to Eq. (97),

iS S 1 S(x ) mS(x ) = 0
x

iS S 1 0 (x0 ) m 0 (x0 ) = 0. (101)
x
Using
x0

= 0
= 0 , (102)
x x x x
we obtain
0 0
iS S 1
(x ) m 0 (x0 ) = 0. (103)
x0
Comparing it with Eq. (99), we need


S S 1 = or equivalently S S 1 = 1
. (104)

16
We will write down the form of the S matrix without proof. You are encouraged
to read the derivation in Shultens notes Chapter 10, p.319-321 and verify it by
yourself.
For an infinitesimal Lorentz transformation, = +  . Multiplied by g it
can be written as
= g +  , (105)
where  is antisymmetric in and . Then the corresponding Lorentz transfor-
mation on the spinor wavefunction is given by
i
S( ) = I  , (106)
4
where
i i
= ( ) = [ , ]. (107)
2 2
For finite Lorentz transformation,
 
i
S = exp  . (108)
4

Note that one can use either the active transformation (which transforms the ob-
ject) or the passive transformation (which transforms the coordinates), but care
should be taken to maintain consistency. We will mostly use passive transforma-
tions unless explicitly noted otherwise.
Example: Rotation about z-axis by angle (passive).

12 = +21 = , (109)

i
12 = [1 , 2 ] = i1 2
2
i 3

0
= i
0 i 3
 3 
0
= 3 (110)
0 3
  3   3 
i 0 0
S = exp + 3 = I cos + i 3 sin . (111)
2 0 2 0 2

We can see that transforms under rotations like an spin-1/2 object. For a
rotation around a general direction n,

S = I cos + in sin . (112)
2 2

17
Example: Boost in x direction (passive).

01 = 10 = , (113)

i
01 = [0 , 1 ] = i0 1 , (114)
2    
i i
S = exp  = exp i0 1
4 2
   
= exp 0 1 = exp 1
2 2
1
= I cosh sinh . (115)
2 2
For a particle moving in the direction of n in the new frame, we need to boost the
frame in the n direction,

S = I cosh + n sinh . (116)
2 2

6 Free Particle Solutions to the Dirac Equation

The solutions to the Dirac equation for a free particle at rest are

r 1
2m 0

eimt , E = +m,
1 =
V 0
0

r 0
2m 1 eimt , E = +m,

2 =
V 0
0

r 0
2m 0

eimt , E = m,
3 =
V 1
0

r 0
2m 0 eimt , E = m,

4 = (117)
V 0
1

where we have set ~ = c = 1 and V is the total volume. Note that I have chosen
a particular normalization Z
d3 x = 2m (118)

18
for a particle at rest. This is more convenient when we learn field theory later,
because is not invariant under boosts. Instead, its the zeroth component of
a 4-vector, similar to E.
The solutions for a free particle moving at a constant velocity can be obtained by
a Lorentz boost,

S = I cosh + n sinh . (119)
2 2
Using the Pauli-Dirac representation,
0 i
 
i
= ,
i 0
cosh 2 n sinh 2
 
S = , (120)
n sinh 2 cosh 2

and the following relations,

E0
cosh = 0 = , sinh = 0 0 ,
r m r r
1 + cosh 1 + 0 m + E0
cosh = = = ,
2 2 2 2m
r r
cosh 1 E0 m
sinh = =
2 2 2m
p0 x0 = p0+ x0 E 0 t0 = p x = mt, (121)

where p0+ = |p0+ |n is the 3-momentum of the positive energy state, we obtain
 
1
r cosh 2
2m 0 
10 (x0 ) = S1 (x) = eimt
V 1
n sinh 2

0
 
1
1 0   ei(p0+ x0 E 0 t0 )

= m + E0
1
q
V E 0 m
n
E 0 +m 0
 
1
1 0  ei(p0+ x0 E 0 t0 )
= m + E0 (122)
V p+ 0 1
E 0 +m 0

where we have used

r
E0 m E 02 m2 |p0+ |
= = (123)
E0 + m E0 + m E0 + m
in the last line.

19
    
1 0
20 (x0 )has the same form except that is replaced by .
0 1
p
For the negative energy solutions E0 = E 0 = |p|2 + m2 and p0 = v nE0 =
vE 0 n = p0+ . So we have
 
p0 1
E 0 +m
1
  0 ei(p0 x0 +E 0 t0 ) ,

30 (x0 ) = m + E0 (124)
V 1
0
   
0 0 1 0
and 4 (x ) is obtained by the replacement .
0 1
Now we can drop the primes and the subscripts,
1
 
+, 1
1,2 = E + m p ei(pxEt) = u1,2 ei(pxEt) ,
V +, V
 E+m
1

E+m +, i(px+Et)
p
1
3,4 = E+m e = u3,4 ei(px+Et) , (125)
V +, V
where    
1 0
+ = , = (126)
0 1
(V is the proper volume in the frame where the particle is at rest.)
Properties of spinors u1 , u4
ur us = 0 for r 6= s. (127)

  
+
u1 u1 = (E + m) + + E+m
p
p
E+m +

 
( p)( p)
= (E + m)+ 1 + + . (128)
(E + m)2
Using the following identity:
( a)( b) = i ai j bj = (ij + iijk k )ai bj = a b + i (a b), (129)
we have
|p|2
 
u1 u1 = (E + m)+ 1+ +
(E + m)2
E 2 + 2Em + m2 + |p|2
= (E + m)+ +
(E + m)2
2E 2 + 2Em
= + +
E+m
= 2E+ + = 2E. (130)

20
Similarly for other ur we have ur us = rs 2E, which reflects that = is the
zeroth component of a 4-vector.
One can also check that
ur us = 2mrs (131)
where + for r = 1, 2 and for r = 3, 4.


I 0
u1 u1 = u1 0 u1 = 0
0 I
|p|2
 

= (E + m)+ 1 +
(E + m)2
E 2 + 2Em + m2 |p|2
= (E + m)+ +
(E + m)2
2m2 + 2Em
= + +
E+m
= 2m+ + = 2m (132)

is invariant under Lorentz transformation.

Orbital angular momentum and spin
Orbital angular momentum

L = r p or
Li = ijk rj pk . (133)

(We dont distinguish upper and lower indices when dealing with space dimensions
only.)

dLi
= i[H, Li ]
dt
= i[c p + mc2 , Li ]
= icn [pn , ijk rj pk ]
= icn ijk [pn , rj ]pk
= icn ijk (inj )pk
= cijk j pk
= c( p)i 6= 0. (134)

We find that the orbital angular momentum of a free particle is not a constant of
the motion.

21
  
1 1 i 0
Consider the spin 2
= 2
,
0 i
di
= i[H, i ]
dt
= i[cj pj + mc2 , i ]
      
i 0 0 I 0 i
= ic[j , i ]pj using i 5 = = = i = 5 i
0 i I 0 i 0
= ic[5 j , i ]pj
= ic5 [j , i ]pj
= ic5 (2iijk k )pj
= 2c5 ijk k pj
= 2cijk k pj
= 2c( p)i . (135)
Comparing it with Eq. (134), we find
d(Li + 12 i )
= 0, (136)
dt
so the total angular momentum J = L + 12 is conserved.

7 Interactions of a Relativistic Electron with an

External Electromagnetic Field
We make the usual replacement in the presence of external potential:

E E e = i~ e, e < 0 for electron
t
e e
p p A = i~ A. (137)
c c
In covariant form,
ie
+ A + ieA ~ = c = 1. (138)
~c
Dirac equation in external potential:
i ( + ieA ) m = 0. (139)
Two component reduction of Dirac equation in Pauli-Dirac basis:
         
I 0 A 0 A A
(E e) (p eA) m = 0,
0 I B 0 B B
(E e)A (p eA)B mA = 0 (140)
(E e)B + (p eA)A mB = 0 (141)

22
where E and p represent the operators it and i respectively. Define W =
E m, = p eA, then we have

B = (W e)A (142)
A = (2m + W e)B (143)

From Eq. (143),

B = (2m + W e)1 A . (144)
Substitute it into Eq. (142),

( )( )
A = (W e)A . (145)
2m + W e
In non-relativistic limit, W e  m,
 
1 1 W e
= 1 + . (146)
2m + W e 2m 2m
1
In the lowest order approximation we can keep only the leading term 2m
,

1
( )( )A ' (W e)A . (147)
2m
Using Eq. (129),

( )( )A = [ + i ( )]A . (148)

( )A = [(p eA) (p eA)]A

= [eA p ep A]A
= [+ieA + ie A]A
= ieA ( A)
= ieBA , (149)

so
1 e
(p eA)2 A BA + eA = W A . (150)
2m 2m
Restoring ~, c,
1 e e~
(p A)2 A BA + eA = W A . (151)
2m c 2mc
This is the Pauli-Schrodinger equation for a particle with the spin-magnetic
moment,
e~ e
= =2 S. (152)
2mc 2mc

23
In comparison, the relation between the angular momentum and the magnetic
moment of a classical charged object is given by
Ir 2 r 2 er 2 e e
= =e = = mr 2 = L. (153)
c 2 c 2c 2mc 2mc

We can write
e
= gsS (154)
2mc
in general. In Dirac theory, gs = 2. Experimentally,

gs (e ) = 2 (1.0011596521859 38 1013 ). (155)

The deviation from 2 is due to radiative corrections in QED, (g 2)/2 = 2
+.
The predicted value for gs 2 using from the quantum Hall effect is

(gs 2)qH /2 = 0.0011596521564 229 1013 . (156)

They agree down to the 1011 level.

There are also spin-1/2 particles with anomalous magnetic moments, e.g.,
|e| |e|
proton = 2.79 , neutron = 1.91 . (157)
2mp c 2mn c
This can be described by adding the Pauli moment term to the Dirac equation,

i ( + iqA ) m + k F = 0. (158)

Recall
i
= ( ),
2
0 i 0 i
    
I 0
0i = i0 i = i =i = ii ,
0 I i 0 i 0
 k 
k 0
ij = ii j = ijk = ijk ,
0 k
F 0i = E i ,
F ij = ijk B k . (159)

Then the Pauli moment term can be written as

i ( + iqA ) m + 2ik E 2k B = 0. (160)

The two component reduction gives

(E q)A B mA + 2ik EB 2k BA = 0, (161)

(E q)B + A mB + 2ik EA 2k BB = 0. (162)

24
 ( 2ik E)B = (W q 2k B)A , (163)
( + 2ik E)A = (2m + W q + 2k B)B . (164)

Again taking the non-relativistic limit,

1
B ' ( + 2ik E)A , (165)
2m
we obtain
1
(W q 2k B)A = ( 2ik E)( + 2ik E)A . (166)
2m
Lets consider two special cases.
(a) = 0, E = 0
1
(W 2k B)A = ( )2 A
2m
1 2 q
W A = A BA + 2k BA
2m 2m
q
= 2k. (167)
2m

(b) B = 0, E 6= 0 for the neutron (q = 0)

1
W A = (p + in E) (p in E)A
2m
1
= [(p + in E) (p + in E) + i (p + in E) (p in E)] A
2m
1  2
p + 2n E 2 + in E p in p E + i (in p E in E p) A

=
2m
1  2
p + 2n E 2 n ( E) + 2n (E p) + in ( E) A

=
2m
1  2
p + 2n E 2 n + 2n (E p) A .

= (168)
2m
The last term is the spin-orbit interaction,
1 d 1 d
(E p) = (r p) = L. (169)
r dr r dr
The second to last term gives an effective potential for a slow neutron moving in
the electric field of an electron,
n n
V = = (e) 3 (r). (170)
2m 2m
Its called Foldy potential and does exist experimentally.

25