-

. . , . .

2010
 512
1473-2
191

. ., . . : 2 .: -
/ . . -. , 2010, . 1. 143 c.

ISBN 978-5-94356-912-8

-
,
-
. -

: , , , , .
: -
, () ,
, . -
:
.
.

- .-. , . .

c

, 2010
ISBN 978-5-94356-912-8 c . ., . ., 2010


4
1. 5
1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2. , , 18
2.1. . . . . . 18
2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3. 67
3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2. . . . . . . . 70
3.3. . . . . . . . . . . 80
4. 86
4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2. . . . . . . . . 92
4.3. . . . . . . . . . 96
5. 100
5.1. . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.5. . . 118
5.6. . . . . . . . 127
133
137
138
142

-
,
-
. -
, , , , -
. , 2.3.1
. -
.
, ,
. . -
,
-
. -
201011 ( -
). ,
, . -
.
 1

1.1.

-
, -
. , ,
. ,
.
a -
A : a A. a
A, a 6 A. , -
.
,
, , . -
, P ,
, A -
, P , :
A = {x | x P } A = {x | P (x)}. -
,
. , a A : P (a)
, a A P , -
a A : P (a) , a A,
P .
: N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
, Z , Q -
R .
B A, -
B A. -
: B A. ,
A, B, -
B A,
, : B A. -
, , -
,
6 1.

. A -
P (A) 2A .
. -
A1 , A2 , . . . , An , A1 A2 . . . An =
{x | x A1 x A2 . . . x An } , -
A1 A2 . . .An = {x | x A1 x A2 . . . x An }
A1 , A2 , . . . , An . A B
A \ B = {x | x A x 6 B}.
B A,
A \ B B A.
A , A B
B.
, -
. , {a, b} {b, a} ,
. , ,
,
. n a1 , a2 , . . . , an
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) n-. -
. n- (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) , a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , . . .
. . . , an = bn .
1.1.1. , {{a}, {a, b}}
{{c}, {c, d}} , a = c b = d.
1.1.1. A1 , A2 , . . . , An ,

A1 A2 . . . An = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | a1 A1 , a2 A2 , . . . , an An }.

n- A

An = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | a1 A, a2 A, . . . , an A}.

, n = 2,
A.
X Y . f , -
X
Y ,
X Y ( f : X Y ).
.
 1.1. 7

, y Y x
X f , :
f (x) = y, xf = y, xf = y. -
,
, . . xf f (x).
Z X, Zf {y Y | x Z : xf = y},
Z Y . Z = X, Xf
Im f .
f : X Y g : Y Z. -
( ) f g
f g : X Z, x X x(f g) = (xf )g.
, f g -
f , g.
f g
f g.
. -
f g f g
, g, f :
(f g)x = f (g(x)). ,
f g , . , -

. , -
.
. ,
x X y = xf Y .
: Y ,
X. , Y ,
.
1.1.2. f : X Y -
X Y , -
y Y x X , y = xf .
: f : X Y .

,
X Y . , xf =
y1 xf = y2 , y1 = y2 . :
Y X. ,
f : R R,
xf = x2 , 4 : 2 2.
, .
8 1.

1.1.3. f : X Y
X Y -
, x1 , x2 X x1 f = x2 f
1-1
x1 = x2 . : f : X Y .
, 1.1.2 1.1.3 -
, .
1.1.4. f : X Y -
X Y
, .
1-1
: f : X Y .

f : X Y , ,
,
f 1 : Y X, : x = yf 1 ,
y = xf . . -
X Y , ,
.
1.1.2. ,
1) , ;
2) , ;
3) , ;
4) .
1.1.3. ,
.
1.1.4. m, n N, X m
, Y n . ,
.
1. : X Y .
2. m = n.
, , , ,
X ( ),
-
. , X ,
.
1.1.5. X .
Y X ,
 1.2. 9

: X Y . , -
:
1. Z X
: X Y , Y = X \ Z.
2. Z -
X , : X Y , Y = X \ Z.
. 1.1.4 1.1.5,
X , -
, X. ,

,
.

1.2.

, ,
. , N
, m n
, -
. , , n + m
m+n. m < n,
x, x + m = n . .
( -
) .
( ) -
- ( -
), 800 . ..,
-,
. , -
,
, .
, , (
, ). , -
, ,
. ,
, ,
( )
. -
. ,
10 1.

, . .
, , -
, . . , -
,
-
.
.
,
.
. 1. N -
m n
k = m + n, -
m n. . -
, -
N2 N ( + : N2 N). , ,
, (m, n)+ = k
m + n = k, . -
: ,
( m n),
, ? , , -
, m + n = n + m, ,
.
, ,
. , -
f : N2 N (m, n)f = mn ( m
n), , , -
, mn , , nm .
.
2. S -
A . -
A. f g
f : A A g : A A A,
: S 2 S, -
, -
S. ,
(f g 6= g f ). , -
, R2 . f
, g
90 .
 1.2. 11

, , -
, ,
.
y

B
1 g
f
A
O 1 x

1
C

, A (1, 0)
f g B (0, 1):

A(f g) = (Af )g = Ag = B.

, A g f
C (0, 1):

A(g f ) = (Ag)f = Bf = C.

, f g g f .
-
A ( , )
A2 A. -
,
.
3. Z
,
f . ,
, x Z xf = x. x y =
(x, y) = (x, yf )+ = x+(y) x, y Z.
f ,
, .
, ,
, .
4. .
V A, B, C
12 1.

. , D
, . -
. , A, B, C
, D ABC.
f : V 3 V ,
, ,
V .
, , n
, n .
-
.
1.2.1. A .
f : An A n- ( n-) -
A. , n- -
, A, -
n A
A. n
f .
.
1.2.2.
A = hA, f1 , f2 , . . . , fk , . . .i, -
A f1 , f2 , . . . , fk , . . .,
. A
A, -
A.
, , -
.
. 1. A = hZ, +, , f i, +,
, f -
.
2. A = hS, i, S
A, .
3. A = hR[x], +, i, R[x]
R ,
.
4. A = hF, +, i, F R R, -
,
x(f + g) = xf + xg.
 1.2. 13

5. A = hP (A), , , \, i, P (A)
A, , -
,
. , , \
, .
6.
: hN, i, hZ, :i, -
. , Q
, 0 -
. Q Q \ {0}
, hQ , :i .
.
1.2.1. -
:
1. Z ?
+

2. hQ
, i, Q+ -
, ?
, R+ -
.
3. hN, f i, f : N2 N (m, n)f = ...(m, n) -
m n?
1.2.3. A n- -
f . B A
, B n f B (. . f ,
B, B),
B f . -
B n- f |B : B n B,
(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )f |B = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )f ,
( ) f B.
. B A -
f , , ,
f B f ,
A.
. 1. Q, Z, N R -
+, R. ,
-
, , N
.
14 1.

2. 1.1.3, -
A -
.
1.2.2. 2Z 2Z + 1
. ,
Z , ? -
: , , , -
, ; :
, , . -
() ,
n 2n (3n ).
1.2.3.
a b. M Z ,
a, b M M -
. , M = Z.
1.2.4. B -
A A = hA, f1 , f2 , . . . , fk , . . .i -
A, -
A. B = hB, f1 |B , f2 |B , . . . , fk |B , . . .i
A.
. 1. B = hN, +, , i
A = hZ, +, , i. A (
), ,
N, .
2. A = hF, +, i, F R R,
, -
x(f + g) = xf + xg. Fb
F . B = hFb, +, i A.
1.2.4. (. . -
, ) -
:
1. hZ, f i, f .
2. hZ, i.
3. hP, f i, P , f 3- -
, .
 1.3. 15

1.3.

,
.

, -
. -
,
.

, .
1.3.1.
A = hA, f1 , f2 , . . . , fk , . . .i B = hB, g1 , g2 , . . . , gk , . . .i
, fi gi
ni . A B -
( A ' B), : A B
, i -
(a1 , a2 , . . . , ani ) Ani
((a1 , a2 , . . . , ani )fi ) = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ani )gi .
, , -
A B.
. A B -
A B,
1 : B A, . -
, , ,
B A. ,
A B, B A,
. . A B.
. 1. A = hR, +i, B = hR+ , i, R+ -
.
: R R+ , x = 2x . , -
A B. , R R+ ,
. , x, y R

(x + y) = 2x+y = 2x 2y = (x) (y),

, , , -
. , ,
x1 = log2 (x), B A.
16 1.

2. A = hZ, +i, B = h2Z, +i, , -

, 2Z .
: Z 2Z, x = 2x. , ,
, (x + y) = 2(x + y) = 2x + 2y =
x + y , . -
, A ' B.
, -
. , ,
, -
,
(, ).
, A B -
. , . A
B , ,
. A B -
, , ,
, ,
. , -
. , A B
, .
-
. ,
. ,
() ,
() -
, .
.
. A = hZ, i, B = h2Z, i. Z 1,
, x Z
1 x = x. 2Z . -
, A B
. , , -
. 1 = 2k, 2 = 2n, k, n
. ,
: 4kn = (2k) (2n) = 1 2 = (1 2) = 2 = 2n.
n 6= 0, 2k = 1, . , 2 = 0,
1
3 = 2m, -
0, 3 6= 2 = 0.
 1.3. 17

4km = (2k) (2m) = 1 3 = (1 3) = 3 = 2m.

2k = 1; . ,
, , A B .
1.3.1. -
:
1) hZ, +i hZ, i;
2) hP (A), i hP (A), i, A -
;
3) hQ, +i hQ+ , i, Q+ -
( 1 );
4) hN, f i hN, gi, f g -
?
1.3.2. a, b -
. Aab hR, f i -
f , xf = ax + b.

{Aab | a, b R}?
 2
, ,
2.1.

-
-
. .
-
: , . , -
,
. ,
. :
(x+y)x. , ,
y (, x y ). -
, ,
. , -
,
:
(x + y) x = (x + y) + (x), (1)
(x + y) + (x) = (y + x) + (x), (2)
(y + x) + (x) = y + (x + (x)), (3)
y + (x + (x)) = y + 0, (4)
y + 0 = y. (5)
(1) -
. , -
: x + (x) = 0 -
(4). 0, , ,
, (5). (2)
. -
-
. , (3) (
).
 2.1. 19

-
, -
( ),
. -
( )
( ).

. .
2.1.1. G = hG, i
,
( ):
1. a, b, c G (a b) c = a (b c)
( ).
2. e G , a G
a e = e a = a ( ).
3. a G a1 G , -
a a1 = a1 a = e ( ).
. , -
. -
, ,
. , -
.
. 1. G = hZ, +i.
. 0, -
a, ,
. -
: hQ, +i, hR, +i, hQ , i, hR , i.
2. S ,
, , G = hS, i -
. -
,
.
,
1 -
: a b = b a. ,
2 (. -
1.2).
2.1.2. G = hG, i (
20 2. , ,

), a, b G
a b = b a ( ).
.
ab ab. , , , -
, -
. -
, , -
+, ,
0, -
a a.
(-
) ( ) .
, , -
,
, . . G = hG, i
G.
2.1.1. G (
), g . ,
g : G G, xg = xg
x G, G .
2.1.2. G . , -
, 2, . ,
g G ,
3, .
g1 , g2 , . . . , gn G.
n
Y
gi = (. . . (g1 g2 ) . . .) gn .
i=1

2.1.3. ,
n
Y k
Y n
Y
gi = gi gi .
i=1 i=1 i=k+1

. , -
2.1.3, : -
(
).
 2.1. 21

. ,
-
,
.
2.1.3. G = hG, i
,
. ,
.
. N
( ),
,
(-
).
2.1.4. A . ,
hP (A), i . ?
2.1.3, -
: ,
.
2.1.4. G = hG, i -
. H = hH, |H i ,
|H -
H.
. ,
. , hN, +i hZ, +i,
,
.
, -
H = hH, |H i H. -
, , H G, -
: H 6 G.
. 1. G : G
1 = {e}, e
G.
2. n nZ = {nk | k Z}
, n, Z
.
22 2. , ,

2.1.5. G . , -
H G, a, b H -
:
1) ab H; 2) a1 H.
G G.
|G|. -
. g -
G. n , g n
G, g n :

gn = g g . . . g .
| {z }
n

g G
n , g n = e, e G,
n . , -
g . g
|g|.
2.1.6. , -
.
, g 0 = e g n = (g 1 )n ,
n ,
.
2.1.7. h G.
, H = {hn | n Z} -
G.

. -
+ , ,

.
2.1.5. R = hR, +, i -

, :
1. R .
2. a, b, c R (a + b)c = ac + bc
( ) c(a + b) = ca + cb (
).
 2.1. 23

. , -
R R.
, , -
, .
, ,

.
, , -
, . -
, , -
1. , ,
1 6= 0, ,
. -
, .
R R .
2.1.6. F = hF, +, i -

, (, -
, ) ,
.
,
.

1. a, b, c: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) .

2. a, b: a + b = b + a .

3. 0 a: a + 0 = 0 + a = a .

4. a (a): a + (a) = (a) + a = 0 -

.

5. a, b, c: (a + b)c = ac + bc .

6. a, b, c: c(a + b) = ca + cb .

7. a, b, c: (ab)c = a(bc) .

8. a, b: ab = ba .

9. 1 a: a 1 = 1 a = a .
24 2. , ,

10. a 6= 0 a1 : aa1 = a1 a = 1 -
.

,
, 17 ( 16, -
, ), , -
, 110, .
. 1. hZ, +, i, hQ, +, i,
hR, +, i .
, .
.
2. P (A) -
A 4 : B, C
A B 4 C = (B \ C) (C \ B). hP (A), 4, i
.
3.
-
( ).
, ()
(), () -
, -
( ).
. nZ -
. -
, ,
.
, ()
.
. ,
, 0 1 ( !),
:

+ 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1
, Z2 , -
Zn n (. ).
Z2 , ,
a Z2 a 0 = 0 a = 0.
 2.1. 25

, , (. ).
, (
).
2.1.1. R .
a R a 0 = 0 a = 0.
. a0 = 0,
. a0 = b.

b + b = a0 + a0 = a(0 + 0) = a0 = b.

b + b = b b
, (b + b) + (b) = b + (b). b + (b + (b)) = 0,
, b + 0 = 0, b = 0.
, ab = 0,
, , a = 0 b = 0. -
, ab = 0,
. , ,
.
.
2.1.2. .
. F a, b F ,
ab = 0, a 6= 0 b 6= 0. ab = 0 -
b1 , b (
10). (ab)b1 = 0b1 .
a(bb1 ), ,
9 10 a. 2.1.1
0. .
2.1.1 -
, , -
2.1.2 , .
, , , -
,
. .
2.1.8. n. -
k k ,
k n. Zn = {k | k Z}. ,
, : i + j = i + j,
i j = i j, Zn , ,
26 2. , ,

Zn . -
n.
2.1.9. , Zn
, n .
2.1.10.
,
.

2.2.

2.2.1. -
M , . . M , -
M .
. 1. N ,


2k 1, n = 2k,
n =
2k, n = 2k 1,
, -
n = 2n , ,
.
2. M = {1, 2, 3} 1 = 2,
2 = 3, 3 = 1, , -
M 1 = 2, 2 = 3, 3 = 2, .
, M , -
. , -
2 :

1 2 3
= .
2 3 1
,

. - . -
,
. ,

1 2 3 2 1 3
= = .
2 3 1 3 2 1
 2.2. 27

2.2.1. S(M )
M .
. , S(M ).
, -, -
. , M .
, .
x, y M x( ) = y( )
(x) = (y). , x = y. -
, x = y. , . -
, , , 1
1 , , , .
x M y = (x 1 ) 1 M
, y( ) = ((x 1 ) 1 )( ) = ((x 1 )( 1 )) =
(x 1 ) = x. , . .
, hS(M ), i .
, .
, -
x M x = x.
, -
1 , , , .
2 3 . , -
.
:

2.2.1. f : X Y , g : Y U , h : U W
, (f g) h = f (g h).
. x -
X.
:

x((f g) h) = (x(f g))h = ((xf )g)h = (xf )(g h) = x(f (g h)).

, -
2.2.1.
S(M ) , -
, -
.
28 2. , ,

1 2 3 1 2 3
. = ,= .
2 3 1 2 1 3

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
= = .
2 3 1 2 1 3 1 3 2

2.2.1.
1.
, 6= .
2. .
3. 100 100 .
4. 1 1 , .
2.2.2. S(M ) M
M . -
-
M .
M
M , -
. , M
n , -
M Sn ( n)
, M = {1, 2, . . . , n}. M -
.
, .
2.2.2. , |Sn | = n!. -
S3 . S3 . -
S3 .
Sn

1 2 ... n
= ,
i1 i2 ... in

, {i1 , i2 , . . . , in } = {1, 2, . . . , n} 1 = i1 , 2 =
i2 , . . . , n = in .


i1 i2 ... in
.
j1 j2 ... jn
 2.2. 29

, 1 -
:
1 i1 i2 . . . in
= .
1 2 ... n

M = {1, 2, . . . , n} -
Sn . i M . i = i, . . i
,
i . i 6= i, -
, i .
supp()
. ,

i1 i2 . . . is k1 . . . kt
= ,
j1 j2 . . . js k1 . . . kt

il 6= jl l {1, 2, . . . , s}, supp() =

{i1 , i2 , . . . , is }. , supp() = {j1 , j2 , . . . , js }
supp() , . .
supp() = supp(). , supp() = supp( 1 ) = supp(),
, 1 .
i1 supp() i1 = i2 , i2 = i3 . ., s -
, is {i1 , i2 , . . . , is }. -
s - M , ,
supp(). , is = i1 , i2 , . . . , is
i1 , . . . , is1 . {i1 , i2 , . . . , is }
s ( -
). -
: , ,
-
. ,
, , M -
( ).
, M -
, supp()
.
.

1 2 3 4 5 6
= .
6 3 2 1 5 4
30 2. , ,

{1, 6, 4}, {2, 3}, {5} M ,

. M = {1, 6, 4} {2, 3} {5}
supp() = {1, 6, 4} {2, 3}.
supp() -
-
,
.
2.2.3. Sn

i1 i2 . . . is1 is k1 . . . kt
,
i2 i3 . . . is i1 k1 . . . kt

{i1 , i2 , . . . , is , k1 , . . . , kt } = {1, 2, . . . , n} s > 2,

s (i1 , i2 , . . . , is ).

i1
is i2

i3

, ,
.
. 1.

1 2 3 4 1 2 4 3
= = (1, 2, 4) = (2, 4, 1) = (4, 1, 2)
2 4 3 1 2 4 1 3

3.
1 2 3 4
2. .
4 3 2 1
2.2.2. || s (
Sn ) s.
. = (i1 , i2 , . . . , is ). -
k , i1 k = i1 , s. il s = il
l = 1, 2, . . . , s.
2.2.4. Sn ,
supp() supp() = .
 2.2. 31

2.2.3. , = .
. i M .
.
1. i 6 supp() supp(). i = i = i.
2. i supp(). i = i = i.
3. i supp(). i = i = i.
. 1 , 2 . . . , k ,
1 2 . . . k -
1 , 2 . . . , k .
2.2.3. 2.2.3.
2.2.2. Sn .
= 1 2 . . . k
1 , 2 , . . . , k . c
.
.
, M = {1, 2, . . . , n} -
. ,
{i1 , i2 , . . . , is } .
1 = (i1 , i2 , . . . , is ) . -
, = 1 , -
. , supp(1 ) supp(),
1 = 11 . i supp(1 ), . . i = il l {1, 2, . . . , s},
i1 = il 1 = il (11 ) = (il 11 ) = il1 = il = i. -
supp(1 ) 1 .
, i 6 supp(1 ), i1 = i(11 ) = (i11 ) = i.
, 1
. , 1
supp(1 ) = supp() \ supp(1 ),
, supp()
. ,
1 = 2 . . .k 2 , . . . , k ,
. -
= 1 1 supp(1 )supp(1 ) = , = 1 2 . . .k
.
, = 1 2 . . .m -
. i1 supp(), l
, i1 supp(l ). 1 , 2 , . . . , m
, , , i1 supp(1 ).
32 2. , ,

i1 1 = i1 = i1 1 = i2 , i2 1 = i2 = i1 = i3 , . . . , is 1 = is =
is 1 = i1 . 1 = 1 = 1 1 = 1 1 , -
1 .
. , i -
, -
(i).
.

1 2 3 4 5 6
=
6 3 2 1 5 4

= (1, 6, 4)(2, 3) , -
, = (1, 6, 4)(2, 3)(5).
,
, M -
, , .
, -
, .
-
,
.
2.2.5. 2 .
2.2.4. Sn
.
. 2.2.2 -
.
= (i1 , i2 , . . . , is ) s. ,
= (i1 , i2 )(i1 , i3 ) . . . (i1 , is ) .

-
. ,

.
. (1, 2)(1, 3)(1, 2) = (2, 3).
-
. -
.
 2.2. 33

2.2.6. Sn , supp()
m , -
k . d() -
m k. -
sgn() = (1)d() . ,
sgn() = 1, , sgn() = 1.
.
d() = 5 2 = 3, sgn() = (1)3 = 1, . . .
. M
M
( ).

2.2.3. -
.
. , = (i, j) -
Sn . , ,
. , , d( ) = d() 1.
= 1 2 . . . k -
( ). ,
supp() = {i} = (i). i j, -
,
, . .
i, j {k1 , k2 , . . . , ks }, . .
= (k1 , k2 , . . . , ks ) ,
i, j supp(). i = k1 , j = km (-
, ). -
, (k1 , . . . , km , . . . , ks )(i, j) = (k1 , . . . , km1 )(km , . . . , ks ).
, -
(, -
i, j, , ). ,
d( ) = d() 1.
i {i1 , i2 , . . . , is } i = i1 , j
{j1 , j2 , . . . , jt } j = j1 (,
). -
(i1 , i2 , . . . , is ) (j1 , j2 , . . . , jt ).
(i1 , i2 , . . . , is )(j1 , j2 , . . . , jt )(i, j) = (i1 , i2 , . . . , is , j1 , . . . , jt ) ,
-
. ,
d( ) = d() + 1.
34 2. , ,

. -
. , -
.

1. , -
, -
d().
. ,
, , sgn() = 1. = 1 2 . . . k
-
. 2.2.3 sgn(1 ) = sgn(1 ) = (1)1 . ,
sgn(1 2 ) = (1)2 . . , sgn() = (1)d() = (1)k .

2.2.4. ,
, -
, d().
-
.

2. , Sn . -
sgn( ) = sgn() sgn( ).

2.2.5. 2 2.2.3.

2.2.6. , -
M . -
, An Sn -
Sn . An -
. , n > 3
An 3.

2.2.7. , Sn -
2.

2.3.

2.3.1. S. -
S m n ( (m n)-) -
 2.3. 35

a11 a12 . . . a1n
a21 a22 . . . a2n

..................... ,
am1 am2 . . . amn

aij S, i {1, 2, . . . , m} , j {1, 2, . . . , n}

. ,
, . . m = n, ,
n . m
n S Mmn (S),
(n n)- Mn (S).

. ,
A = (aij ) A = (aij )mn , .
A B ,
, , : A = (aij )mn ,
B = (bij )mn , A = B aij = bij i = 1 . . . m, j = 1 . . . n.
.

1 1 1
1. 2 3 {1}.
1 1 1

2. 1 2 3 4 5 1 5 N.

1
2
3.
3 4 1 N.
4
1 n -
n, m1 m. -
2 5, 3
4.
. , , -
, -
.
. , n
S -
n- S, . . n- S n -
S. Mmn (S) m n S
36 2. , ,

m-, -
n- S, ,
, m- (S n )m S n .
,
. I = {(i, j) | 1 6 i 6 m, 1 6 j 6 n}.
A = (aij ) Mmn (S)
I S,
(i, j) aij S, Mmn (S)
.
S +.
:

a11 . . . a1n b11 . . . b1n a11 + b11 . . . a1n + b1n
a21 . . . a2n b21 . . . b2n a21 + b21 . . . a2n + b2n
=
........... + .......... ....................... .
am1 . . . amn bm1 . . . bmn am1 + bm1 . . . amn + bmn

,
2.3.2. A = (aij )mn , B = (bij )mn
S c .
A B C = (cij )mn = A + B
S , cij = aij + bij .
S -
, -
.
2.3.3. A = (aik )ms B = (bkj )sn
S , -
. S -
. A B
C = (cij )mn = AB S m n,
s
X
cij = aik bkj = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + . . . + ais bsj .
k=1

, , i-
j- , i-
j-
.
 2.3. 37

. S = Z .

0 1
123 10+22+34 11+23+35 16 22
2 3 = = .
450 40+52+04 41+53+05 10 19
4 5
, A B
, , .
2.3.1. hR, +, i , n -
. Mn (R) -
.
. -
, -
, .
1. hR, +i , hMmn (R), +i -
.
. A = (aij ), B = (bij ), C = (cij ) Mmn (R).
R , i, j aij + bij =
bij + aij (aij + bij ) + cij = aij + (bij + cij ). , A + B = B + A
(A+B)+C = A+(B +C). , -
, , R.
, A = (aij ) -
A = (aij ). , Mmn (R)
.
2. A = (aij ), B = (bij ) Mms (R) C = (cij )
Msn (R). (A + B)C = AC + BC.
. D = (dij ) = (A + B)C, F = (fij ) = AC +
BC. i, j
n
X n
X n
X n
X
dij = (aik +bik )ckj = (aik ckj +bik ckj ) = aik ckj + bik ckj = fkj .
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

, D = F .
A(B + C) = AB + AC
, , -
.
-
.
, .
38 2. , ,

2.3.1 ( ). hS, +i -
X = (xij )mn S.
m X
X n n X
X m
xij = xij .
i=1 j=1 j=1 i=1

. S -
, -
. ,
X.
3. A = (aij ) Mms (R), B = (bij ) Mst (R) C =
(cij ) Mtn (R), (AB)C = A(BC).
. D = AB, F = BC G = (AB)C = DC,
H = A(BC) = AF . , G = H. , -,
G H m n. ,
i {1 . . . m}, j {1 . . . n}
t t
s ! t X
s
X X X X
gij = dik ckj = ail blk ckj = (ail blk )ckj =
k=1 k=1 l=1 k=1 l=1

s X
t s
t
! s
X X X X
= ail (blk ckj ) = ail (blk ckj ) = ail flj = hij .
l=1 k=1 l=1 k=1 l=1

13 , , -
, Mn (R) . -
.
,
R ( R ) Mn (R). -
, n = 1, : R M1 (R),
a = (a)11 , , .
R M1 (R).
, R , M1 (R) .
-, R , Mn (R) -
n N. ,

1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
E=
............. ,
0 0 ... 1
 2.3. 39

eij = 1 i = j eij = 0 , ,
, Mn (R).
E .
, n > 1, -
R Mn (R).
, , F , 0 1 -
.
M2 (F )
0 1 0 0
A= B= .
0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0
AB = 6= = BA.
0 0 0 1
, M2 (F ) . , -

2 0 0
A = = 0,
0 0
A . ,
A1 , A1 A = E, , A2 = 0
A1 , A = 0.
, F , -
, -
. F ,
.
, -
(
) .
2.3.4. D(1 , 2 , . . . , n )


1 0 . . . 0
0 2 . . . 0

D = (dij )nn = ,
.................
0 0 . . . n

dii = i dij = 0 i 6= j. D(1 , 2 , . . . , n )

, 1 = 2 = . . . = n = .
, -
: E = D(1, 1, . . . , 1), 0 = D(0, 0, . . . , 0).
40 2. , ,

{aii | i = 1, . . . , n}
A = (aij )nn ,
, A. -
, -
, 0.
, A = (aij )
Mmn (F ) ( ) -
D.

1 0 . . . 0 a11 a12 . . . a1n
0 2 . . . 0 a21 a22 . . . a2n
D(1 , 2 , . . . , m ) A =
............... ................... =

0 0 . . . m am1 am2 . . . amn

1 a11 1 a12 . . . 1 a1n
2 a21 2 a22 . . . 2 a2n
=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = (i aij )mn .
n am1 n am2 . . . n amn
, A = (aij )mn
D(1 , 2 , . . . , m ) i-
A i i = 1, . . . , m.
,

a11 a12 . . . a1n 1 0 . . . 0
a21 a22 . . . a2n 0 2 . . . 0
A D(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =
................... ............... =

am1 am2 . . . amn 0 0 . . . n

1 a11 2 a12 . . . n a1n
1 a21 2 a22 . . . n a2n
=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = (j aij )mn ,
1 am1 2 am2 . . . n amn
. . A = (aij )mn
D(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) j- A
j j = 1, . . . , n.
2.3.1. ,
D1 , D2 Mn (F ) D1 D2
D1 D2 = D2 D1 .
 2.3. 41

D = D(, , . . . , ),
A = (aij )
DA = AD = (aij ). ,
( ) A
. , -
, A. , D(, , . . . , )
E, E
.
2.3.2. , -
Mn (F )
, F
Mn (F ), = E,
.
2.3.3. , A Mn (F ) -
() Mn (F )
, A .
2.3.5. A
n n

A1

0
A2
.. ,
.

0 As

Ps i = 1, . . . , s Ai
ni ni , i=1 ni = n, Ai -
A A,
Ai , 0.
2.3.2.

A1 B1
0 0
A 2 B2
A= .. B=
..

. .
0 As 0 Bs

, Ai Bi
42 2. , ,

i = 1, . . . , s.

A1 B1
0
A2 B2
AB =
.. .

.
0 As Bs

2.3.4. 2.3.2.

2.3.6. F , r s -
{1, 2, . . . , n}, r 6= s. Ers ()

s

..
1 .
.. ..
. .

r ...... 1 ... ......

.. ..
Ers () = (tij )nn = . . ,

1

.. ..
. .

..
. 1

trs = , tii = 1 tij = 0 . -

.

, , -
E = Ers (0).

, A
 2.3. 43

.


1 a11 a12 ... a1n

.. ... ...
.
ar1 ar2 ... arn
1

Ers ()A = . ... ... =
..
as1 as2 ... asn
..
.
... ...
1
am1 am2 . . . amn

a11 a12 ... a1n


ar1 + as1 ar2 + as2 ... arn + asn

=
.

as1 as2 ... asn


am1 am2 ... amn
, A
Ers () r- A s- ,
.
,

a11 . . . a1r . . . a1s . . . a1n 1
a21 . . . a2r . . . a2s . . . a2n ..
.
.. .. .. ..

AErs () = . . .
. 1 =

. . . . .
. . .
. .
. .
. . .
am1 . . . amr . . . ams . . . amn 1

a11 . . . a1r . . . a1s + a1r . . . a1n
a21 . . . a2r . . . a2s + a2r . . . a2n

.. .. .. ..

= . . . . .
. . . ..
. . .
. .
. .
am1 . . . amr . . . ams + amr . . . amn
, A -
Ers () s- A r-
, .
44 2. , ,

2.3.3. Ers () -
Ers (), . . Ers () Ers () = E.

2.3.5. 2.3.3.
, ,
( )
( ),
, -
. , -
, -
.
2.3.2. A Mn (F )
F . E1 , . . . , Ek ,
Ek+1 , . . . , Es Mn (F ) D Mn (F ) ,
A = E1 . . . Ek DEk+1 . . . Es .
. -
n A.
n = 1 A = (a11 ) = D(a11 ) .
, -
Ae Mn1 (F ), A Mn (F ).
.
1.

a11 ... a1,n1 0 0
.. ..
e
A = ...................... . = A . .
an1,1 . . . an1,n1 0 0
0 ... 0 ann 0 ... 0 ann

,

a11 ... a1,n1
e = ......................
A
an1,1 . . . an1,n1

Mn1 (F ). , -
Ee1 , . . . , E
ek , E
ek+1 , . . . , E
es Mn1 (F ) -
De Mn1 (F ) , A e=E e1 . . . E
ek D
eEek+1 . . . E
es .
 2.3. 45

i = 1, . . . , s

0 0
.. ..
Eei . e
D .
Ei = D= .
0 0
0 ... 0 1 0 ... 0 ann
Ei , D -
Mn (F ). 2.3.2 E1 . . . Ek DEk+1 . . . Es =

0 0
.. ..
e1 . . . E
E ek D
eEek+1 . . . E
es . Ae .
= = = A.
0 0
0 ... 0 ann 0 . . . 0 ann
. , -
ann
A, , , ann = 0.
2. A Mn (F ) -
ann 6= 0. Ae Mn1 (F ) ,

a1n
..
Ae .
A= .
an1,n
an1 . . . an,n1 ann
A,
, = a1n a1 nn ( -
ann , ann 6= 0).
-
A1 . A1 = E1n ()A =

0
a2n

..
= e
A1 . ,

an1,n
an1 . . . an,n1 ann
e1 Mn1 (F ). , -
A
A1 (1, n) 0. 2.3.3
46 2. , ,

A = E1n (a1n /ann )A1 , a1n /ann = = (a1n a1 nn ). -

A1 E2n (a2n /ann ),
A2 2- n-
0. , A = E1n (a1n /ann )E2n (a2n /ann )A2 .
, A,
ann . -
A, A
( ann ). , A = E1n (a1n /ann ) . . .
. . . En1,n (an1,n /ann )BEn,n1 (an,n1 /ann ) . . . En1 (an1 /ann ), B
,
. B -
, A. 2 .
3. A Mn (F ) .
ann 6= 0, , . ,
, ann = 0. -
A 0, ,
. , , ,
, .
, , a1n 6= 0. -
A , A
En1 (1). B = En1 (1)A , -
(n, n), 0. B
B = E1 . . . El DEl+1 . . . Et
. A = En1 (1)E1 . . . El DEl+1 . . . Et -
A, .
2.3.6. , -
, -


0 1 2
A = 1 0 1 .
2 1 0

2.4.

-
, .
, -
.
 2.4. 47

2.4.1. n , Sn -
{1, . . . , n}, F ,
A = (aij )nn Mn (F ). (
) A F , -
det(A) |A| :
X
det(A) = sgn a11 a22 . . . ann .
Sn

. -
Sn , aii A,
i- (i)- , i i
.
. 1. n = 1. S1 = {}, A = (a11 ) det(A) = a11 .
2. n = 2. S2 = {, (1, 2)}, sgn = 1 sgn(1, 2) = 1.

a11 a12
A= .
a21 a22

a a12
det(A) = 11 = a11 a22 a12 a21 .
a21 a22
(2 2)-
.


a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1 ,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b2

.

b1 a22 b2 a12 b2 a11 b1 a21
x1 = , x2 =
a11 a22 a12 a21 a11 a22 a12 a21

a11 a12
, 6= 0. , -
a21 a22
, 0, ,
.
.
x y
48 2. , ,

(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) . S ,

x x2
x y, 1 .
y1 y2
, x y ,
0.
2.4.1. -
, .
3. n = 3. Sn = {, (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)},
An = {, (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2)}. ,

a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13

A = a21 a22 a23 , det(A) = a21 a22 a23 =
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

= a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 a12 a21 a33 a13 a22 a31 a11 a23 a32 .
, -

( ),
-
. , n
n -
, n = 1, 2, 3, -
,
0 ( -
4). n > 3
, n , -
n .
, .
2.4.1. A = (aij ), B = (bij ) Mn (F ), F ,
r {1, 2, . . . , n}.
j = 1, . . . , n brj = arj bij = aij
i 6= r. det(B) = det(A).
,
-
.
P . P det(B) =
P
Sn sgn b 11 . . . b rr . . . b nn = Sn sgn a11 . . . (arr ) . . . ann =
Sn sgn a11 . . . arr . . . ann = det(A).
 2.4. 49

. A (
0), det(A) = 0.
2.4.2. A Mn (F ), F . det(A)
det(A).
2.4.2. A = (aij ), B = (bij ), C = (cij )
Mn (F ), r {1, 2, . . . , n}.
j = 1, . . . , n crj = arj +brj
cij = aij = bij i 6= r. det(C) = det(A) + det(B).
, r- -
, , , r- -
, r- , ,
.
. det(C) =
X X
= sgn c11 . . . crr . . . cnn = sgn c11 . . . (arr +brr ) . . . cnn =
Sn Sn
X X
= sgn c11 . . . arr . . . cnn + sgn c11 . . . brr . . . cnn =
Sn Sn
X X
= sgn a11 . . . arr . . . ann + sgn b11 . . . brr . . . bnn =
Sn Sn

= det(A) + det(B).
2.4.3. A = (aij ) Mn (F ), r, s -
{1, 2, . . . , n}.
j = 1, . . . , n arj = asj , det(A) = 0.
, , -
0.
. (r, s) Sn .
2.1.1 : 7 -
Sn .
Sn , = Sn . -
, sgn = sgn( ) = sgn ,
An ,
Sn \ An .
X
det(A) = sgn a11 . . . arr . . . ass . . . ann =
Sn
50 2. , ,
X X
= a11 . . . arr . . . ass . . . ann a11 . . . arr . . . ass . . . ann =
An Sn \An
X X
= a11 . . . arr . . . ass . . . ann a11 . . . arr . . . ass . . . ann =
An An
X
= (a11 . . . arr . . . ass . . . ann a11 . . . arr . . . ass . . . ann ) = 0.
An

. A = (aij ), B = (bij ) Mn (F ), r, s
{1, 2, . . . , n}.
j = 1, . . . , n arj = bsj , asj = brj aij = bij
r 6= i 6= s. det(A) + det(B) = 0.
,
.
. 2.4.2 2.4.3,
:

.. .. .. ..
. . . .


arj brj arj asj


.. .. .. ..
. + . = . + . =


asj bsj asj arj

.. .. .. ..
. . . .

.. .. .. ..
. . . .

arj arj asj asj

.. .. .. ..
= . + . + . + . =

asj arj arj asj

.. .. .. ..
. . . .

.. .. ..
. . .

a a a + a
rj sj rj sj
.
.. .
.. .
..
= + = = 0.

arj + asj arj + asj arj + asj

.. .. ..
. . .
 2.4. 51

2.4.4. A = (aij ), B = (bij ) Mn (F ),

F , r, s {1, 2, . . . , n}.
j = 1, . . . , n brj = arj + asj ,
aij = bij i 6= r. det(B) = det(A).
, -
.
. C = (cij ) D = (dij )
Mn (F ) , j = 1, . . . n
crj = asj , drj = asj cij = dij = aij i 6= r. -
2.4.3 D ( r- s-
). 2.4.1
det(C) = det(D) = 0. , 2.4.2 ,
det(B) = det(A) + det(C) = det(A).

2.4.2. A = (aij )
(n n)-, i, j {1, . . . , n} -
, i > j, aij = 0. ,
, , 0.
, -
, , 0.
, , -
.

2.4.5. A = (aij ) Mn (F )
. , -
, . . det(A) = a11 a22 . . . ann .
. , ,
A .
.
, Sn : -
i = 1, . . . , n i 6 i. n = n,
. , (n1) = n1, n
n. , ,
(n 2) = n 2, . . ., 2 = 2, 1 = 1. , -
. ,
Sn i {1, . . . , n} , i > i.
A . -
a11 a22 . . . ann 0.
P
det(A) = Sn sgn a11 a22 . . . ann = a11 a12 . . . a1n .
52 2. , ,

. D = D(1 , . . . , n ) -
, T = Ers () . det(D) = 1 . . . n ,
det(T ) = 1. , -
.
2.4.1. A, B Mn (F ). |AB| = |A| |B|.
. , A = D(1 , . . . , n )
. B A
i {1, 2, . . . , n} i- B i .
, 2.4.1 |AB| =
= 1 . . . n |B| = |A||B|.
A = Ers () , -
1. ,
. -
2.4.4 |AB| = |B| = 1|B| = |A||B|.
A . -
2.3.2 E1 , . . . , Ek , Ek+1 , . . . , Es -
D Mn (F ) , A = E1 . . . Ek DEk+1 . . . Es .
|A| = |E1 (E2 . . . Ek DEk+1 . . . Es )| = |E2 . . . Ek DEk+1 . . . Es | =
. . . = |D(Ek+1 . . . Es )| = |D||Ek+1 . . . Es | = |D|. , |AB| =
= |E1 . . . Ek DEk+1 . . . Es B| = |D(Ek+1 . . . Es B)| = |D||Ek+1 . . . Es B| =
= |D||B| = |A||B|.
2.4.3.

A1
0
A2
A=
..

.
0 As

. |A| = |A1 ||A2 | . . . |As |.

2.4.3. A = (aij ) (m n)- -
S. B = (bij ) n m S -
A, bij = aji i = 1, . . . , n
j = 1, . . . , m. , -
A, A0 A> .
-
.
 2.4. 53

2.4.4. A B -
:
1) A00 = (A0 )0 = A;
2) (A + B)0 = A0 + B 0 ;
3) (AB)0 = B 0 A0 .
. , D
, Ers () , D0 = D Ers ()0 =
= Esr ().
2.4.6. A Mn (F ). det(A0 ) = det(A).
. , -, 3)
2.4.4
: (A1 A2 . . . As )0 =
= A0s . . . A02 A01 . , A = E1 . . . Ek DEk+1 . . . Es , E1 , . . . , Ek ,
Ek+1 , . . . , Es , D ,
|A| = |D|. A0 = Es0 . . . Ek+1 0
D0 Ek0 . . . E10 |A0 | = |D0 | =
= |D| = |A|.
. -
,
.
2.4.5. -
.
, -
n
.
2.4.4. A = (aij ) Mn (F ). , -
ars A, Mrs (A)
Mn1 (F ), A r- s-
.
.

1 2 5
1 2
A = 3 4 6 M23 (A) = .
7 8
7 8 9

2.4.5. A = (aij ) Mn (F ).
A ars Ars = (1)r+s |Mrs (A)|.
,
(r, s) ,
54 2. , ,

, , r + s ,
, .
. a23 A -

2+3 1 2
A23 = (1) 7 8 = (1) (1 8 2 7) = 6.

2.4.2 ( ).
A = (aij ) Mn (F ). i, k {1, . . . , n}

Xn
|A|, k = i
aij Akj =
0, k 6= i.
j=1

. i- :
n
X
|A| = aij Aij ,
j=1

i = 1, . . . , n, ,
k = i.
. Pn ,
i = k, . . , |A| = j=1 aij Aij i = 1, . . . , n.
.
1. i = n, an1 = an2 = . . . = an,n1 = 0. A


..
Mnn .
,

0 . . . 0 ann
Mnn = Mnn (A) , ann
A, .
1 ... n 1 n
= Sn 0 =
i1 . . . in1 n

1 ... n 1
Sn1 . |A| =
i1 . . . in1
X X
= sgn a11 . . . an1,(n1) ann = sgn a11 . . . an1,(n1) ann =
Sn Sn
n = n
 2.4. 55
X
= ann sgn 0 a110 . . . an1,(n1)0 = ann |Mnn | = ann (1)n+n |Mnn | =
0 S n1

n
X
= ann Ann = 0 An1 + . . . + 0 An,n1 + ann Ann = anj Anj .
j=1

2. i = n, anj = 0, , , ans .
s = n, -
. s < n. A1 A -
s- (s + 1)- . -
2.4.3 2.4.6
|A| = |A1 |. s = n1, , -
, Mnn (A1 ) = Mn,n1 (A).
, |A| = |A1 | = an,n1 |Mn,n1 | = an,n1 An,n1 ,
. s < n 1, ,
(s + 1)- A1 (. . s- A)
(s + 2)- , s- -
A n- . n s .
B


..
Mns (A) .
.

0 ... 0 ans

Pn |A| = (1)ns |B| = (1)ns+2s ans |Mns (A)| = ans Ans =

= j=1 anj Anj , . , -
-
A. , , s-
n- ,
Mns (A) .
3. i = n. Aj
n, A, n1
A, (n, j)
anj A, P .
n
2.4.2 |A| = |A1 |+|A2 |+. . .+|An | = j=1 anj Anj .
4. . i = n, -
. i < n. i- (i + 1)-
A ,
. (i + 1)- (i + 2)-
56 2. , ,

, , i- -
A n- .
B.
2.4.3 |A| = (1)ni |B|.
k- A B ak
bk , : bk = ak
1 6 k < i, bk = ak+1 i 6 k < n bn = ai . ,
Mnj (B) = Mij (A) j = 1, . . . , n. |A| =
n
X n
X
ni ni ni
= (1) |B| = (1) bnj Bnj = (1) bnj (1)n+j |Mnj (B)| =
j=1 j=1

n
X n
X n
X
n+j+ni i+j+2(ni)
aij (1) |Mij (A)| = aij (1) |Mij (A)| = aij Aij .
j=1 j=1 j=1

, -
.
P. , ,
n
i 6= k j=1 aij Akj = 0. B
n, A, :
B, k- , -
A, k- i- A.
i- k- B (
i- A), 2.4.3 B
. , B
k- ,
n
X n
X
|B| = bkj Bkj = aij Akj ,
j=1 j=1

Mkj A B ( ,
A B, k,
). .
( ). A =
(aij ) Mn (F ). j, k {1, . . . , n} -

Xn
|A|, j = k
aij Aik =
0, j 6= k.
i=1
 2.4. 57

. -
.
, , -
A0 .
2.4.6. A -
: -
, .

, -
, .
2.4.6. A = (aij ) Mn (F ). A b =
(b
aij ) Mn (F ), b
aij = Aji i, j {1, . . . , n}, -
A.
, -
.
2.4.2 -
.
2.4.20 ( -
b
). A Mn (F ), A
.

|A| 0 . . . 0

b = |A|E = 0 |A| . . . 0 .
b = AA
AA ..................
0 0 . . . |A|

b
. B AA,
n
X n
X
|A|, i = j
bij = aik b
akj = aik Ajk =
0, i 6= j.
k=1 k=1

b .
AA
,
.
2.4.7. A -
, det(A) = 0, .
58 2. , ,

2.4.8. A Mn (F ).
A1 A, AA1 =
= A1 A = E.
2.4.3 ( ). A Mn (F ) Ab
. A ( -
) , . -


A11 A21 . . . An1
1 b 1 A12 A22 . . . An2 .

A1 = A=
|A| |A| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A1n A2n . . . Ann

. |A| = 0. ,
A A1 .
1 = |E| = |AA1 | = |A||A1 | = 0;
.
1 b
A , |A| A -
. , A = (aij ) A
(aij ). , E -
. , 2.3.3
A = EA = A(E).
2.4.20

1 b 1 b = 1 E(AA)
b = 1 E|A|E = E
A( A) = A( E A)
|A| |A| |A| |A|

1 b 1
( A)A = |A|E = E.
|A| |A|

2.4.7. A -
. -
, -
.
2.4.8. GLn (F ) = {A Mn (F ) | det(A) 6= 0}.
, GLn (F )
.
 2.4. 59

2.4.9. GLn (F ), -
2.4.8, F ,
F .
, ,
: AX = B Y A = B
, A (-
, A, B, X, Y -
). X = A1 B Y = BA1
.
-
, ,
-
. .
2.4.9. , A ,

, -
(). , , -
,
( ).

2.4.10. A, B Mn (F ) |A| 6= 0.
() ,
() , ,
() ( ),
, -
(). , (n 2n)- (A | B),
A B, -
(E | X), E , X
A1 B, . . AX = B. -
, B = E, X = A1 . ,
A
(2n n)- ( B )
E
( Y ), Y Y A = B.
. -
: . -
det Mn (F ) F , ,
2.4.12.4.3, 1
. ,
A = (a) M1 (F ) a, A Mn (F )
det(A) -
60 2. , ,

n 1, (. 2.4.2).
2.4.11. , -
( ) .

2.5.

2.5.1. C,
.
1. C R, R
.
2. C i , i2 = 1, 1
, C, , R.
3. z C a+bi,
a, b R, R . 1, i . 2.
2.5.1. C -
.
. C -

a b
, a, b R.
b a
:

a b c d a + c (b + d)
+ = , (1)
b a d c b+d a+c

a b c d ac bd (ad + bc)
= (2)
b a d c ad + bc ac bd
C
.
, C . -
M2 (R) C,
M2 (R) , -
C, -


a b
z= C.
b a
 2.5. 61

(2) ,

c d a b ac bd (ad + bc)
= .
d c b a ad + bc ac bd
, C .

a (b)
b a
C,
.
, z C
C. 2.4.3 . -
,
a b
= a2 + b2 6= 0,
b a
a = b = 0, z .
-,
1 a b
z 1 = 2 C.
a + b2 b a
, C . , C -
13 2.5.1 , , -
.

a 0
R=
0 a aR .
, R C. -
, 2.3.2 R
M2 (R) , R -
. -
, (aE) = a R.
i C,

0 1
.
1 0
,

0 1 0 1 1 0
i2 = = .
1 0 1 0 0 1
62 2. , ,

, , -
1
R R.
z C,

a b
,
b a

a 0 b 0
a= b= .
0 a 0 b

a b a 0 b 0 0 1
z= = + = a + bi.
b a 0 a 0 b 1 0
, z z = a + bi =
= c + di. a c = (d b)i. ,
(a c)2 = (d b)2 . a, b, c, d -
, a c = d b = 0. a = c b = d,
, z = a + bi . , C
.
C , -
. i0
(i0 )2 = 1. 3 C -
a + bi0 , a b -
1 . -
: C C, (a + bi) = a + bi0 ,
. , (a + bi0 ) + (c + di0 ) = (a + c) + (b + d)i0
(a + bi0 )(c + di0 ) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i0 (1) (2)
, .
. C
, , a + bi.
, , a+0i = a -
, , R C.
Q R, -
C.
.
2.5.2. a b -
z = a + bi -
a = Re z b = Im z . i
 2.5. 63

i2 = 1
.
C , 1.
i, i. -
, (a + bi)2 = 1 + 0i,
C . -
i0 = i, ,
z = a + bi z = a bi -
. , z
z .
, z u -
: z + u = z + u zu = z u. , ,
z = z.
2.5.1. , -
,
: -
.
. 2.1.10, , -
.
, -
: a a > 0
b R : b2 = a.
C z u -
, Re z = Re u Im z = Im u.
C R2 , -

( ). ,
z = a+bi (a, b).
-
, ,
.
z = a + bi -


z (a, b). -
-
.
,
, ,
.
64 2. , ,

Im z
z = a + bi
b
r

' Re z
O a

2.5.3. z = a + bi C. -

z = a + bi
r = a2 + b2 , z (a, b).
z |z|.
. -
z = a +0i, -
, a2 + 02
.
2.5.4. -
z = a + bi ,
z (a, b)
. -
2. 0 .
z arg z.
. 0 ,
, 0 .
r z = a + bi.
, a = r cos b = r sin .
z = r(cos + i sin ).
-
.
,
z = r(cos + i sin ) u = s(cos + i sin ), -
, , r = s = + 2k,
k Z.
2.5.1.
z = r(cos + i sin ) u = s(cos + i sin ).
zu = rs(cos( + ) + i sin( + )).
 2.5. 65

,
, .
.

.
( ). z = r(cos + i sin ).
z n = rn (cos n + i sin n).
n- z -
u , un = z. ,
n-
.
2.5.2. z = r(cos + i sin ) -
. xn = z n
x0 , x1 . . . , xn1 . k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1
+ 2k + 2k
xk = n
r(cos + i sin ).
n n

. u = s(cos + i sin )
xn = z. sn = r n = + 2k
(k Z). , s = r ( ) = +2k
n
n .
, k, m {0, 1, . . . , n 1}
+2k
n +2m
n , k = m.
, m = k + nj (j Z) +2k n +2m
n =
+2k
n + 2j 2. ,


+ 2k + 2k
n
r cos + i sin k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 .
n n

-
n- .
2.5.2.
1. Cn = {k | k = 0, 1, . . . , n1}, k = cos 2k 2k
n +i sin n ,
n
x = 1.
2. x0 xn = z,
{xk = x0 k | k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1}
xn = z.
66 2. , ,

3. Cn
. < Cn , >'< Zn , + > (.
2.1.8).
 3

3.1.

-
. -
,
. ,
: -
. ,
,
.
R f ,
v v.
3.1.1. F . ( )
F V ( -
), + (-
) v 7 v (
) F ,
.
1. < V, + > .
2. F u, v V (u + v) = u + v.
3. , F v V ( + )v = v + v.
4. , F v V ()v = (v).
5. v V 1 F 1v = v.

, .
3.1.1. V
F ; , F ; u, v V ; 0 F , 1 F , 0
V .
1) 0 = 0;
2) (v) = v;
3) (u v) = u v;
4) 0v = 0;
68 3.

5) (1)v = v;
6) ( )v = v v.
. ,
F , 0.
. 1. F .
F n = {(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) | i F } n-
F F :
1) (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) + (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = (1 + 1 , 2 + 2 , . . . , n + n );
2) (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ).
F n -
F .
.
, ( ) -
(-
) , -
R2 (R3 ).
2. F K. K
F -
K K F ,
K (,
F K). , R
Q , C
R.
3. F (X, K) X K -
: -
(f +g)(x) = f (x)+g(x)
(f )(x) = f (x).
4. F [x] -
x F ,
.
5. M m n F -

F A 7 A, -
A, , , A
.
, F -
Mn (F ) . , Mn (F )
. -
 3.1. 69

, ,
, .
3.1.2. F -
A : ,
-
F , :
1) A ;
2) A
;
3) F a, b A (ab) = (a)b = a(b).
3.1.2.
1. , Mn (F ) F .
2. , -
.
3.1.3. V -
F . U V -
V , -
, V , . . u, v U F
u + v U u U .
. , U V
F F . -
, , ,
,
U , U
V . , 5
3.1.1 u U
u = (1)u U , , -
.
3.1.4. A F .
B A A,
, A, . .
a, b B F a + b B, ab B a B.
. 1. V -
: 0 = {0} V .
, ,
, , -
, .
70 3.

A.
2. R
() () C R.
3.1.3. :
1. {(1 , . . . , n ) | 1 + . . . + n = 0} -
F n F .
2. Fn [x] x, -
n, F [x]
x F . -
F [x] F Fn [x] .
3. Mn (F ), . .
A Mn (F ), A0 = A, -
Mn (F ) F .
Mn (F )?

3.2.

V F . -
a1 , a2 , . . . , as ( !)
.
3.2.1. ( -
) a1 , a2 , . . . , as V F -
1 , 2 , . . . , s F
1 a1 + 2 a2 + . . . + s as , ,
. -
, 1 = 2 = . . . = s = 0,
.
. , V , , -
0.
3.2.2. a1 , a2 , . . . , as -
, -
, 0. -
.
, a1 , a2 , . . . , as
, 1 a1 + 2 a2 + . . . + s as = 0 ,
1 = 2 = . . . = s = 0.
3.2.3. a
 3.2. 71

a1 , a2 , . . . , as ,
, a.
. 1.
a1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0)
a2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0)
...
an = (0, 0, . . . , 1)
Rn , , -
, 1 a1 + 2 a2 +
. . . + n an = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = (0, 0, . . . , 0) = 0 ,
1 = 2 = . . . = n = 0.
2. , a1 = (1, 1, 1), a2 = (0, 1, 2), a3 = (1, 2, 3)
R3 , 1a1 + 1a2 + (1)a3 = 0. -
, a3
a1 a2 : a3 = 1a1 + 1a2 .
.
3.2.1 ( ). -
a1 , a2 , . . . , as ,
, . . -
i {1, . . . , s} , ai = 1 a1 + . . . + i1 ai1 .
. ,
.
. ,
, .
,
.
.
1 a1 + 2 a2 + . . . + s as = 0. i {1, . . . , s} ,
i 6= 0 i+1 = . . . = s = 0 (, i = s).
1 a1 + . . . + i1 ai1 + i ai = 0.
1 i1
ai = i1 (1 a1 + . . . + i1 ai1 ) = ( )a1 + . . . + ( )ai1
i i
.
i, ai = 1 a1 +. . .+i1 ai1 .
1 a1 + . . . + i1 ai1 + (1)ai + 0ai+1 + . . . + 0as
0 , ai = 1 -
0.
72 3.

3.2.4. A B . A
B, A
B. A B -
, A B, B
A.
3.2.5. A
a1 , a2 , . . . , as ,
A. A -
L(A) hAi.
,

L(A) = ha1 , a2 , . . . , as i = {1 a1 + 2 a2 + . . . + s as | i F, i = 1, 2, . . . , s}.

, -
, . . , -
-.
3.2.1.
1. L(A) A -
V .
2. A B ,
L(A) L(B). , A B
, L(A) = L(B).
3. B A ,
L(A) = L(B).

, .
3.2.1 ( ). A B
a1 , a2 . . . , ar b1 , b2 , . . . , bs , A
B. r 6 s -
B ,
B a1 , . . . , ar , br+1 , . . . , bs .
, , r
B A
, B.
. r = 0. -
, , A r 1
, r . A0
A, a1 , a2 , . . . , ar1 . , A0 -
 3.2. 73

B. , -
, A0
A. , A0 B -
, , ,
r 1 6 s B ,
B 0 , a1 , . . . , ar1 , br , . . . , bs ,
B, . . L(B 0 ) = L(B).
ar L(B) = L(B 0 ). , ar
B 0 :

ar = 1 a1 + . . . + r1 ar1 + r br + . . . + s bs . (1)
r1 = s r = . . . = s = 0, ar = 1 a1 +. . .+r1 ar1 ar
A,
3.2.1 A. -
, r 6 s r , . . . , s
. br , . . . , bs , r 6= 0. -
B 00 a1 , . . . , ar , br+1 , . . . , bs . , B 00
B 0 , L(B 00 ) = L(B 0 ) = L(B)
.
a1 , . . . , ar1 , br+1 , . . . , bs -
B 00 , B 0 , , ar L(B 0 )
br L(B 00 ). (1). ,
r 6= 0, (1) , br

1 r1 1 r+1 s
a1 +. . .+ ar1 + ar + br+1 +. . .+ bs .
r r r r r

, br L(B 00 ). B 0 B 00 , ,
B B 00 .
. ,
.
3.2.6. V F -
, V
v1 , v2 . . . , vs , -
, . . hv1 , v2 . . . , vs i = V .
3.2.7. ( ) -
V F
V , V .
74 3.

3.2.2 ( ). V
F . .
1. V .
2. V
.
3. V , -

.
4. A a1 , a2 , . . . , ar -
V , V , A
.
. 1. v1 , v2 , . . . , vs -
V , V .
( ) , -
. ,
, . -
B. 3.2.1
B . , -
B,
V B.
, L(B) = V , .
2. B B 0 V . L(B) =
L(B 0 ) = V , B B 0 .
, .
3. B V ,
b1 , b2 , . . . , bn . , v V
: v = 1 b1 + 2 b2 + . . . + n bn =
1 b1 + 2 b2 + . . . + n bn . (1 1 )b1 + (2
2 )b2 + . . . + (n n )bn 0. B
, . -
, 1 = 1 , . . . , n = n v .
4. B V ,
b1 , b2 , . . . , bn . A
B. , -
B B 0 , n
A . B 0 B,
L(B 0 ) = L(B) = V . , B 0 , ,
, . 1,
, -
 3.2. 75

, . 2. , B 0
V , A .
3.2.8. -
V
dim V .
. . 2
,
.
. V n
F . :
1. m > n m V . n
V .
2. m < n A m
V . B n , L(B) = V ,
V .
3.2.2. .
. 1. V = F n -
F . V , dim V = n,
, , :

a1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0),
a2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0),
...
an = (0, 0, . . . , 1)

F n ,
Mn (F ).
2. E 2 (E 3 )
(), (
) . -
, dim E 2 = 2 dim E 3 = 3.
3. C , -
R , 2.
, , ,
1 i,
a + bi, a, b R.
4. V = R[x] -
R .
76 3.

. , V ,
f1 , . . . , fn . m -
( -
).
, -
f1 , f2 , . . . , fn , m. ,
xm+1 f1 , f2 , . . . , fn . -
, V .
3.2.3. , b1 , b2 , . . . , bn
F n -
, ,
n- b1 , b2 , . . . , bn , .
3.2.4. , Mmn (F )
. .
3.2.5. , F (X, K)
X K ,
X .
, |X| = n.
. a ( a
X), :

1, x = a,
a (x) =
0, x 6= a.

,
,
,
. ,
, .
3.2.2. B
V . .
1. B V .
2. B -
V .
3. B , -
V .
. ()
, ( -
 3.2. 77

) ,
.
. (1 2). v -
V B, v B
, .
(2 1). B , , -
B, B. ,
L(B) = V B .
(1 3). B -
L(B) = V . B v, -
B.
B.
(3 1). B , -
B . , B
.
3.2.9. V -
F dim V = n. B -
V , b1 , b2 , . . . , bn . v V

v = 1 b1 + 2 b2 + . . . + n bn . n-
[v]B = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) v -
B.
3.2.3. V n -
F F n .
: V F n ,
v = [v]B B -
V .
. B -
, [v]B v [v]. v =
[v]. V -
, ,
[u] = [v] u = v. ,
. n- (1 , 2 , . . . , n )
F n v = 1 b1 + 2 b2 + . . . + n bn V ,
. , .
[u] = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ), [v] = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ). u + v =
[u] + [v] = (1 + 1 , 2 + 2 , . . . , n + n ) = [u + v] = (u + v). ,
(v) = [v] = [v] = (v). -
78 3.

, , V , , ,
.
.
.
. V U -
F dim V = dim U = n. V U F n ,
, .
,

.
V n F .
A B V ,
a1 , . . . , an b1 , . . . , bn . A , -
i = 1, . . . , n bi B
A:

bi = ti1 a1 + . . . + tin an . (2)

a b n, -
A B. ,

a1 b1

a = ... b = ... .
an bn
(2) :

t11 . . . t1n
.............
b = T a, T =
............. .
tn1 . . . tnn
T A B.
.
3.2.3. X = (xij ), Y = (yij ) (m n)-
. a n, -
a1 , . . . , an . Xa = Y a
X = Y .
. Xa = Y a ,
i = 1, . . . , m xi1 a1 +. . .+xin an = yi1 a1 +. . .+yin an .
 3.2. 79

(xi1 yi1 )a1 +. . .+(xin yin )an = 0.

a1 , . . . , an , i = 1, . . . , m
j = 1, . . . , n xij = yij , . . X = Y .
v V [v]A , [v]B
v A B . -
, v : v = [v]A a = [v]B b.
, [v]B b = [v]B (T a) = ([v]B T )a (
-
). 3.2.3 [v]A a = ([v]B T )a
[v]A = [v]B T . -
:
T A B,
v A
v B T .
A, B, C V , a, b, c , -
. T
A B, S B -
C, P A C. -
c = Sb = S(T a) = (ST )a 3.2.3 ,
P A C ST . ,
[v]A = [v]C P = [v]C (ST ).
3.2.6. T A -
B. T , T 1
B A v
[v]B = [v]A T 1 .
. A = C -
, A A -
.
3.2.7.
V n F GLn (F )
(n n)- F . , -
F q, GLn (F ).
.
-.
v B
( -). -
, -
: v = b0 [v]0B . A
80 3.

v = a0 [a]0A , Te A
B -
-. ,
b = T a b0 = a0 T 0 = a0 Te. ,
- v A -
: [v]0A = Te[v]0B .

3.3.

-
.
3.3.1. V -
F . U V ,
U U .
. , , ,
, 3.1, -
, U , -,
, U .
3.3.1. U -
V n F . -
.
1. U , dim U 6 n.
2. U
V .
3. dim U = n, U = V .
. 1. U = 0 = {0}, U (
, 0).
U 6= 0, u1 U . L(u1 ) = U ,
dim U = 1 (, u1 V , ,
dim V > dim U = 1).
U 6= L(u1 ). u2 U , -
u1 , u2 . L(u1 , u2 ) = U , -
. L(u1 , u2 ) 6= U ,
u3 U \ L(u1 , u2 ). u3 u1 , u2 ,
u1 , u2 , u3 . ,
U .
V n,
n (. 1 -
 3.3. 81

). , -
. , k,
n, L(u1 , . . . , uk ) = U . dim U = k.
2. U
V , . 4 .
3. dim U = n, B U n
V . . 1 -
B V .
3.3.2. V ,
U , -
U .
. 2 3.3.1 -
V , .
,
,
.
3.3.3. U1 , U2 , . . . , Us -
V F .
U1 , U2 , . . . , Us
s
X
U1 + U2 + . . . + Us = Ui = {u1 + u2 + . . . + us | ui Ui , i = 1, 2, . . . , s}.
i=1

3.3.1. U , W V .
.
1. U W , U + W V .
2. U + W , U ,
W.
3. U W , U W
W U.
. -
- . -
s, ,
U1 , U2 , . . . , Us V .
3.3.2. U , W
V F . V , -
.
82 3.

. v1 , . . . , vr U W (-
, ). v1 , . . . , vr , ur+1 , . . . , us U ,
v1 , . . . , vr , wr+1 , . . . , wt W . ,
U W .

W U W

w2 v1 U
u2

, v1 , . . . , vr , ur+1 , . . . , us ,
wr+1 , . . . , wt , , -
, . , -
:

1 v1 + . . . + r vr + r+1 ur+1 + . . . + s us + r+1 wr+1 + . . . + t wt = 0.

1 v1 + . . . + r vr + r+1 ur+1 + . . . + s us = (r+1 wr+1 + . . . + t wt ).

, , U ,
, , W . -
, z, ( ) ,
U W . v1 , . . . , vr U W ,

z = 1 v1 + . . . + r vr = (r+1 wr+1 + . . . + t wt ).

1 v1 + . . . + r vr + r+1 wr+1 + . . . + t wt = 0.

, v1 , . . . , vr , wr+1 , . . . , wt W , -
1 = . . . = r = r+1 = . . . = t = 0. z = 0. -
, 1 v1 + . . . + r vr + r+1 ur+1 + . . . + s us = 0.
v1 , . . . , vr , ur+1 , . . . , us U , 1 = . . . =
= s = 0, .
 3.3. 83

. U , W -
V , dim(U + W ) = dim U + dim W dim(U W ).
. , U W
U + W . ,
, U + W = hv1 , . . . , vr , ur+1 , . . . , us , wr+1 , . . . , wt i. -
v U + W v = u + w = (1 v1 + . . . + r vr + r+1 ur+1 + . . . +
s us ) + (1 v1 + . . . + r vr + r+1 wr+1 + . . . + t wt ) = (1 + 1 )v1 + . . . +
(r + r )vr + r+1 ur+1 + . . . + s us + r+1 wr+1 + . . . + t wt . -
, v1 , . . . , vr , ur+1 , . . . , us , wr+1 , . . . , wt U + W .
dim(U + W ) = s + (t r) = dim U + dim W dim(U W ).
3.3.2. U1 , U2 , . . . , Us -
P
V S .
s
dim S 6 i=1 dim Ui .
. 3.3.2, -
s.
3.3.4. U1 , U2 , . . . , Us -
V F . U1 + U2 + . . . + Us
, u1 +u2 +
. . . + us = 0, ui Ui , i = 1, 2, . . . , s, u1 = u2 = . . . = us = 0.
U1 , U2 , . . . , Us
s
M
U1 U2 . . . Us Ui .
i=1

3.3.3. U1 , U2 , . . . , Us -
V F S = U1 + U2 + . . . +
+Us . -
.
1. S .
2. v S
v = u1 + u2 + . . . + us , ui Ui , i = 1, 2, . . . , s.
3. , U1 , U2 , . . .
. . . , Us ,
Ps S.
4. dim S = i=1 dim Ui .
5. Sj = U1 + . . . + Uj1 + Uj+1 + . . . + Us .
j {1, 2, . . . , s} Uj Sj = 0.
. (1 2). v S -
v = u1 + u2 + . . . + us = w1 + w2 + . . . + ws , ui , wi Ui .
84 3.

(u1 w1 ) + (u2 w2 ) + . . . + (us ws ) = 0, , u1 = w1 , u2 = w2 ,

. . . , us = ws .
(2 3). i = 1, 2, . . . , s Bi
bi1 , . . . , biti Ui . , B,
P B1 , B2 , . . . , Bs , S.
s
S = i=1 Ui , L(B) = S. ,
B . ,
ti
s X
X
ij bij = 0. (1)
i=1 j=1

Pti Ps
i = 1, 2, . . . , s ui = j=1 ij bij . i=1 ui = 0. -
- ui ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , s ui = 0.
Bi , ij (1) 0.
(3 4). .
(4 5). ,
Ps j {1, 2, . . . , s}
S = Uj + Sj . dim S = i=1 dim Ui . ,
P 3.3.2 dim S = dim Uj +dim Sj dim(Uj Sj ).
s
i=1,i6=j dim Ui = dim Sj dim(Uj Sj ). -
Ps
3.3.2 , dim Sj 6 i=1,i6=j dim Ui ,
dim(Uj Sj ) = 0. ,
Ps Uj Sj = 0.
(5 1). i=1 ui = 0 j {1, 2, . . . , s} ,
uj 6= 0. uj = u1 +. . .+(uj1 )+(uj+1 )+. . .+(us )
, uj Uj Sj ; .
. . 5 , U +W -
U W , U W = 0.
3.3.3. , -
, -
.
3.3.5. V = U W . v V
v = u + w, u U , w W . -
u v U
W .
. u v -
U , W (
U ).

 3.3. 85

.
.
. 1. B b1 , b2 , . . . , bn -
V F . V = hb1 ihb2 i. . .hbn i n
. v V hbi i -
i bi , i i- v B.
2. V = F [R, R] -
. V+ , V -
V . -
, V+ V V .
f F [R, R]. f+ f : f+ (x) =
1 1
2 (f (x)+f (x)) f (x) = 2 (f (x)f (x)). f+ ,
f f = f+ + f . , V = V+ + V .
, V+ V = 0. V = V+ V . ,
, ,
, .
, A ,
A0 = A. A ,
A0 = A. (3) 3.1.3 -
Mn (F ) -
.
3.3.4. , -
Mn (F )
. , Mn (F )

.
 4

4.1.

. -
. -
,
.
4.1.1. A a1 , a2 , . . . , as -
V F . A -
L(A). A -
r(A).
A r. , , , -
. 1 , r -
A, L(A). ,
,
.
4.1.2. A (m n)- F .
a1 , . . . , am , ea1 , . . . , e
an -
A. A -
F n , F m .
A a1 , . . . , am . A
e a1 , . . . , e
an .
, -
. ,
, , ,
. 2.3 ,
.
.
4.1.3. A = (aij ) (m n)- -
F r , r 6 min{m, n}.
r r A. -
M , A,
 4.1. 87

r r ,
, r A.
, i1 , . . . , ir
j1 , . . . , jr , mkl M aik ,jl .
. ,
, .
, ,
.
.

1 2 1 0
1 1
A= 2 4 0 0 . M = 2,
2 0
0 0 0 0

A, ,
, .
k!
4.1.1. Ckr = r!(kr)! k -
r, r (m n)-
r
Cm Cnr .
4.1.4. A
. ,
r, -
r -
r + 1.
. A 2. -
2 M .
4.1.1 ( ). A = (aij ) (m n)-
F . , -
A .
. , -
. , -
, , ,
.
A r. ,
r r A ,
M r, 0.
, r + 1 A, -
, . , ,
88 4.

M r
r . , -
i1 , i2 , . . . , ir 1, 2, . . . , r
.
. , M = (aij ), i, j {1, 2, . . . , r}.
ai i- A, ai i-
M . i {1, 2, . . . , r} ai -
ai , r . , -
a1 , a2 , . . . , ar -
F n , . .
, .
a1 , a2 , . . . , ar F r -
, , . , .
3.2.3 det M = 0; -
. , a1 , a2 , . . . , ar A , . .
r.
m = r, . ,
m > r. , A , r, -
r . , -
- . , (r + 1)-.
ar+1 = (ar+1,1 , ar+1,2 , . . . , ar+1,r ). r a1 , a2 , . . . , ar -
F r , -
. , ar+1 :
ar+1 = 1 a1 + 2 a2 + . . . + r ar . b -
F n , ar+1 (1 a1 + 2 a2 + . . . + r ar ). ,
b = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = 0, . ,
1 , 2 , . . . , r r b
. i (i > r) , i 6= 0.
, i = r + 1. M
r + 1 A, r + 1
r + 1 .

a11 . . . a1r a1,r+1 a11 . . . a1r a1,r+1
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. M . . . M . .

ar1 . . . arr ar,r+1
ar1 . . . arr ar,r+1
ar+1,1 . . . ar+1,r ar+1,r+1 0 ... 0 r+1

det M = 0. M
 4.1. 89

, 1 , ,
2 , . . ., r- , r .
M , -
M . , r + 1- -
, 1 , 2 , . . . , r+1 , , , , .
M ,
0 = det M = det M = r+1 det M . det M 6= 0, -
r+1 = 0, r+1 . ,
b = 0 ar+1 = 1 a1 + 2 a2 + . . . + r ar .
4.1.5. (, ) -
A r(A).
. (n n)- A n
, det A 6= 0.
. M r+1, M
r
, , M .
, .
4.1.2. -
r A ,
A r.
, ,
( ) .
, -
. C


a1j1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a2j2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..................

............... (1)

arjr . . .

0

,
4.1.6. -
.
, :
90 4.

1)
;
2) , , .
,
. , -
, r -
j1 , j2 , . . . , jr ,
(r + 1), , .
, -
() :
1) () ( ),
;
2) () .
:
3) () .
, -
-
, .
.
-
.

4.1.1.
() A .
. , ai , aj
ai + aj aj , ai ai ,
6= 0.

4.1.2. -
.
. -
m A = (aij )mn . j1 -
A, . -
, , ,
(1, j1 ), . -
,
 4.1. 91

j1 - .

0 ... 0 a1j1 ...
0

.. .
0 . A1
0

A1 -
. -
A (1).
-
.
4.1.3.
1. A = (aij )mn , B = (bij )mn F .
r(A + B) 6 r(A) + r(B).
2. A = (aij )ms , B = (bij )sn F .
r(AB) 6 r(A) r(AB) 6 r(B).
. 1. C = (cij )mn = A + B. -
A, B, C F n ,
. i = 1, 2, . . . , m
ci = ai + bi , L(C) L(A) + L(B). -
, r(C) = dim L(C) 6 dim(L(A) + L(B)) 6 dim L(A) + dim L(B) =
r(A) + r(B).
2. C = (cij )mn = AB. , r(C) 6 r(B).
B, C -
F n , .
i = 1, 2, . . . , m ci = (ci1 , . . . , cin ) =
s s
! s s
X X X X
= aik bk1 , . . . , aik bkn = aik (bk1 , . . . , bkn ) = aik bk ,
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

C B. L(C) L(B)
r(C) 6 r(B).
r(C) 6 r(A) .
A C.
92 4.

4.2.

4.2.1. F
( ) x1 , x2 , . . . , xn -



a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2 ,
(1)

..............................

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bm

ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + . . . + ain xn = bi (i = 1, 2, . . . , m),

aij , bi F . -
(1). aij ,
bi .
4.2.2. x0 = (x01 , x02 , . . . , x0n ) F n
(1), i = 1, 2, . . . , m -
ai1 x01 +ai2 x02 +. . .+ain x0n = bi . ,
.
-
( ),
.
aj (a1j , a2j , . . . , amj )0 -
(1) xj j = 1, 2, . . . , n, b
(b1 , b2 , . . . , bm )0 (1).
(1)

x1 a1 + x2 a2 + . . . + xn an = b. (2)

(1).
(1) A = (aij )mn .
-
(1). (1)

Ax0 = b. (3)

(1).
e = (A | b), -
(m (n + 1))- A
A b ,
(1).
 4.2. 93

4.2.1 ( -
). (1) , -
A (1) ,
e
. . r(A) = r(A).
. (2) -
(1). , x0 = (x01 , x02 , . . . , x0n ) -
(1) , b = x01 a1 + x02 a2 + . . . + x0n an , . .
b a1 , a2 , . . . , an -
x01 , x02 , . . . , x0n . , (1) -
ha1 , a2 , . . . , an i = ha1 , a2 , . . . , an , bi,
, r(A) = r(A). e
.
.
, ,
. -
A e .
A -
e -
A.
, , .
e .
r(A) = r(A)
(1) -
, ,
.
4.2.1. -
(1),
,
.
. , -
4.1.1.
.
4.2.3. A -
, :
1) 1;
2) , , -
, 0.
4.2.1.
.
94 4.

(1) . -
A e = (A | b) -
.
, , -
e = (C | d).
C

Cx0 = d (4)

Ax0 = b. , r(A) e =
e
= r(A) = r. C (r (n + 1))-, -
.

1 ... r ... n
j1 . . . jr . . . jn

, c1j1 = c2j2 = . . . = crjr = 1

C. e xj , . . . , xj , -
1 r
xjr+1 , . . . , xjn . -
(4)
.


xj = c1jr+1 xjr+1 . . . c1jn xjn + d1 ,
1
xj2 = c2jr+1 xjr+1 . . . c2jn xjn + d2 ,
(5)

...

xjr = crjr+1 xjr+1 . . . crjn xjn + dr ,
(4), , (1).
t1 , t2 , . . . , tnr n r
F . x0 F n
: x0i = fi (t1 , t2 . . . , tnr ) i = 1, . . . , n,
fji (t1 , t2 , . . . , tnr ) = cijr+1 t1 . . . cijn tnr + di i = 1, . . . , r
fji (t1 , t2 , . . . , tnr ) = tir i = r + 1, . . . , n. x0 -
(5). , x0 = (x01 , x02 , . . . , x0n ) -
(5), , t1 = x0jr+1 , . . . , tnr = x0jn , -
, (5)
x0 = (f1 (t1 , . . . , tnr ), . . . , fn (t1 , . . . , tnr )). (1) (5)
, (1). -
.
4.2.4. F . n-
(f1 (t1 , . . . , ts ), . . . , fn (t1 , . . . , ts )), fi : F s F , -
 4.2. 95

(1), (1) -

{(f1 (t1 , . . . , ts ), . . . , fn (t1 , . . . , ts )) | (t1 , . . . , ts ) F s }.

.
4.2.2. (1)
r. n fi : F nr F
fi (t1 , . . . , tnr ) = i1 t1 + . . . + i,nr tnr + i , i = 1, 2, . . . , n,
n r , n-
(1).
, -
-
n r F . ,
, ,
, ,
, , -
(1). -
.
(1) (5).
4.2.2.


x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 2,

x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 x4 = 4,
(6)

2x1 + x2 x3 + 3x4 = 2,

2x1 2x3 + 4x4 = 4
.
, -
. -
.
, -
( ) -
, ,
. -
,
,
, .
4.2.3. (1) (m = n)
A det A 6= 0.
96 4.

x0 = (x01 , . . . , x0n ). -
:
di
x0i = , i = 1, 2, . . . , n, (7)
d
d = |A|, di , A
i- .
.
Ax0 = b. , (A1 b)0 . -
, A((A1 b)0 )0 = A(A1 b) = b. .
, x0 , A(x0 )0 = b. ,
(x0 )0 = A1 b , , x0 = (A1 b)0 = b0 (A1 )0 . ,
.
, b0 (A1 )0 = ( dd1 , . . . , ddn ).
A
(A1 )0 = ( dij ). b0 i- -
1 0
(A ) , (
) .
. (7) .

4.3.

4.3.1. n -
F


a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = 0,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = 0,
(1)

..............................

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = 0,
, -
.
. , -
x0 = (0, . . . , 0).
4.3.1. X (1)
F n . -
X n r, r -
.
. (1)
Ax0 = 0. x1 , x2 ( -
). A((x1 )0 + (x2 )0 ) = A(x1 )0 + A(x2 )0 = 0 + 0 = 0.
 4.3. 97

, x0 = x1 + x2 . -
, x0 ,
x0 , .
n- fi (t1 , . . . , tnr ), i = 1, . . . , n,
(1), 4.2.2.
k = 1, . . . , n r i = 1, . . . , n xki = fi (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0),
1 k- . n r xk =
(xk1 , . . . , xkn ) F n . -, k = 1, . . . , n r
xk (1). -, -
, -
n r, . -, -
-
. ,
x0 = (f1 (1 , . . . , nr ), . . . , fn (1 , . . . , nr )) = 1 x1 + . . . + nr xnr .
, x1 , . . . , xnr X.

4.3.2. -
-
.

. V = F n -
n F , U -
k V .
n F ,
U .
. ui = (i1 , . . . , in ),
i = 1, . . . , k, U . -
By 0 = 0, B = (ij )kn
. -
B k, 4.3.1 -
By 0 = 0 n k. -
: ai = (i1 , . . . , in ),
i = 1, . . . , n k. A = (ij )(nk)n , -
.
i1 j1 + . . . + in jn = 0 i = 1, . . . , n k j = 1, . . . , k,
uj Ax0 = 0 -
j = 1, . . . , k. U X
Ax0 = 0. , A n k, , -
X n (n k) = k. , U = X
.
98 4.

4.3.2.
Ax0 = b A Ax0 = 0
. x0
Ax0 = b, X
Ax0 = b, Z Ax0 = 0.
X = x0 + Z = {x0 + z | z Z}.
. z 0 .
A(x0 + z 0 )0 = A(x0 )0 + A(z 0 )0 = b + 0 = b. , x0 + Z X.
, x
, A(x x0 )0 = Ax0 A(x0 )0 = b b = 0. ,
z = x x0 . X x0 + Z.
. Ax0 = b , -
, Ax0 = 0
.

.
4.3.3 (). -
Ax0 = b A0 y 0 = 0,
-
. Ax0 = b , -
y A0 y 0 = 0
yb = 0.
. , Ax0 = b
x0 . -
A(x0 )0 = b. , A0 y 0 = 0 -
yA = 0 ( -
). , y , A0 y 0 = 0,
yb = y(A(x0 )0 ) = (yA)(x0 ) = 0.
y , A0 y 0 = 0, yb = 0,
, b0 y 0 = 0.
0
A
y0 = 0
b0

A0 y 0 = 0. ,

0
A
r(A0 ) = r ,
b0
 4.3. 99

r(A) = r(A | b). -
Ax0 = b.
4.3.1.
, -
4.2.2.
. -
4.3.2 4.3.3 .
,
( ).
4.3.2. F = Z2 2


x2 + x3 + x5 = 1,

x1 + x2 = 1,

x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 = 0,

x1 + x2 + x4 = 0
. -
.
 5

5.1.

. ( -
) -
f : R R f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn , ai R.
( -
), ()
. , x x2
F = Z2 2, , ,
02 = 0 12 = 1. ,
, ,
-
.
N0 N {0} .
5.1.1. k N0 . ( -
) f x R

X
f (x) = ak xk = a0 x0 + a1 x1 + . . . + ak xk + . . . ,
k=0

ak R
0. f -
,
f deg f .
-
. x -
R R[x].
. , , . .
ak xk , -
, n
f (x) = a0 x0 + a1 x1 + . . . + an xn . , -
R
(a0 x0 = a0 ). ,
 5.1. 101

f (x) P= a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn . ,
0 = k=0 0xk -
0. . (
) , deg 0 = .
P k
P
k
5.1.2. f (x) = k=0 ak x g(x) =
k=0 b k x , k N0 ak = bk .
. x x2
Z2 .
5.1.3. R

X
X
f (x) = ak xk , g(x) = bk xk R[x].
k=0 k=0

X
X
k
h(x) = ck x p(x) = dk xk R[x]
k=0 k=0

P f g,
k N0 ck = ak + bk dk = i+j=k ai bj .
: h = f + g p = f g.
. , h = f + g
p = f g ,
, .
5.1.1. R .
.
1. R[x]
.
2. R , R[x]
.
3. R , R[x] .
. -
, -
P k
P .
P , f (x) = k=0 ak x ,
k k
g(x) = k=0 bk x , h(x) = k=0 ck x , -
f h + gh = (f + g)h
X X X
ai cj + bi cj = (ai + bi )cj k N0 ,
i+j=k i+j=k i+j=k
102 5.

, ,
R.
. R
R[x] ( ) -
, R R[x].
5.1.1. 5.1.1 .
5.1.1. R f, g R[x], f, g 6= 0.
.
1. deg(f + g) 6 max{deg f, deg g}.
2. deg f g 6 deg f + deg g, R
, deg f g = deg f + deg g R[x] .
. , -
, . 2
, , deg 0 = .
. R , R[x]
R[x]
.
5.1.2. 5.1.1
. R, -
deg f g = deg f + deg g .

F . , F [x] -

. , F [x] F . ,
.

5.2.

5.1.1 -
F [x].
. ,
,
.
5.2.1 ( ). F , f, g -
F [x] g 6= 0. q, r F [x]
, f = qg + r r = 0, deg r < deg g. q
r, , .
 5.2. 103

. .
deg f < deg g, , q = 0, r = f , . -
, , deg f = n > deg g = m.
f (x) = an xn + . . . + a1 x + a0 b(x) = bm xm + . . . + b1 x + b0 .
n. n = 0 (
F ), . ,
, n > 0 , n,
. f1 = f bamn xnm g.
n, ,
q1 r, f1 = q1 g + r r = 0, deg r < deg g.
f = bamn xnm g + f1 = ( bamn xnm + q1 )g + r, q = bamn xnm + q1
r .
f = qg + r = q 0 g + r0 . r r0 = (q 0 q)g. q 0 q -
, . 2 5.1.1 ,
, deg g.
, , , . 1
r, r0 deg g.
, q 0 = q, , r = r0 .
5.2.1. q r, ,
() -
f g.
5.2.2. g 6= 0 f ,
q , f = qg. g
f , f g. g | f
.
, g f , f .. g , f g.
. , g f ,
: g - f .
5.2.1 ( ).
F [x] .
1. g | f g | h, g | (f + h).
2. g | f , h F [x] g | (f h).
3. deg g = 0, h F [x] g | h.
4. deg h = 0 g | f , (hg) | f .
5.2.1. 5.2.1, -
.
5.2.3. f, g F [x]. -
104 5.

f g d F [x], -
:
1) d | f d | g;
2) d0 F [x] , d0 | f d0 | g, d0 | d.
: d = (f, g).
. 2 4 ,
d f g, -
w f
g , w = ud, u
. ,
F . (f, g) = (u, v) -
,
.

5.2.2 ( ). f, g F [x] g 6= 0.

d = (f, g) d = f u + gv,
u, v F [x]. , f g 0,
u v , deg u < deg g deg v < deg f .
. -
.
. r f g.
f g
g r. , (f, g) = (g, r).
. h | g h | r, 1 2 -
h f = qg + r. , h | f h | g,
h | r, r = f qg. ,
, ,
.
. f g,
d = g = f 0 + g 1 .
f g, g ,
. . ,
. :

f = q1 g + r1 ,
 5.2. 105

g = q2 r1 + r2 ,
...............
(1)
rn2 = qn rn1 + rn ,
rn1 = qn+1 rn ,
ri 6= 0 i = 1, . . . , n.
rn = (rn1 , rn ) = (rn2 , rn1 ) = . . . = (r1 , r2 ) = (g, r1 ) =
= (f, g). , f
g rn
.
, ,

r1 = f u1 + gv1 ,
r2 = f u2 + gv2 ,
............... (2)
rn1 = f un1 + gvn1
rn = f un + gvn ,

ui , vi (i = 1, . . . , n) F [x] (,
u1 = 1, v1 = q1 ). , d = rn
f u + gv.
d = f u + gv u
g. u g: u = qg +r.
, d = f (qg + r) + gv = f r + gv 0 .
deg r < deg g. deg f 6 deg v 0 , deg f r < deg gv 0 .
, , g f , ,
, deg d < deg g 6 deg gv 0 . ,
gv 0 = d f r, , deg gv 0 = deg(d f r) 6 max{deg d, deg f r};
. , deg v 0 < deg f .
. -
(1). -
. ,
(f, g) f g .
(f, g) f g.
5.2.4. f, g F [x]
, (f, g) = 1.
5.2.3 ( ). -
f, g F [x] , -
u, v F [x] , 1 = f u + gv.
106 5.

. (f, g) = 1, u, v, -
, 5.2.2. , -
u, v , 1 = f u + gv, d
f, g f u + gv = 1. , d -
.
5.2.2 ( ).
f, g, h F [x]. .
1. (f, g) = (f, h) = 1, (f, gh) = 1.
2. (f, g) = 1 f | (gh), f | h.
3. (f, g) = 1, f | h g | h, (f g) | h.
. .
(f, g) = 1, a, b F [x] , f a + gb = 1.
h = h(f a) + h(gb). , c, d F [x] ,
f c + hd = 1. h.
f c + (hf a + hgb)d = f (c + had) + (gh)cd = 1. u = c + ha
v = cd, f u + (gh)v = 1. , 5.2.3
f gh .

.
5.2.2. . 2 3 5.2.2.
, -
,
, -
.
5.2.5. f F [x] , ,
, f = uv, u, v F [x],
, deg u = 0, deg v = 0. -
f .
. -
,
, . , ,
.
. x2 + 1 Q[x] R[x],
C[x]: x2 + 1 = (x + i)(x i).

2
x 2 Q[x],
2
R[x]: x 2 = (x + 2)(x 2). ,
,
.
 5.2. 107

5.2.3. f F [x] . -
.
1. af , a -
.
2. g F [x] f | g, (f, g) = 1.
3. g F [x] , g 6= 0 deg g < deg f , (f, g) = 1.
5.2.3. 5.2.3.
5.2.4. f F [x], f 6= 0. a F
p1 , p2 , . . . , pr -
, 1, ,

f = ap1 p2 . . . pr . (3)

(3) -
.
. a f .
deg f = 0, f = a, r = 0, . -
, deg f > 0.
(3). f -
, p1 = a1 f -
1. f = ap1 . -
f . f -
, u, v F [x] , f = uv
deg u < deg f , deg v < deg f . u = bp1 . . . ps ,
v = cps+1 . . . pr . f = (bc)p1 . . . pr .
(3).
f = ap1 p2 . . . pr = bq1 q2 . . . qs f . ,
a = b, -
f . F [x] ,
a(p1 . . . pr q1 . . . qs ) = 0 p1 . . . pr = q1 . . . qs .
r 6 s. r = 0. -
, r > 0,
r.
pr | q1 . . . qs , j {1, . . . , s} , pr | qj . -
, , pr | qs ,
. . qs = upr . qs , , u 0.
, pr qs -
, u = 1 pr = qs . , pr (p1 . . . pr1
108 5.

q1 . . . qs1 ) = 0, p1 . . . pr1 = q1 . . . qs1 , pr 6= 0. -

.
. -

.

5.3.

5.3.1. f = an xn + . . . + a1 x + a0 F [x], F .
f f () = an n + . . . +
+a1 + a0 F .

5.3.1. f, g F [x], F .
1. (f + g)() = f () + g().
2. (f g)() = f ()g().

5.3.2. F -
f F [x], f () = 0.

5.3.1 (). f F [x], F . -

f f x . -
, f ,
(x ) | f .
. f x.
f = q(x ) + r, r = 0 deg r = 0.
,
. f () = r. .

5.3.2.
1. f F [x] n n
.
2. i = 1, . . . , n i F , i 6= j , -
i 6= j. f, g F [x], f, g n
f (i ) = g(i ) i = 1, . . . , n. f = g.
3. i = 1, . . . , n i , i F , i 6= j ,
i 6= j. f n
, i = 1, . . . , n f (i ) = i . -
 5.3. 109

f
n
X (x 1 ) . . . (x i1 )(x i+1 ) . . . (x n )
f (x) = i . (1)
i=1
(i 1 ) . . . (i i1 )(i i+1 ) . . . (i n )

. , (1),
.
. 1. 1 , . . . , s -
f . , i 6= j (x i , x j ) = 1. -
, , .
,
. ,
, .
, g = (x 1 ) . . . (x s ) | f .
, s = deg g f -
n = deg f .
2. h = f g. deg h 6 max{deg f, deg g} < n h(i ) =
= f (i ) g(i ) = 0 i = 1, . . . , n. h 6= 0,
. 1 .
3. i (1), f (i ) = i
i = 1, . . . , n. f . 2 .
. F , , -
. 2 , f F
( 5.1.1) f . -
, f, g F [x] ,
F f () = g().
5.3.2. (1), ,
1, 2, 3 1, 4, 9 .
f , f
x , x .
. .
5.3.3. f F [x], r N0 . F
f r, (x )r | f
(x )r+1 - f . 1 ,
, 1, f .
. 0, ,
.
110 5.

, r, ,
f r , . -
, .
5.3.3. f F [x] n
n . , f n
, F -
, . . f = a(x 1 )r1 . . . (x s )rs , a, i F
P s
i=1 ri = n.
. -
. 1 5.3.2. 1 , . . . , s -
f r1 , . . . , rs . ,
((x i )ri , (x j )rj ) = 1 i 6= j. ,
( 5.2.4)
, d (x)m , d = c(x)k ,
c F 0 6 k 6 m. -
(x i )ri (x j )rj (x i )ki
(x j )kj , -
, d .
, g = (x 1 )r1 . . . (x s )rs -
f . deg g 6 deg f .
, deg g = deg f
f = ag, a , . . .
-
. ,
. -
.
Pn
5.3.4. f (x) = k=0 ak xk -
n F . f 0 ,
n
X
f 0 (x) = kak xk1 ,
k=1

f .
. , ka,
k N a F , F , k -
a F .
5.3.3. f, g F [x], , F , k N. -
.
 5.3. 111

1. (f + g)0 = f 0 + g 0 .
2. (f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0 .
3. ((x )k )0 = k(x )k1 .
5.3.5. f F [x]. k
f (0) = f , k- f :
f (k) = (f (k1) )0 .
, -
.
, f (x) = x2 F = Z2 ,
, f 0 (x) = 2x = 0x = 0.
, ka 6= 0
k a F . -
, .
.
5.3.6. F .
p , p1 = 0 ( p 0), -
, F . ,
F 0.
char F .
. Z2 2. Q, R C
.
5.3.4. p
, p .
. , .
5.3.5. char F = 0, a F k N, ka = 0
, a = 0. , b F k N
b/k = b (k1)1 F .
f (x) = a0 +a1 x+. . .+an xn x = y +,
( ) y = x .
,

f (x) = b0 + b1 (x ) + . . . + bn (x )n , (2)

f x .
5.3.4 ( ). char F = 0, F ,
f F [x] deg f = n. f x
112 5.

n
X f (k) ()
f (x) = (x )k . (3)
k!
k=0

.
. (2) k -
x = . f (k) () = k!bk . (3).
( ). char F = 0,
f F [x] r N. .
1. F r f
, f (k) () = 0 k = 0, . . . , r 1 f (r) () 6= 0.
, r 1 f 0 f .
2. f -
f
g = (f,f 0 ) , g .

, f
, (f, f 0 ) = 1.
. . 1 ,
f (r = 1), f 0 (
f 0 ).
. 1. f , ,
-
(2). .
2. f r, (x )r1 | (f, f 0 )
(x )r - (f, f 0 ). , g.
, f = g(f, f 0 ), g
f .
5.3.6. f (x) = x5 3x4 6x3 + 10x2 +
f
+21x + 9 g = (f,f 0 ) f (x) = 0.

, , -
. ,
.
5.3.7. . F
, f F [x] r,
i {0, 1, . . . , r1} f (i) () = 0. ,
(f, f 0 ) = 1, f .
-
. -
 5.3. 113

,

. .
5.3.5. char F = 0, s N i = 1, . . . , s
ri N0 , i , i0 , . . . , iri F , m 6= k
m 6= k. Ps f -
, i=1 (ri + 1), , i = 1, . . . , s
j = 0, . . . , ri f (j) (i ) = ij .
Ps
. f f = i=1 fi ,

Q fi = di gi r di , gi F [x] i = 1, . . . , s. di (x) =
k +1
k6=i (x j ) , gi .
. , 0 , . . . , r F d F [x] ,
d() 6= 0. g , r,
, (dg)(j) () = j j = 0, . . . , r.
. , -
u F [x] t = 1, . . . , n, n N,
v F [x] ,

n!
(u(x )n )(t) = u(x )nt + v(x )nt+1 . (4)
(n t)!

(4) t. t = 1

(u(x )n )0 = n(x )n1 u + u0 (x )n

, v = u0 , .
v1 ,

n!
(u(x )n )(t1) = u(x )nt+1 + v1 (x )nt+2 .
(n t + 1)!

,
0
n (t) n! 0
(u(x ) ) = u(x )nt+1 + v1 (x )nt+2 =
(n t + 1)!

n!
= u(x )nt + v(x )nt+1 ,
(n t)!
.
114 5.

r. r = 0 -
g ( g 0)
0
(dg)() = 0 . , g = d() ,
gd() = g()d() = (dg)() = 0 .
r > 0 , r, .
, h , r, ,
j = 0, . . . , r 1 (dh)(j) () = j .
F g = h + (x )r
(dg)(j) () = j j = 0, . . . , r 1. ,

(dg)(j) = (dh)(j) + (d(x )r )(j) = (dh)(j) + (x )w (. (4)).

(dg)(j) () = (dh)(j) ()+0 = j j < r.

, (dg)(r) = r .

(r)
(dg)(r) = (dh)(r) + (d(x )r ) = (dh)(r) + dr!(x )0 + v(x ).

(dg)(r) () = (dh)(r) () + d()r! = r ,

,
r (dh)(r) ()
=
d()r!

(dg)(r) () = r . -
, , r! 6= 0 ,
char F = 0, d() 6= 0 .
. di
, di (i ) 6= 0 i = 1, . . . , s. -
, -
(j)
gi , ri , , fi (i ) =
= (di gi )(j) (i ) = ij , i = 1, . . . , s, j = 0, . . . , ri .
(j)
(x i )ri +1 | dk k 6= i, fk (i ) = 0
k 6= i j = 0, . . . , ri . , i = 1, . . . , s
j = 0, . . . , ri
s
X (j) (j)
f (j) (i ) = fk (i ) = fi (i ) = ij .
k=1
 5.4. 115

,
s
X
deg f 6 max {deg fi } < (ri + 1).
i=1,...,s
i=1

g , , g 6= f .
h = f g. h(j) (i ) = 0 i = 1, . . . Q
, s j = 0, . . . , ri .
s
5.3.4P i=1 (x i )ri +1 | h.
s
, deg h > i=1 (ri + 1); .
5.3.8. -
,
f , : f (1) = 1,
f 0 (1) = 2, f (2) = 4.

5.4.

-
. ,
, ,
, -
, .
, -
,
,
.
5.4.1. n , 1, R
R[x1 , . . . , xn1 ] R
n 1 . R n -
R[x1 , . . . , xn ] = R[x1 , . . . , xn1 ][xn ], . . -
xn R[x1 , . . . , xn1 ].
. R[x1 , . . . , xn ]
5.1.1. ,
, -
R R[x1 , . . . , xn ].
5.4.2. axk11 xk22 . . . xknn , a R, -
( ). a -
, n- (k1 , k2 , . . . , kn ) , -
ki xi , k1 +k2 +. . .+kn
.
116 5.

F .
, f F [x1 , . . . , xn ]
:
X
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = ak1 k2 ...kn xk11 xk22 . . . xkn , (1)
k1 ,k2 ,...,kn

k1 , k2 . . . , kn
, ak1 k2 ...kn F
. , -
(k1 , k2 . . . , kn ) . -
, n -
. -
, ,
. (k1 , k2 , . . . , kn )
, (l1 , l2 , . . . , ln ) -
, i {1, 2, . . . , n} , k1 = l1 , . . . , ki1 = li1
ki > li . u, v , u v
, u v.
.
.
:

x21 x2 2x1 x2 x3 + 3x1 x33 2x22 x3 + 1.

, 3x1 x33 , x21 x2 ,

2x1 x2 x3 , -
.
-
F .
5.4.1. F , u, v, w, z
F [x1 , . . . , xn ]. .
1. u v, v w, u v.
2. u v w 6= 0, uw vw.
3. u v, w z, uw vz.
5.4.1. 5.4.1.
. -
F [x1 , . . . , xn ] -
. , F [x1 , . . . , xn ] .
 5.4. 117

5.4.3. f F [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ]
, Sn
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), . . f
.
. 1.
X
sk = xi1 xi2 . . . xik , (2)
16i1 <i2 <...<ik 6n

k = 1, 2, . . . , n, . -
.
2. xm m m
1 +x2 +. . .+xn
m.
3.
.
4. 3x1 x2 + 3x1 x3 ,
= (1, 2) S3
3x1 x2 + 3x2 x3 .
5.4.2.
. -
n -
F [x1 , . . . , xn ]. g F [y1 , . . . , ym ] p1 , . . . , pm
x1 , . . . , xn , g(p1 , . . . , pm ) -
x1 , . . . , xn .
5.4.2. 5.4.2.
.
5.4.1 ( ).
f F [x1 , . . . , xn ] . -
g F [y1 , . . . , yn ] , f (x1 , . . . , xn ) =
= g(s1 , . . . , sn ), sk
x1 , . . . , xn F .
. u = axk11 xk22 . . . xknn
f . ,
k1 > k2 > . . . > kn . i
, ki < ki+1 . = (i, i + 1)
ki+1 k
u = axk11 . . . xki i xi+1 . . . xknn v = axk11 . . . xi i+1 xki+1
i
. . . xknn ,
v. -
118 5.

, f , -
v, u .
f , . .
(0, . . . , 0), .
(l1 , . . . , ln ), -
l1 > l2 > . . . > ln , (k1 , . . . , kn ) -
f , f . ,
, , f ,
.
k k
h = as1k1 k2 . . . sn1 n1 n kn
sn . -
sk , 5.4.2 h -
x1 , . . . , xn . v -
h. i {1, 2, . . . , n} v
xi ki , xi
si , . . . , sn -
s1 , . . . , si1 . -
, v h u, -
f . f1 = f h -
, -
f . g1
F [y1 , . . . , yn ] , f1 (x1 , . . . , xn ) = g1 (s1 , . . . , sn ). , -
kn1 kn kn
g = ay1k1 k2 . . . yn1 yn + g1 (y1 , . . . , yn ) .
. -
-
.

5.4.3. , x21 + . . . + x2n = s21 2s2 x31 +

. . . + x3n = s31 3s1 s2 + 3s3 .

5.5.

-
. ,
, ,
, . , f (x) = x2 2 Q[x]
, g = x2 + 1
R. f R, g C, . . , -
.
, .
 5.5. 119

5.5.1. K F ,
F K, . . F K ,
F , F ,
K.
, x2 2
2
x + 1, ,
.
5.5.1. F , f F [x] deg f > 0.
K F ,
K f () = 0.
. f ()
, f , F ,
K . , -
()
K. , K F f F [x],
, f K. , f ()
f , f K[x].
. 5.2.4 f
F -
, : f = ap1 p2 . . . ps . -
p1 K F , f () = ap1 () . . . ps () = 0
K . , ,
f F 1.
deg f = n

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an1 xn1 + xn . (1)

, , deg f > 1. f = a0 + x, a0
f F , , K = F .
,
. K F
t, n. ,

K = {g(t) F [t] | deg g < deg f }.

K , -
+ , . + -
.
g, h K
120 5.

g(t)h(t) f (t), . . g h = r, r -
gh = f q + r deg r < deg f . , K -
. , deg(g + h) 6
max{deg g, deg h} < deg f deg r < deg f -
. , r ,
-
K.
, K .
, hK, +i , , -
.
. g, h, u K
gu = f q1 +r1 , hu = f q2 +r2 (g +h)u = f q +r. g u+hu = r1 +r2 ,
(g + h) u = r. , F [t] . ,
g, h, u F [t] gu+hu = (g +h)u. ,
(g + h)u w, w = f (q1 + q2 ) + (r1 + r2 ) =
= f q + r. r1 + r2 = r,
, g u + h u = (g + h) u.
.
K -

F [t]. -
. K, F [t], -
, F . ,
K .
g(t) K g(t) 6= 0. f (t) F
deg g < deg f , . 3 5.2.3 (g, f ) = 1. -
, u, v F [t] , gu + f v = 1
deg u < deg f . u K g u = 1, gu = f (v) + 1.
, u K
g. , K .
a, b F .
K. F
K, a + b. ab f , , ab. -
a b = ab F . , F K, ,
K F .
K, t = 0 + 1 t+
+0 t2 . . . + 0 tn1 F [t]. , = t K,
, deg f > 1. f () K.
t (1),
 5.5. 121

f () = a0 + a1 t + a2 t2 + . . . + an1 tn1 + tn ,
k = 1, . . . n tk k t
K, . .
tk = t| .{z
. . }t .
k
ak tk ,
, f k < n ak tk , deg ak tk <
< deg f . tn (deg tn = n = deg f ).
tn f :

tn = f (t) 1 (a0 + a1 t + . . . + an1 tn1 ).

K n , t, -
(a0 + a1 t + . . . + an1 tn1 ). ,

f () = a0 + a1 t + . . . + an1 tn1 (a0 + a1 t + . . . + an1 tn1 ) = 0.

.
. g(x) = x2 + 1 R[x]. -
R. , , -
, R, g .
K = {a + bt | a, b R}. t2 t2 + 1 , -
, 1. , (t t) + 1 = 1 + 1 = 0, ,
t K g(x) K[x]. ,
K C .
t = i.
5.5.1. , g(x) = x2 + 1
F = Z2 2, f (x) = x2 +x+1
. K F ,
f . K?
1 ( ).
f F [x] deg f = n. K F
1 , 2 , . . . , n K ( ) ,

f (x) = a(x 1 )(x 2 ) . . . (x n ), (2)

. . f K .
122 5.

. f . deg f = 0,
F = K f = a F . deg f > 0,
K1 F 1 K1 ,
f (1 ) = 0. K1 f -
f = (x1 )f1 . f1 n1. ,
K K1 -
2 , . . . , n K , f1 = a(x 2 ) . . . (x n ) K[x].
(2) f K. ,
K K1 F .
. x2 + 1 R[x] C,
.
5.5.2. ,
f (x) = x4 5x2 + 6
Q[x] Q[ 2] = {a + b 2 | a, b Q}, -
.
Q, f .
-
.
2 ( ). ,
f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 F [x]
f (x) = an (x 1 )(x 2 ) . . . (x n ) K F .
k = 1, . . . , n
ank
sk (1 , . . . , n ) = (1)k , (3)
an
sk k- n -
. , g -
n F , g(1 , . . . , n )
F .
. (3) . -
5.4.1
-
.
. -
. , 1 , . . . , n
F , -
F F .
. i i x2 + 1 R,
i2 +(i)2 = 2 R. ,
 5.5. 123

x2 + 1
, . ,
1 , 2 , 5.4.3
12 +22 = s21 (1 , 2 )2s2 (1 , 2 ). ,
s1 (1 , 2 ) = 0/1 = 0, s2 (1 , 2 ) = 1/1 = 1,
.
- -
-
. ,
x2 2 = 0
, -
x2 + 1 .
, -
,
? ,

, , ,
C , , -
.
5.5.2. F -
, F [x] F
.
,
XVIII ,
. -
. ,
, -
,
, , -
, -
. -
. , -
, . ,
-
,
R.
. , -
, ,
. [2] [5].
124 5.

5.5.2 ( ). f
C[x] deg f > 0. C ,
f () = 0.
.
, , -
f 1, . .

f = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an1 xn1 + xn . (4)

-
.
1. f R[x] deg f . -
R , f () = 0.
. A = max{|a0 |, |a1 |, . . . , |an1 |}.
R || > 1 + A.

|a0 + a1 + . . . + an1 n1 | 6 A(1 + || + . . . + ||n1 ) =

(5)
||n 1 A
=A < ||n < ||n .
|| 1 || 1

n f , (5) -
, > 0, f () > 0, f () < 0. f (x)
,

[, ], .
. , (5)
, ai , C. , -
-
. -
-
.
5.5.3.
1. , C, | + | 6 || + || || = ||||.
2. f C[x] (4), C f () = 0, || 6 1 +
A, A = max{|a0 |, |a1 |, . . . , |an1 |}. ,
f 1 + A
.
 5.5. 125

.
, -
.
2. f R[x] deg f > 0. C
, f () = 0.
. f (4) n = 2k m,
k N0 m .
k, ,
. ,
, R[x], 2k ,
.
R C, , f C[x]. -
-
5.5.1 K C ,
f (x) = (x 1 ) . . . (x n ), i K i = 1, . . . , n.
. i, j {1, . . . , n} ,
i < j,
ij = i j + (i + j ). (6)
ij K

n(n 1) 2k m(2k m 1)
= = 2k1 l,
2 2
l . , , -
i ij .
g(x) K[x]
ij , . Y
g(x) = (x ij ). (7)
i<j

, g . -
g -
ij . , (6)
1 , . . . , n -
( ). , -
1 , . . . , n ij ,
g -
1 , . . . , n . -
g -

126 5.

1 , . . . , n , . f , -
R. , g R[x].
, g 2k1 l
2k , (, , f ). ,
g .
, -
R i, j {1, . . . , n}, i < j, ij C.
, (i, j), R .
1 2 ,
(i, j) a b, -

a = i j + 1 (i + j ),
(8)
b = i j + 2 (i + j ),
. -
(8) , (1 2 )(i + j ) = a b. ,
ab
i + j =
1 2
. i j -
. , i , j
, , C. -
.
. f C[x].
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an1 xn1 + xn ,
,

h(x) = f (x)f (x) = b0 + b1 x + . . . + b2n1 x2n1 + b2n x2n .
h
X
bk = ai aj .
i+j=k

X
bk = ai aj = bk ,
i+j=k

bk R k = 0, . . . , 2n. , h R[x]
2 C , h() = f ()f () = 0.
 5.6. 127

f () 6= 0, f () = 0. f () = f () = 0 = 0. ,
, f . .
( -
). 1. f C[x] ,
0, C .
2. f R[x] , 0,
R 2.
. 1. .
f C,
f1 C f = (x)f1 . f1 -
f , ,
. , f .
2. f . f -
, , , . 1, -
f1 R, f .
, , f .
,
f . , f (x) = f (x). -
, f , f () =
= f () = f () = 0 = 0. -
f . (x , x ) = 1, f
g(x) = (x )(x ) = x2 ( + )x + , ,
, R. , f = gf1 , f1
f .

5.6.

-
.

.
, , Q
.

pi
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn Q[x], ai = , pi Z, qi N. (1)
qi
a qi ,
i = 1, . . . , n, af (x) .
128 5.

, f -
af (. 5.2.3).
, f Z[x], . . ai .
5.6.1. f Z[x] -
, 1.
f Z[x], f (x) = dp(x), d -
ai , p(x) . , -
f
Q, , f
. ,
Q -
Z.
5.6.1. f Z[x] Z, f
Q.
. -

(). -
.
. f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn
g(x) = b0 + b1 x + . . . + bm xm h = f g =
Pn+m
= k=0 ck xk . , p, -
ck k = 0, 1, . . . , n + m.
f g , p -
. ar f ,
p, bs g,
p. cr+s h
X
ai bj = (a0 br+s + . . . + ar1 bs+1 ) + ar bs + (ar+1 bs1 + . . . + ar+s b0 ) .
| {z } |{z} | {z }
i+j=r+s
.. .. ..
.p 6 .p .p

, cr+s p; .
. f
. , f
g, h Q[x] deg g < deg f , deg h < deg f . g
h
a c
g(x) = u(x), h = v(x),
b d
 5.6. 129

a, b, c, d N, u, v Z.
ac p
f= uv = uv, (p, q) = 1.
bd q

qf = puv. (2)

uv -
. -
, (2), p. ,
, (2),
q. , q p. (p, q) = 1,
q = 1. , f = puv = (pu)v -
(pu) v ,
f .
Q.
5.6.2 ( ). f (x) = a0 + a1 x +
. . . + an xn Z[x]. p,
:
1) p | ak k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1,
2) p - an ,
3) p2 - a0 ,
f Q.
.
Pm Ps f = gh, g, h Q[x], deg g < n, deg h < n
g = i=0 bi xi , h = j=0 cj xj . 5.6.1 ,
bi , cj g h .
p a0 = b0 c0 , b0 , c0 .
p | b0 . , p2 a0 , ,
p c0 . a1 = b0 c1 + b1 c0 .
p a1 b0 , , p b1 c0 = a1 b0 c1 .
p p c0 , b1 .
, , p bi i = 0, 1, . . . , m.
, i < k . , p
ak = b0 c1 + . . . + bk1 c1 + bk c0 , bk c0 . p bk .
, , p bm
g. p an = bm cs
f , .
130 5.

. n -
f Z[x], Q. , Q
xn 2.
.
xn 2.
, , -
, Q, .
f Q[x] -
, Q .
, Q[x]
.
5.6.3. Q[x] -
: f Q[x],
, f Q[x], , f ,
f = uv, u, v Q[x] deg u < deg f , deg v < deg f .
. , f Z[x] deg f > 1.
5.6.1 f Q ,
Z. , f , -
u, v Z[x] , f = uv. -
u v degu + deg v = n,
m = n2 . deg u 6 m.
0 , 1 , . . . , m m + 1 -
, , , .
k = 0, 1, . . . , m f (k ) = u(k )v(k ).
u(k ) f (k ). , ,
f (k ) 6= 0, f = (x k )f1 , f
. k = 0, 1, . . . , m
Mk = { Z | f (k )} .
M = {(0 , 1 , . . . , m ) | k Mk }. -
c = (0 , 1 , . . . , m ) M . -
uc , uc (k ) = k
k = 0, 1, . . . , m. , m,
m + 1 , -
f , u -
uc c M . ,
f uc , c M ,
u v, , -
, , f . ,
, M .
 5.6. 131

. f Q[x] -
Q[x].
, -
f .
. f . f ,
-
. ,
f Q[x],
-
. , f
. , 1 , . . . , s
f ,
f , -
5.2.4, (x 1 ), . . . , (x s ).
, -
()
, 5.6.3. , -
,
.
5.6.1. f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn Z[x], = pq ,
p Z, q N, (p, q) = 1 f () = 0.
:
1) p | a0 ;
2) q | an ;
3) (p mq) | f (m) m Z.
. , ,
f
. . 3
.
5.6.2. f (x) = 2x6 + 5x5 3x4 + 2x3 +
+7x2 + 2x 3
1) ,
;
2) , , -
, f -
Q[x].
, -
f R
132 5.

C, , f ,
. , f (x) =
= x5 10x + 10
C. , -
, 4,
, .


, 69 , 15
, 12
, 12 , 109
, 14 , 112
, 12 , 8
, 53
, 104 , 22
, 23
() , 25
, 73 n, 25
- , 37
, 81 , 23
, 8
, 115
, 67
, 101
, 68
, 23
, 73
, 62
, 105
. ., 64
, 19 . ., 62
, 19 . .,
63
, 59 n- . ., 65
, 59 , 63
, 28 . ., 62
, 34 . ., 64
, 28 .
., 64
n- -
, 6 , 7
- , 77
, 6
, 33
, 92
, 33 , 92
134

, , 53
71 , 89

, 93 , 115
-
- , 116
, 128 , 115
, 70 , 117
, 70 ., 116
, 70 -
, 70 , 117
, 70 , 100
- ., 103
, 72 ., 108
r, 109
., 108
, 34
., 103
, 78
., 109
, 35
, 106
, 57
, 128
., 40
., 110
, 39
., 109
, 39
.,
-, 41 100
, 85 ., 100
, 58 ., 100
, 57
, 85 , 8
, 39 , 5
, 51 , 5
, 42 , 21
, 92
, 92 -
, 39 , 103
, 89 , 30
, 93 , 29
, 52
, 93 , 94
, 86
 135

, 6 , 36
, 47 , 101
, 29 , 7
, 27
, 124 , 67
,
117
, 6 , 75
, 8 , 35
, 8
, 7 , 6
, 8
, 89
, 87
, 6 , 86
, 69 , 86
, 21 , 86
, 24 , 119
, 5
- , 92
, 13 , 96
, 5 , 92
, 24 , 92
, 69 , 92
, 26 , 35
, 23 , 35
, 123
, 60 , 13
, 62
, 21 , 67
, 36
, 22 , 101
, 24 , 81
, 24 , 83
, 22 , 7
, 10
, 129
, 108
, 84 , 93
, 98
136

, 74 , 64

, 102

, 72 , 122

, 96
, 54
, 87 , 97
, 58
, 42 , 111
, 32
, 30
, 6
(n-), 6 , 33

, 5
, 65
, 111 , 19
- , 19
, 65
, 25
, 54 , 23
-
, 44


(f, g) 104 det(A) 47

2A 6 dim V 75
An 6 C 60
A1 A2 . . . An 6 N 5
An 34 N0 100
D(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) 39 Q 5
Ers () 42 R 5
GLn (F ) 59 Z 5
Mmn (S) 35 Zn 25
Mn (S) 35 sgn() 33
P (A) 6 supp() 29
R[x] 100 5
d() 33
R 23
.
Sn 28 f .. g 103
U W 83 g | f 103
deg f 100 r(A) 89


201011

1.

, , -
, , [4, . 4, 1]; [1, 9].

2. , ,

, , : , , ,
[1, 6, 11, 12]; [5, 63, 64, 4345]; [2, . 1, 3, 6]. -
: , -
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3.

: , , -
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4]; [2, . 1, 7, 8]. :
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 139

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[6, 6]; [2, . 5, 1].

4.

: ,
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: ,
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[5, 11, 12]; [6, 5].

5.

: , -
, -
[5, 20]; [2, . 3, 1]. :
, , ,
, , -
[5, 21, 48]; [2, . 3, 5]. -
: , , -
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0, -
,
[5, 22], [6, 16.3]; [2, . 3, 2].
: , ,
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, [5, 5152]; [2,
. 3, 7, 8].
:
140

, [5, 49]. -

[5, 55].
: -
,
-
, -
[5, 56-57]; [2, . 3, 6].
: ,
[5, 39, 40].

6.

() . -
, , .
,
[6, 8,9]. , [6, 10]; [7]. -
, . -
, [6, 11]; [7].
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. , -
. . -
[7]; [4, ]; [2, . 6, 4].
. ,
, .
, -
[6, 16]; [7].

7.

: , .
, ,
. : -
. , ,

. , -
, , ,
.
 141

, , -
[6, 1720].

8.

, .
.
, -
. . -

[6, 2223]; [5, 2628].

9.

: . -
. ,
. , , -
-. .
, .
-
. . ,
.
[5, . 14]; [2, . 4 . 10
1,3]; [3, 12, 4, 11]; [1, . 2].


1. . . . .: , 1976.
2. . . . .: , 2002.
3. . ., . . . .: ,
1982.
4. . . . .: , 1977.

5. . . . .: , 1968.
6. . . . .: , 1970.
7. . .
. : , 1991.


..

03.12.2010
60 84 1/16.
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630090, -90, . , 2