European Commission

Research Fund for Coal and Steel

Energy efficient buildings through innovative
systems in steel

F. Labory, L. G. Cajot (1), C. Mees, F. Delcuve (2), B. Dring, M. Kuhnhenne (3),

J. Kesti (4), M. Lawson, N. Baddoo, R. Ogden (5), A. Griffin, Y. Spasov (6),
A. Bonilla, E. Cagigal (7)

(1) Arcelor Profil Luxembourg Research Centre 66, rue de Luxembourg, L-4009 Esch-sur-Alzette
(2) R & D Cockerill Sambre Boulevard de Colonster, BP 57, Domaine universitaire, B-4000 Lige
(3) RWTH Mies-van-der-Rohe Strae 1, D-52074 Aachen
(4) RUUKKI Laajamentie 1, FI-13430 Hmeenlinna
( ) SCI Silwood Park, Ascot SL5 7QN, United Kingdom
5

(6) Corus UK Swinden Technology Centre, Moorgate, Rotherham S60 3AR, United Kingdom
(7) Fundacin Labein Cuesta de Olabeaga, 16, Apartado 1234, E-48013 Bilbao

Contract No RFSR-CT-2003-00017
1 September 2003 to 31 August 2006

Final report

Directorate-General for Research

2008 EUR 23180 EN

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008

ISBN 978-92-79-07681-7

ISSN 1018-5593

European Communities, 2008

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Printed in Luxembourg

Printed on white chlorine-free paper

FINAL SUMMARY

Introduction

The Directive of the European Parliament on Energy Performance of Buildings has emphasised the
need to increase energy savings in building operation because:
The EU depends on external energy sources and the import rate will reach 70% in the year
2030, compared to 50% currently.
The EU Kyoto commitments require a 20% reduction in CO2 production relative to 1990 levels
to attempt to stabilise climatic change.
Residential and tertiary (commercial and public) buildings are the largest users of energy
(mainly in heating, lighting and cooling), representing 41% of the total energy use across all
sectors, and are seen as offering the greatest potential for energy (and CO2) reduction.

In the near future, authorities will require specific measures to reduce energy demand in buildings, and
an energy passport will be required which defines the energy saving measures of the building
envelope and services. Regulations for control of heat loss through the building envelope will become
more strict, and there will be greater emphasis on renewable energy systems and on other active
measures to create energy or reduce energy demand in buildings.

Steel construction is well placed to meet these new energy efficiency targets by measures such as:
creating systems for regulation of internal temperatures
reducing heat loss by heat transmission and air infiltration through cladding
using solar collection devices for energy creation
using double skin faade and roofing systems
providing heat recovery systems

Energy saving in a building is based, in general, on four strategies: space heating reduction, cooling
load avoidance, water heating savings, and electrical supply reduction. Even though user's habits and
routines have a strong effect on energy use, by following these major strategies the building's energy
use can be reduced. There is a variety of known technologies that can be adopted for each energy saving
strategy, but technologies in steel are not yet well developed.

In the commercial building sector, it is possible to use the thermal capacity of the floor slab to regulate
temperatures, by passing cold night-time air under the slab to cool it and to extract warm day-time air.
This can be achieved in composite slabs by using the exposed area of the decking and the heat transfer
to the metal surface. Similarly, water cooled slabs have been developed which can be connected to a
primary tubular structure, thereby providing both water circulation and fire resistance.

Energy requirements are being or have been revised in various European countries. Since February
2002 in Germany, the new energy reduction law requires low energy buildings to achieve a reduction of
energy of about 30%. Very important is the new consideration of the thermal losses over linear thermal
bridges (connections between different components, e.g. wall base plate) in the investigation of the
energy consumption of a building. The thermal losses over linear thermal bridges can be more than 30%
of the total thermal loss of a building. Recognising this will lead to new solutions for connections in
buildings.

In Finland, new requirements led to a reduction of 10 - 30% in U-values of building components. The
Finnish requirements came into force in the beginning of 2003. Present typical building envelope
systems need up-grading to meet the new requirements. New energy efficient cladding systems have
been developed which achieve a U value below 0.2 W/m2 K, and low air infiltration rates.

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High levels of thermal insulation are beneficial in all climates, including those where cooling is the
major issue. A high thermal mass is often considered very advantageous in reducing cooling loads, but
the size of the effective thermal mass can be rather low in most European countries. There should be
building systems that are based on light constructions with optimised amounts of mass. These systems
can be built using steel or composite components.

Furthermore, usable energy can be created by solar energy or by extracting warm air from double skin
facades and roofing. The relative merits of these systems of energy reduction and energy creation
depend on the climatic conditions and building application.

The steel industry should therefore develop new products and systems which increase energy efficiency
in residential, commercial and public buildings, and which also utilise the thermal regulating effect of
the building fabric in an active way. These innovative approaches to design demand a holistic
assessment of building performance, taking into account the overall energy balance, as influenced by
occupancy use and climatic conditions.

These new products and systems will lead to greater opportunities for steel as regulations become more
strict. Conversely, the current use of steel will be exposed to risk if the industry does not react to these
changes positively. There are significant opportunities in the residential sector where concrete is
perceived as offering higher thermal mass than steel structures. New active systems using air or
water as the cooling medium achieve the desirable objectives of being cost-efficient, in terms of the
structure and services capital cost, but also energy-efficient in terms of operational cost.

It is clear that a wide range of opportunities for innovative steel construction exist which maximise
energy efficiency or lead to energy creation. Some of these concepts have not yet been developed to the
level of marketable products or systems, and their basic performance characteristics have not yet been
established. It is therefore appropriate to carry out fundamental research and development at a European
level in order to take these ideas to marketable products.

This project is divided into two main parts:

Development of new products and systems, based on an understanding of basic physical
performance.
Creation of assessment tools to evaluate performance of these systems in operation, and of
whole building performance.

A final section will deal with dissemination of the information gained in the form of guidance for
practitioners, and pointers to good building design in the residential, commercial and public building
sectors.

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Ways and Means

The project is organised into various distinct activities (or tasks) which are grouped separately under
TECHNOLOGIES and STRATEGIES presented in Figure 1 below:

ENERGY EFFICIENT
BUILDING DESIGN

TECHNOLOGIES FOR NEW PRODUCTS WHOLE BUILDING ASSESSMENT

AND SYSTEMS AND DESIGN STRATEGIES

WP1: WP2: WP3: WP4:

Building Fabric Building Envelope Building Assessment Design Guidance
Technologies Technologies 'Tools'

Air-Cooled Super-Insulated Energy Assessment Design Strategies

Structures Facades Models

Water-Cooled Double-Skin Modelling of Guidance on

Structures Walls & Roofs Performance Developed Systems

Other Composite External Cost-Effectiveness New Product

Systems Steelwork Opportunities

Solar Energy
Systems

Figure 1 : Summary of Work Packages and Activities

Technologies in which the structure is used actively to reduce energy consumption are presented under
BUILDING FABRIC. Technologies in which the roof and walls of the building are designed actively or
passively for energy efficiency are presented under BUILDING ENVELOPE.

Whole building assessments and design strategies are presented under ASSESSMENT TOOLS and
DESIGN GUIDANCE for both generic approaches and the systems developed in this research.

Project Management

The overall coordinator of the project is Arcelor Profil Luxembourg S.A., but the individual Work
Packages (WP) are coordinated by the responsible organisation identified with each WP : SCI for WP1,
Arcelor Lige for WP2, RWTH for WP3 and Arcelor Profil Luxembourg for WP4.

5
Work Package 1: Systems for Energy Balance through the Building Fabric and Structure
(leader: SCI)
The objectives of Work Package 1 were to:

1. Identify design methods and opportunities for the development of innovative active and passive
thermal regulation systems, in order to significantly improve the energy efficiency of steel intensive
buildings.
2. Identify, resolve and prototype the most promising of these solutions.
3. Carry out tests and performance appraisals using appropriate analytical techniques to establish the
levels of performance that can be achieved, and to compare these with conventional approaches.
4. Prepare guidance on the design and performance of the most promising systems.

The systems considered were in three categories:

a) Air-cooled floors
b) Water-cooled floors
c) Steel-composite structures.

Of these, items a. and b. required the development of novel active systems and methods of
incorporating these systems into buildings. Item c. required ways to be developed to configure buildings
to optimise beneficial passive cooling effects.

WP1.1: Air-cooled floors

Activities relating to air-cooled floors required the development of new technologies mainly for the
commercial buildings sector for steel intensive buildings that reduce or eliminate the need for
mechanical cooling.

The systems rely on the use of cold night air to chill thermally massive building elements i.e. elements
that can store significant levels of cooling reserve, often termed coolth. This in turn can chill supply
air during the day when the external ambient temperatures are too high for effective cooling without
some form of supplementary chilling. Work has demonstrated that the physical mass of steel framed
buildings with composite slabs, whilst significantly less than concrete framed alternatives, is easily
capable of storing the required cooling potential, and that composite decks allow for simple
incorporation of the necessary air distribution systems within floor slabs.

Corus RD&T and SCI have significantly progressed the theory and practice of air cooled floors. A new
flooring system based on Slimdek (a deep deck profile described later) has been developed. This has
air ducts or cores beneath the structural floor through which cold night air can be passed in order to chill
the slab. During the day when there is a cooling requirement, supply air can be routed through these
same cores in order to reduce the temperature of the air before it is delivered into the internal spaces.
The approach effectively means that free night cooling is held in the structure and rolled over to the
following day. When no cooling demand exists supply air is delivered through alternative ducts in order
to preserve the coolth in the slab.

The project has involved large scale prototyping of a floor slab and computer simulation of its
performance in order to align the observed data form the prototype with CFD and other analytical
techniques, so developing robust predictive methods of analysing the likely performance of
installations. An accurate understanding has been achieved of fan power requirements, heat transfer
coefficients and the dynamic thermal behaviour of floor slabs.

6
 Figure 2 : Air-cooled floor based on Slimdek

Air-cooled floors have been found to give performance similar to exposed soffits in the cooling season,
with the added advantage of controllability, meaning that the cooling effect can be saved until needed
(usually later in the day). This cooling is then more effective in reducing and delaying peak
temperatures within the space. Air cooled floors are particularly effective in spring and autumn, when
cooling may be needed only sporadically. Winter heating demand is also reduced by about 10%. Night
cooling (purging) of the floor slab is facilitated by the use of mechanical ventilation of the active cores,
so that enhanced convective heat transfer and guaranteed airflow can be relied upon to purge the
building of daytime heat. Air cooled floors can reduce air conditioning electricity consumption by
approximately 70% if a higher setpoint of 26C is set.

WP1.2: Water-cooled floors

Activities relating to water-cooled floors also required the development of new technologies, aimed
mainly at the commercial buildings sector. The intention was to reduce or eliminate the need for
mechanical cooling and to take advantage of the far higher specific heat capacity of water. A key
characteristic of water cooled systems is that the cooling and ventilation requirements are de-coupled,
hence whilst there are similarities with air cooled systems in terms of energy reduction, there are radical
differences in the systems hardware and operation.

The project has therefore been an important focus for considering the relative merits of the approaches.

SCI has developed and evaluated a number of options for incorporating water cooling pipes into floor
slabs, and water storage systems into hot rolled frames. This has involved adapting technology
originally developed for heating systems and developing framing solutions based on rolled hollow
sections. Evaluation has focussed on:
Practical issues concerning the construction and maintenance of systems
Energy requirements (particularly pump energy).
Water storage requirements.
Fire safety issues
Systems performance, particularly cooling efficiency.

It has been found that water is an ideal medium for transfer of heat within the building structure.
Cooling rates of more than twice that of an exposed slab can be reliably achieved using water from such
sources such as boreholes and ponds. Having a high density in relation to air, water can transfer much
greater quantities of heat for a small cost in terms of pumping energy. It uses proven technology (under
floor heating) and is easy and cheap to install. It has been demonstrated that pipes can be integrated into
all types of steel composite decks to achieve the optimal even temperature distribution, avoiding cold
spots and consequent condensation risk.

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 Figure 3 : Cooling pipes integrated in floor slab

WP1.3: Steel-composite structures

This part of the project was concerned with opportunities for beneficial passive cooling using the
building structure (particularly floor slabs) as a means of absorbing excess heat generated within
buildings during the day. Heat is then purged at night using freely available cool air.

The approach gives greatly improved temperature stability and reduces reliance on energy intensive
mechanical cooling systems and ventilation regimes.

Unlike air and water cooling, there is no requirement for mechanical systems development; the focus
instead is on the effective configuration of buildings to optimise beneficial passive effects, and on
ascertaining the levels of cooling that can be expected. Comparison has been made with other forms of
construction, particularly heavy concrete systems.

It has been important also to address calculation procedures used for analysis of passive thermal effects,
as it has become clear that certain procedures unfairly prejudice lighter forms of construction
particularly in relation to the performance of buildings in cold climates, such as Nordic countries, by
overestimating the effects of physical mass. Detailed thermal analysis has been carried out using
modern design standards and analytical techniques; these have confirmed the good performance of steel
intensive construction.

A database of methods of steel intensive floor slab construction with good thermal characteristics has
been compiled.

Composite slabs can absorb and give out more heat than flat concrete slabs because of their increased
soffit area. The deeper the profile of the decking, the greater the area for convective and radiative heat
exchange to occur. Depth of concrete required for diurnal passive cooling is shown to be 100mm.
Whilst thermal inertia is useful in commercial buildings, modelling of apartment buildings in Finland
shows that physical mass of buildings has little effect on energy efficiency in a cold North European
climate, with factors such as air-tightness and shading having a greater influence.

8
Work Package 2: Improved Energy Performance of the Building Envelope
(leader: Arcelor Lige)
The objectives of Work Package 2 were to:
1. reduce energy losses through the building envelope and to improve the operation of buildings,
2. develop steel-intensive or mixed cladding systems to reduce direct heat losses and to actively
create energy,
3. carry out characterisation by physical testing and numerical simulations of performance, and to
perform the whole building assessment in the Work Package 3.

The systems reported are classified into three main parts:

Plain elements : Roofs & Faades (WP2.1: Double-Skin Roofs ; WP2.2: Double-Skin Facades ;
WP2.3: Solar Energy Collection System; WP2.4: Super-Insulated Cladding Systems)
Thermal Bridges (WP2.5)
Steel-Glass Faades (WP2.6)

WP 2.1: Double-skin roofs

The regulations related to the energy management in building focused until now on winter comfort. But
the consumption for air conditioning being more and more important, summer comfort becomes a
relevant preoccupation. Due to its low thermal inertia and its high solar absorbance, the classical
metallic roof leads to heat built up and so an unacceptable discomfort in sunny periods and/or a
dramatic increase of energy consumption in individual houses for air conditioning.

To avoid this kind of problem, Arcelor Lige worked on a ventilated and anti-radiative double skin
roof. This double skin system has for its objective to protect the building against thermal effect of solar
radiation.

The system is based on two main principles:

1. Ventilation of the spacing between both steel skins with outside air
2. Reduction of radiative transfer between both skins due to a low emissivity coating

Experimental tests carried on the system concerned mainly measurements on the radiative properties of
the materials and geometrical characteristics of the steel sheets. The tests showed that the performance
of such a system is function of:
air velocity between the steel sheets,
thickness, length, and incline of the roof,
type of sheet.

WP 2.2: Double-skin faades

Activities relating to double skin faades were undertaken by investigation on various types of
ventilated faade systems. The ventilation concept is a faade solar air collector with mechanical
exhaust ventilation.

For an advanced solution, the supply air can be controlled with a mechanical damper. A control option
by-pass system is needed to regulate supply air in winter time and in summer time. A separate heating
device can be required for very cold nights and short day time sun shine (Nordic climate). Other design
aspects which need consideration are supply air filtering, fire aspects and noise control.

A numerical study was carried out on the integrated ventilation system (solar wall) behind perforated
steel plate cladding.

The objective was to develop a CFD model to assess the feasibility of the concept for UK climate. For
the set of operational conditions, the efficiency of the system varies from 35% to 60%. A first
approximation of the useful heat that could be delivered by the system is 0,15 MWh/m for the whole
year.

9
WP 2.3: Solar Energy Collection System

A building integrated solar system is a system that collects solar energy and converts it into thermal or
electrical energy to cover a part or all of the buildings energy demand. Typically these systems provide
space heating, hot water heating, or electricity generation.

Systems that provide for multiple purposes may become more cost-effective than systems that have
only a single use. Therefore integration of solar systems into building components is advantageous.
This chapter summarizes the experiences gained from integrating solar energy systems in steel-
intensive roofing systems as part of the overall energy balance.

The systems considered were:

Roof integrated solar PV system
Roof integrated solar air system

The system performances were measured at VTTs test house (Finland) in a previous ECSC project.

The potential energy savings are:

- for roof integrated solar PV system:
In the climate of Southern Finland the system produces approximately 70 kWh/panel-m of
electrical energy per year. The energy saving potential is 5 15% for a reasonably energy
efficient detached house (panel size 10 m to 50 m).
- for roof integating solar air system:
The integrated solar air system can contribute 2000 2500 kWh to a detached houses heating
energy demand. The energy saving potential depends on indoor temperature and ventilation rate.
Especially during spring, all the heat collected from the roof can not be utilized due to over-
heating of the indoor air. The performance would improve if a heat storage can be used as a part
of the solar air system.

WP 2.4: Super-insulated Cladding Systems

In this work package, the super insulation used as infill panels for curtain walls was investigated. The
work was divided into two parts:
Advantages of using this technology as the core of a steel sandwich panel
The integration of such sandwich panel as infill for curtain walls an the comparison between
curtain walls in aluminium and curtain walls in steel from the thermal point of view.

The system considered is the VISPs for Vacuum Insulating Sandwich Panels, which consists of
laminating the sheet steel cladding of different thicknesses; this concept produces significant synergies
at the mechanical and thermal level, as well as having significance in terms of durability.

Figure 4 : VISP in diagrammatic form

Measurements on a VISP system were carried out:

- from mechanical point of view : point bending test ; uniformly load tests.
- from thermal point of view : the experimental tests are described further.

Further investigation was carried out by numerical calculation of thermal properties on curtain walls
applications.

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The objectives from both studies were:
1. Determination of U-values (Uf) and of -values (p) for curtain walls using a steel or
aluminium framework in order to calculate Ucw according to EN ISO 10211 and EN 13947.
2. Determination of linear cold bridging for the corner in each configuration according to EN ISO
10211.

In conclusion, it is recommend to use products based on precipitate silica and a PE and/or PET type
envelope with a metallic layer and protected by steel sheets in order to achieve suitable thermal and
lifetime performance. The use of such panels as the infill for a steel curtain wall is a relevant application
and the thermal characteristics are competitive with aluminium systems that are most used cuirently.

WP 2.5: Thermal Bridging between Envelope and Structure

The reduction of the thermal losses over the exterior components and their junctions is an important
issue in saving heating energy. By achieving a high level of insulation, the minimisation of thermal
bridging effects becomes an important part of the design of building envelopes. The work reported
focusses on thermal transmission heat losses of building envelopes in steel. General information on
thermal bridges, definitions, modelling and testing, boundary conditions, material characteristics and
European standardisation is presented in this section.

According to the new requirements and regulations, all linear and point thermal bridges, which are
normally part of plane building elements (e.g. joints, bolts) have to be considered in the calculation of
the thermal transmission coefficient. The thermal transmission coefficient of building elements in steel
have to be calculated according to EN ISO 10211.

The following picture shows typical facades detail in steel for different types of buildings used in
European countries.

Figure 5 : Junction in Sandwich Element Construction

Data and information of the thermal performance of lightweight steel-framed construction can be found
in the report. In the scope of EEBIS, a series of numerical (using finite element calculations) and
experimental thermal bridge investigations were carried out, focusing on sandwich element
constructions and penetrations in steel. The optimisation regarding thermal bridging of junctions of
building envelopes is necessary to fulfil national requirements in several European countries. For
example in Germany, the heat losses in the area of junctions have to be considered in the calculation of
the transmission heat losses for all new buildings.

WP 2.6: Steel-glass facades

The use of steel and glass architecture is very popular in particular for prestigious office buildings.
Some examples of these types of buildings are shown in this report. Measurements data of primary
energy demand for heating, cooling and ventilation are given. The results show that steel-glass
architecture is not self-evident energy-efficient architecture. Therefore the specific advantages and
disadvantages have to be evaluated to define recommendations for more efficient steel-glass buildings
in the future. The investigations on this topic concern thermal bridges, optimisation of solar gains, CFD
calculation on double skin faade system in glass.

11
Work Package 3: Assessment `Tools for Whole Building Energy Performance
(leader: RWTH)

The primary objective was to assess whole building performance and to demonstrate the energy saving
potential of steel intensive buildings.
The secondary objectives were:
- to develop assessment tools to assess whole building energy performance for a range of
building uses and sizes.
- to investigate simulation tools for air and water-cooled systems.
- to assess the energy performance of typical buildings using the techniques developed in WP1 and
WP2.

The topics in the work package are classified in four parts:

- WP3.1 : Identify Building Types for Assessment
- WP3.2 : `Tools for Overall Building Energy Performance
- WP3.3 : Overall Energy Performance of Typical Steel Buildings
- WP3.4 : Cost-Effectiveness of Solutions

WP3.1: Identify building types for assessment

The current regulations affecting energy performance were reviewed for different countries (see details
in mid-term report). Currently, new regulations deal with heating energy demand, but future regulations
will cover also energy demand for lighting and cooling.

The investigation of representative buildings typical for Europe led to define three different strategies:
- the reference cell
- a virtual office building
- three simplified building types: house, office and an apartment

The analysis of European climates led to three main categories, covering the major part of Europe:
- Norther climate (Helsinki)
- Mid European climate (London and Berlin)
- Mediterranean climate (Madrid))

WP3.2: Tools for overall building energy performance

Existing tools for evaluation of overall energy performance were investigated:

- the standardised methods according to EN 832 and EN ISO 13790:2004
- numerical methods for thermal building simulation used by the different partners

The steel products introduced in WP1&2 were investigated using numerical tools and standardised
methods. The benefit of the various technical solutions depends strongly on the climatic conditions and
on the use of the building.

The main conclusion of this investigation is the need of future research regarding standardised
calculations of for cooling and lighting.

WP3.3: Overall energy performance of typical steel buildings

This part of work package was concerned with calculation of the energy demand with standardised
methods and numerical tools to investigate various operational and climatic conditions on whole
building performance.

Standardised methods were investigated with the simplified building forms defined in WP3.1: a single
family house, an apartment building, an office building and an industrial building.

12
Numerical tools were used with the reference cell concept to study impacts of various parameters as:
window size, orientation, depth of the room, thermal inertia.

In a second phase, the different products described in WP1&2 for deck or floor systems and building
envelopes have been tested by numerical simulations. The results are presented regarding climatic
conditions.

A complementary study on the effect of thermal inertia was carried out in relation to apartment
buildings in Nordic climate.

Calculation method complies with the European standard EN ISO 13790:2004. Results with
comparison between numerical simulation and standard are reported.

WP3.4: Cost effectiveness of solutions

The cost effectiveness of the solutions depends on many factors such as:
- The manufacture and installation costs
- The design life and long term maintenance
- The energy saving or energy generation potentials
- The increased cost of energy over time

Many systems are currently rather expensive in terms of capital cost (such as photovoltaic cells) but
could be justified as part of the proportion of renewable energy generation that is required by modern
regulations. In many countries, a minimum of 10% renewable energy is required for planning
approvals.

Highly energy efficient buildings can be justified on the basis of their energy savings. Double skin
roofing and walling systems may be shown to be cost-effective due to the reduction in background
heating to the internal space.

Further work is required to assess the economics of these new technologies based on their as-built
performance in service.

Work Package 4: Design Strategies and Design Guidance for Steel Structures
(leader: Arcelor Profil Luxembourg)

The primary objective was to present design strategies for the energy efficient design of steel intensive
buildings.

The work programme was to prepare a general guidance on energy efficiency measures using steel
structures for: residential buildings, commercial (shop and office) buildings, public buildings, industrial
buildings (added topic).

The work package is divided in two parts:

- strategies for energy efficiency,
- develop design duidance for the new products and systems.

1. WP4.1: Strategies for energy efficiency

The strategies may be classified in terms of: building form and orientation, cladding systems, energy
balance of building operation and seasonal conditions, active thermal regulating effect of the building
fabric.

The strategies and design guidance are examined for: housing and residential buildings, offices, public
buildings.

13
2. WP4.2: Develop design guidance for the new products and systems

A part of the project is the dissemination of the strategies for energy efficient design, in a form of
guidance on the performance of the innovative technologies developed in Work Packages 1 and 2, and
notably:
- air and water-cooling systems in the building fabric,
- steel-composite floor systems,
- double skin cladding and roofing systems,
- solar energy collection systems,
- super-insulated cladding systems,
- external steelwork and cold bridging.

The Design Guidance is a documented procedure aimed to be disseminated. The Design Guide assists
the designer or the user during the design process to choose the best components to reduce the overall
energy consumption in the building. It is recommended to prepare a definitive Design Guide as part of
a future dissemination project.

14
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULTS
OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The project has several objectives composed of two main parts:

- development of new products and systems based on an understanding of basic physical
performance.
- assessment tools to evaluate performance of these systems in operation and the whole building as
well as mapping of design strategies and design guidance for energy efficient building design.

The objectives in the first part (technologies for new products and systems) are:
- for the buiding fabric technologies:
reduce the heating / cooling demand in buildings by active participation of the structure in
internal temperatures regulation.
develop technologies for steel and composite structural systems that actively use air or water as
the cooling/heating medium.
carry out physical testing of performance and simulate whole building performance using these
systems.
- for the building envelope technologies:
reduce energy losses through the building envelope and improve the operation of buildings.
develop steel-intensive or mixed cladding systems in order to reduce direct heat losses and to
actively create energy.
carry out physical testing of performance, and evaluate the energy saving potential.

The second part (whole building assessment and design strategies) has the following objectives:
- for the whole building assessment:
assess whole building performance and demonstrate the energy saving potential of steel intensive
buildings.
develop assessment tools to assess whole building energy performance for a range of building
uses and sizes.
investigate simulation tools for air and water-cooled systems.
assess the energy performance of typical buildings for the techniques developed in WP1 and
WP2.
- for the design strategies:
present design strategies for the energy efficient design of steel intensive buildings.
disseminate the information gained in this project, including on the innovative systems developed
in WP1 and WP2.
develop design strategies for whole building performance.
identify new opportunities for steel-intensive systems.

15
COMPARISON OF INITIALLY PLANNED ACTIVITIES AND WORK ACCOMPLISHED

The objectives defined initially for each work package have been fulfilled.

The works undertaken led to the development of innovative products or systems and a clearer
knowledge of existing innovative and intensive steel systems. An overview of existing systems and
concepts showed that basic physical performance of existing systems needed to be clarified before new
products could be developed. The investigations, including experimental tests and calculations by
numerical simulations, helped to classify the level of performance of each solution.

Another issue to highlight is the dissemination of the information gained in the form of guidance for
building design. A document summarizing design strategies and guidance on the systems was prepared
in the form of a Design Guide which addressed global design for energy efficiency. The current
guidance is not sufficiently detailed to be presented separately from the final report and should be the
subject of a later Type 2: Valorisation project in order to disseminate the design guidance throughout
the building industry.

16
DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION

1. WP 1 : Systems for Energy Balance through the Building Fabric and Structure

1.1. WP 1.1: Air-cooled floors

1.1.1. Introduction

Activities concerning air-cooled floors have focussed on the development and appraisal of a prototype
system for use in relation to composite construction technology.

This is a shallow floor system generally used in conjunction with asymmetric steel beams (ASBs). The
deep composite slab is supported on the wide bottom flange of the ASB, and the beams are effectively
integrated into the depth of the floor slab. Conventional services can be suspended beneath the slab or
partially integrated between the ribs of the decking.

Figure 6 : Construction

1.1.2. Overview of experimental work

Experimental work was carried out by Corus at the Swinden Technology Centre. The objectives of this
were to determine the thermal performance of the system. A full-scale slab measuring 3.75x12m
(Figure 7) was constructed. This comprised a total of five Comdek SD225 deck ribs.

The system was monitored using sensors in the cores and within and on the lower surface of the
concrete. The air temperature in the laboratory, outside air temperature, air temperature after the fan,
and air temperature in the slab inlet and outlet were also monitored. The air velocities were measured
using a TA-5 thermal anemometer capable of providing readings with resolutions of 0.01m/s. The
pressure drop along the channel was determined by measuring the pressure difference between the slab
inlet and outlet by an electronic manometer (LM1) also used for leakage tests.

A number of tests were performed including an Ambient Fluctuations test, Diurnal Cycle test,
Controlled Heating and Controlled Cooling of the Slab, Uncontrolled Diurnal Cycle, System Leakage

17
tests and a Smoke test. Figure 8 illustrates the variation of the averaged temperature of the concrete and
at the inlet and outlet during four summer days.

Figure 7 : Test rig on the floor, showing the ducting arrangements

Slab inlet temperature

Slab outlet temperature

Slab temperature

DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 4

Figure 8 : Temperature variations during four summer days

18
 1.1.3. CFD modelling

The behaviour of the ACS has also been analysed by using CFD modelling. The commercial code
ANSYS CFX 5.7.1 was used to develop a model in combination with ANSYS ICEM CFD used to
create a representative mesh (Figure 9). Predictions from the CFD model were compared with
experimental data and a 5% maximum disagreement has been found for the average temperature at the
outlet of the air duct. The CFD model can therefore be used with confidence for further studies of the
performance of the ACS.

Figure 9 : Solid model and mesh of half a rib in

1.1.4. Simulation studies

A reduced model of the slab, i.e. a part of the floor, was used within IES (Integrated Energy Solutions)
building simulation software. This provides zone modelling capabilities for whole building energy
simulations. A series of numerical simulations of the slab were performed to determine heat transfer co-
efficients hc and their dependence on flow rate as computed from the CFD model. This is illustrated in
Figure 10(a). Each individual slab is modelled in Apache as a separate room having a concrete ceiling
with a prescribed hc and insulated walls and floor. A comparison between the predictions from such a
reduced Apache model, the full CFD model and the experimental data is presented on Figure 10(b). The
good agreement between the predictions for the air temperature at the outlet obtained from experiment,
CFD and Apache give confidence in the predictive capability of the reduced slab model.

45 30
40
35
25
Hc [W m^-2 K^-1]

30

25
20 20
15

10
15
5 outlet, apache inlet

0 outlet, CFD outlet, experimental

0 50 100 150 200 10

flow rate [l s^-1]
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
a) b)
Figure 10 : Reduced model of ACS for use with whole building energy simulations a) hc for different
flow rates b) comparison between predictions for single room model of ACS from Apache, experimental
and CFD data. The flow rate is 120 l/s

The simplified slab model was further embedded into a representative building form (Figure 11). The
active cores are represented by dummy rooms, located below the building. The rooms and dummy
rooms are connected through an HVAC system, which includes fans, boilers and heaters, heating and

19
cooling coils, controllers and connecting ducts. The location of the building is Kew (London, UK) and
the ventilation flow rate is 72l/s per room or 5ach per room. Two cases were considered under the same
general assumptions: a building with mechanical ventilation only and an air-conditioned building.
Results for the first case are presented in Figure 12. The peak day temperatures in the months April-
September are reduced by approximately 2C and there is also a significant reduction of the number of
hours with temperature above the comfort limits.

The efficiency of the system has also been demonstrated by considering the energy savings that can be
directly attributed to the air-cooled floors in an air-conditioned building. The airconditioning system is
specified to maintain an acceptable comfort during office hours, and the energy consumption for
cooling is calculated and compared for cases with and without the air-cooled floors being operational.
Figure 13 illustrates the energy consumption for cooling for the cases with an active ACS and an
inactive ACS. The cooling load decreases significantly for the months May to August when ambient
temperatures and solar radiation are higher. The total savings for cooling during the warmer months
(May to August) is found to be 44%. It should be noted that the increase in electricity consumption by
the fans is very little, due to the low resistance to flow of the ACS.

Figure 11 : Illustration of the representative building and the dummy rooms used for the ACS

The cooling requirements for the sample building without ACS are around 12.2 kWh/m2 and are
already close to the best practice cooling loads for the UK (14kW/m2, see for example [5]).

33 500
31
Hours above temperature

29 with ACS 400

with ACS
Temperature [C]

27 no ACS
300 no ACS
25
23
200
21
19 100
17
15 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 >25 >26 >27 >28 >29 >30 >31 >32
hours from 1 April Air temperature [C]

Figure 12 : Performance of the ACS in the representative building during the cooling period for the
case of mechanical ventilation only. The data shown corresponds to an internal office a) temperature
during the first 500h after the beginning of the cooling period (1 April) b) working hours for which the
temperature exceeds a specified value

20
 5
ACS included
4 ACS not included

Cooling load (MWh)

3

0
4 5 6 7 8 9
month of the year

Figure 13 : Energy required for cooling in the sample building for the period Apr-Sep

1.1.5. Building design studies

The practical use of air-cooled floors has been investigated through the design of a typical office
building. The building is 13.5m deep x 30m long and 4 storeys high. ASB beams span 6m and the
internal columns are offset to allow for the possibility of a 1.5m corridor with 6m square cellular office
space. Deep decking spans either 7.5m and the slab depth is 300mm. The plan form is shown in Figure
14.

Figure 14 : Plan of demonstration building

There are a number of potential ways of configuring air-cooled slabs within this building. These
include:
- Introducing roof fans and chimneys on each of the main facades to act as vertical ducts to
route air to and from the entrance and exit points on the floors edges.
- Use of louvers at floor level to allow each floor to have individual points at which air enters and
leaves through the main facades.
- Double skin facades where the space between the facades forms a distribution plenum for the
supply of air to and extraction from the floors as well as accommodating other possible
environmental control features such as sun shades.

These options are described in greater detail in the semester reports, but for the purposes of analysis
greatest attention has been given to the double skin option as this appears most representative of current
best practice and has good potential to accommodate the broader environmental agenda expected in the
next decade or so. Advantages include:
- The facade regulates temperatures by acting as a thermal buffer.
- Solar shading can be introduced between the facades.
- Warm air can be vented out of the facade in the summer or used as pre-heated supply air in the
winter.

21
SCI commissioned White Design, a leading architectural practice in the UK with an influential profile
in the field of sustainable building design, to collaborate on the design of the test building. This building
is illustrated in Figure 15, which shows the use of double faade systems through which the air is
extracted.

Figure 15 : Possible elevational treatment of the demonstration building

The assumed occupancy conditions and environmental targets were as follows:

Density of occupants 1 per 14m floor area
Period of operation 8.30am to 19.30pm
Target operating temperature band 20-24C

More detailed information can be found in [28].

The modes of operation of the building systems are as follows:

Mechanical ventilation with space heating: This would generally apply during the winter months.
Supply air is pre-heated in the double faade. Perimeter heating is used to supply any additional heating
requirement and fans are used to extract air at slab level on the single faade.

Night cooling: At night during the period of the year where there is a daytime cooling demand, cold
night air is drawn in through louvers on the single facade and routed through the upper chambers of the
air cooled floor. The air then leaves the building through the double faade. This process chills the slab
without chilling the interior of the building.

Space cooling: When there is a daytime cooling demand, supply air is drawn in through the single
faade and through the same upper chambers of the air-cooled floor used to chill the floor slab during
the night. This supply air, which is at high external ambient temperature, is chilled as a result of passing
intimately beneath the soffit of the floor slab and then is directed by a damper arrangement into the
lower chambers of the aircooled floor. The air then enters the internal space through ceiling grills freely
located to suit the internal arrangement of the building. Air is extracted via the double faade, helped by
the stack effect within it.

Cross ventilation: When the cooling demand within the building can be met by using air at external
ambient temperature air is drawn across the space from the single faade to the double faade using
buoyancy driven effects from air rising in the stack within the double faade.

22
 Figure 16 : Day cooling

Figure 17 : Night cooling of slab

Figure 18 : Heating regime

23
 Figure 19 : Natural plus buoyancy driven ventilation

Figure 20 : Detail of air core below

1.1.6. Performance analysis

1.1.6.1. General
In this study the ACS system was considered to be installed in the concept building described above and
investigated using a whole building dynamic thermal simulation tool (TRNSYS) to assess the effect of
ACS on the energy demand (in particular for cooling) and the overheating hours of the building.

The investigation was performed in two steps:

(a) From a reference module of the building, which is easy to handle and fast to calculate, from
which the main characteristics of the system can be predicted
(b) From the whole building, to consider also the effects of roof and ground slab etc.

The calculations were performed using the measured weather data BRE, Garston (UK) for 1994.
Detailed analysis is presented for the hot period from day 191 to 196.

24
From the simulation runs the following results were obtained:
- Energy demand for heating
- Energy demand for mechanical cooling (if existing)
- Temperature excess hours (during working hours) 24, 25, 26, 27C

1.1.6.2. Reference module

The first simulations were undertaken using a reference module of the building, because the work for
generating the numerical model and the runtime for the simulations is reduced significantly. The
reference module was divided into two different zones North and South.

Zone North

Zone South

Figure 21 : Reference module, floor plan

Zone South Zone North

Figure 22 : Reference module, section

Tamb Zone South Zone North

A A

active trough

Figure 23 : Reference module, active elements

25
 Section A-A

13,50m

Tamb

Tsupply Tsupply
Figure 24 : Airflow through active trough (ventilation mode)

Different variations were investigated:

Table 1 : Variations for reference module

Var Air conditioning ACS Natural Ventilation (Summer) Faade
1 Yes No If Aircon off Normal
2b No No Yes Normal
2c No Yes Morning Normal

The following results were obtained:

Table 2 : Results reference module

Qheat Qcool T>24C T>25C T>25C T>25C
Var
[kWh/m_a] [kWh/m_a] [h/a] [h/a]) [h/a]) [h/a])
1 5.3 13 191 0 0 0
2b 5.3 0 1787 1497 1231 1022
2c 5.3 0 863 662 487 324

In Var.1 with conventional air conditioning the overheating problem is solved by use of energy for
mechanical cooling.

In Var. 2b no system for cooling is used; therefore the temperature increases dramatically such that the
internal temperature is too high for almost the whole summer.

In Var. 2c the ACS system is used as the only means of reducing the temperature. The effect is evident,
but additional measures are required to reach acceptable temperatures.

In the next steps the ACS will be combined with an air conditioning system to determine the cooling
energy saving in comparison to Var. 1 and nearly equivalent room conditions.

1.1.6.3. Whole building

The thermal simulations of the whole building were performed using half of the building. This is
acceptable due to the symmetry of the building, and because subsidiary rooms (staircase, toilets) are of
minor interest.

26
 15,00 m

13,50 m
representative part of building
Figure 25 : Whole building (representative part)

The building was divided into 12 different zones, as shown in Figure 26. Each storey consists of a north
and south zone, similar to the reference module. Additionally the double faade consists of 4 zones (one
for each storey).

Tfacade, outlet

Zone
Zone RSD Zone RND
DFD

Zone
South DFC Zone RSC Zone RNC North

Zone
DFB Zone RSB Zone RNB

Zone
Tamb DFA Zone RSA Zone RNA Tamb

Figure 26 : Zoning of whole building

Different variations of the whole building model simulated:

Table 3 : Summary of variations

Air Natural Ventilation Faade
Var ACS Miscellaneous
conditioning (Summer) (South)
1 No No Double
1C Yes (26C) No Double
2 No No Yes Double No internal heat gains
3 No Yes Morning Double
3C Yes (26C) Yes Morning Double
3OC No Yes Morning Double Open ceiling (non-active troughs are
not covered)
4NC No No Yes Additionally natural night Double Open concrete ceiling
cooling

27
The indoor temperatures, shown in the following diagrams, are valid for the second and third storey.
The ground floor is better, whereas the top floor is worse in the summer case.

Var. 1 (ACS not active, no air conditioning)

Figure 27 shows the results for the hot period. At outside temperatures up to 32C the room temperature
at the southern zones reaches a maximum of 37C, while the northern zone is approx. 2C colder.
40

35

30
Temperature [C]

25

20
TA
15 TRS
TRN

10
0 24 48 72 96 120
Time [h]

Figure 27 : Whole building, Var 1 Temperatures for hot period (TA ambient temperature, TRS room
temperature Zone South, TRN room temperature Zone North)

Var. 1C: If air conditioning is used, the room temperature can be limited to the desired temperature,
26C. For this variation, only the energy demand for cooling over the whole year is useful for
comparison.

Var. 2: This variation is only useful to show the effect of internal heat gains on the heating energy
demand.

Var. 3: Figure 28 shows the effect of use of ACS. The inlet air (TZU in diagram) is cooled down by
approximately 4C to 5C and therefore the room temperature is reduced by about 4C in comparison to
Var. 1.
40

35

30
Temperature [C]

25

20
TA
TRS
15 TRN
TZU

10
0 24 48 72 96 120
time [h]

Figure 28 : Whole building, Var 3 Temperatures for hot period (TA ambient temperature, TRS room
temperature Zone South, TRN room temperature Zone North, TZU inlet air temperature through ACS)

Var. 4NC: Var. 4 has an open concrete (massive) ceiling, without a suspended ceiling. In combination
with natural night cooling, this variation is close to the ACS solution in maximum temperatures.

28
 40

35

30

Temperature [C]
25

20
TA
TRS
15
TRN

10
0 24 48 72 96 120
time [h]

Figure 29 : Whole building, Var 4 Temperatures for hot period (TA ambient temperature, TRS room
temperature Zone South, TRN room temperature Zone North)

Simulation runs for the whole year yield the energy consumption for heating and cooling (Table 4) and
hours over relevant thresholds (e.g.: 24, 25, 26C).

Table 4 : Results for whole building

Natural Heating
Air ventilation energy Cooling energy
Var ACS Miscellaneous
conditioning demand demand kWh/m
(Summer) kWh/m
1 No No 14.2 0
1C Yes (26C) No 14.2 10.1
2 No No Yes no internal heat gains 43.6 0
3 No Yes Morning 21.9 0
3C Yes (26C) Yes Morning 21.9 2.8
3OC No Yes Morning Open ceiling (non-active 18.0 0
troughs are not covered)
4NC No No Yes (at night Open concrete ceiling 24.1
also)

36

34 Var 1
Var 3
32 Var 3OC
Var 4
temperature [C]

30

28

26

24

22

20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
time [h]
Figure 30 : Whole building hours over set C during occupied hours

29
 1.1.6.4. Summary
ACS significantly improves the thermal conditions in comparison to a conventional suspended ceiling.
The conditions in the conventional building are not acceptable during a hot summer period. ACS
reduces the maximum temperatures to an acceptable level for the majority of occupied hours so that air
conditioning is not necessarily needed. The calculations show that it is useful to keep the non-active
troughs open the maximum temperature can be reduced, and additionally the heating energy demand
can be reduced.

When air conditioning is used to maintain maximum temperatures to 26C (comparison Var. 1C and
3C), the cooling energy demand is reduced from 10.1 to 2.8 kWh/m by the use of ACS.

However, the thermal performance during summer is similar to that with an exposed soffit in
combination with natural night cooling. In spring and autumn, ACS is more effective because the
thermal inertia is only active when it is useful therefore the heating energy demand of the example
with ACS is much lower (approximately 10%). The further advantages of ACS are that it can be
combined with a suspended ceiling for integration of piping and cables, there is better acoustic damping
than with an exposed soffit, and the overall appearance is more aesthetically acceptable.

The results presented above are from the early stages of ACS development. Further optimisation using
simulation (particularly with regard to ventilation rates and use of active cores in response to internal
conditions) should lead to substantial performance improvements.

1.2. WP 1.2: Water-cooled floors

1.2.1. Introduction

Water-heating through pipes embedded in a concrete slab is an established technology. However, water
cooling is far less common. Typically pipes are 16mm internal diameter laid in regular serpentine arrays
where the pipes are generally 200-400mm apart. Cool water is assumed to be available at 14-16C in
order to generate a cooling differential of 6-8C relative to the ambient temperature of the space. This
differential leads to a cooling flux of 35 to 70 W/m2C.

The energy efficiency of water cooled deck systems must be seen in comparison to an air conditioning
system. The reasons for the higher efficiency are:

1) The transport of the coolth by water is much more efficient than by air in an air conditioning
system.
2) The impact of a cooled surface on thermal comfort is higher than with an air conditioning
system when the radiant effect is considered; therefore higher internal temperatures are
acceptable during the cooling period, with consequent lower energy consumption.
3) Composite deck systems are able to store coolth, due to the thermal inertia of the concrete.
Therefore it is possible to produce the coolth during night hours for lower costs and with higher
efficiency.
4) A large heat exchanging surface allows water to be used with a small temperature difference to
the room temperature; therefore several natural cold sources can be used (for example
boreholes).

For a composite slab with steel decking, the most efficient deck shapes are those providing a large
uniform surface temperature. All parts of the soffit of the slab must be at as low a temperature as
possible but above the temperature at which there would be a condensation risk.

The work undertaken within this package has made two significant contributions. It has:

a) Established design guidance on the most effective placement of cooling tubes behind composite
decks and the levels of conformity that can be achieved in soffit temperatures, and:

30
b) Identified opportunities for using tubular structures as conduits for water distribution and as storage
reservoirs.

Various forms of composite decks were considered within the project. These may be summarised as
follows:

Slimdek or deep decking: The form and structural properties of Slimdek (Figure 31) are as previously
described in relation to air-cooled floors. Heating or cooling pipes may be introduced in the deck ribs
and the shallow concrete at the top of the profile. The most challenging design issue is that of achieving
conformity of surface temperature, given the complex nature of the profile.

300 Pipe
225
100
Rebar
600

Figure 31 : Deep deck profile

Composite deck profiles: two generic forms of composite decking may be used: trapezoidal and re-
entrant as in Figure 32 and Figure 33. Spans of 2.4 to 3.6m between supporting beams are possible.
Pipes are usually located close to the top of the deck for ease of placement.

140
60 60
333

Figure 32 : Trapezoidal profile

50
130

50 150

Figure 33 : Re-entrant profile

Cassette decking: An alternative deck shape has a flat soffit and is in the form of a tray (Figure 34).
This is less efficient structurally but is a relatively straightforward profile with which to achieve
uniform surface temperatures.

150

120
60

300

Figure 34 : Cassette floor decking

1.2.2. Themal modelling of deck profiles

Thermal modelling of embedded water pipes in Slimdek composite floors was carried out in order to
ascertain the levels of temperature conformity that it would be possible to achieve. A range of possible

31
pipe configurations was investigated and reported in the semester reports analysed for a 300mm deep
slab using BISCO conduction modelling software.

Figure 35 : Temperature profile

Figure 35 shows the best temperature profile achieved. Assuming that water is used at 15C (ie. a 9C
temperature difference), the cooling effect is approximately 50-55W/m2. This arrangement involves
dual pipes in the ribs and topping at 300mm centres. The return pipe is routed in the topping between
the ribs, and water is assumed to be at an average temperature of 14.5C.

The analyses demonstrate that embedded pipes can provide effective cooling. Borehole or lake water
could be used (For example, UK groundwater temperature is approximately 12.5C). Use of an open
suspended ceiling would reduce the overall performance by 10-20% depending on the percentage of
openings, but this is still a viable option.

1.2.3. Design options for tubular structures

Slim floor beams can be manufactured using Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS) with a welded bottom
plate. The spacing of the beams is typically 6 to 7.5 m, and the typical member sizes are:

- Beams: 250 150 RHS with a 15 mm welded bottom plate

- Columns: 250 250 SHS external columns
300 300 SHS internal columns

Various options for tubular steel frames used in conjunction with water cooling were considered and are
detailed in the semester reports. Two of the most promising solutions were found to be as follow:

Water distribution through SHS/CHS columns

In this form of construction, water is distributed directly from the columns, and may not necessarily
pass through the RHS beams. Two alternative pipe distributions are shown in Figure 36 and Figure 37,
the second using over lapping pipes to improve the uniformity of heat flux over the surface.

A key advantage of this system is that connections of the pipework to the structure are relatively simple,
but the volume of water stored in the system is small so it is necessary to rely on tanks or other means
of increasing the volume of water that is available.

32
 North Facade

Flow
Flow 250 x 250 SHS

Alternative
pipe
distribution
A A

300 x 300 SHS

Return

250 x 250 SHS

Flow Flow Flow
Edge beam
B South Facade
Plan on floor showing pipe distribution

20 mm dia.

75

225

Section A - A Section B - B
Figure 36 : Water distribution and cooling through CHS/SHS columns, plan and sections

6m

A
6m
A

B
B
250 x 250 SHS

6m

300 x 150 SHS

300 x 150 RHS Return

40

70
Flow
600

Section A - A Section B - B

Figure 37 : Water distribution and cooling through CHS/SHS columns, isometric view of slab

33
Water distribution through RHS beams and Slimdek floors

Slimdek frames can achieve spans of 9 to 13 m, by use of deep RHS beams and by an additional tie rod
system (as was used in the Luxembourg Chamber of Commerce). A 450 250 16 RHS section with a
15 mm thick welded bottom plate can span up to 10 m when supporting a 6 m span slab, and therefore
can eliminate internal columns in narrow plan buildings. The top of the RHS projects above the slab
and occupies the depth of the raised access floor. This form of long span construction is shown in
Figure 38 and Figure 39. There is also an option to use paired beams to increase both spanning
capability and the volume of water contained within the system.

Water is contained within the RHS beams. This is fed into the floor cooling pipework when there is a
cooling demand in order to chill the slab which in turn chills the internal space. Heat is purged from the
water overnight using any appropriate method, including 'brise soleil' or external louver systems within
which the water can be circulated. Simple flow control devices switch between modes as appropriate.
Cooling pipework is looped back on itself to provide relatively uniform cooling flux.

The RHS beams provide for considerable storage of cool water, equivalent to about 50 mm of water
over the slab surface which corresponds to cooling of approximately 55W/m2 (see calculation below).
This is 75% of the likely cooling demand in many commercial buildings.

The connection into the RHS beam is made above the slab in order to facilitate access for maintenance.

Table 5 : Design Parameters

Single beam Dual beams
3
Total volume of water stored in 12 m 6 m bay 3.1 m 4.2 m3
Equivalent depth of water over floor area 51 mm 58 mm
0 2
Coolth stored in water for 7 C temperature difference 1500 kJ/m 1700 kJ/m2
Cooling effect uniformly distributed over 8 hour cycle 52 W/m2 59 W/m2

250
North Facade
6m
Flow Return

450

400
Section A - A
250

B B
10 - 13 m

450
300

500
Section B - B

300 300

Flow A Return
South Facade
(a) Pipework layout in long span Slimdek Section through slab

Figure 38 : Long span Slimdek showing pipework layout and RHS beam, plan and sections

34
 m
3
-1
10

B
250 x 250 SHS
A
A

6m
450 x 250 RHS

450 x 250 RHS

Return
40

70
Flow
600

Section A - A Section B - B

Figure 39 : Long span Slimdek showing pipework layout and RHS beam, Isometric view of slab

1.2.4. Other design issues

Fire protection

The RHS beams can be used to deliver water for sprinkler systems in case of fire. This can be achieved
by frangible bulbs fixed to the RHS or to adjacent components. These sprinklers are usually installed
at not more than 3 m spacing in a typical office. The volume of water that can be delivered is initially
based on the water stored in the RHS beams, but it can be enhanced, and controlled at each column
location.

The saving in the use of this approach may be estimated as follows:

The cost of traditional passive fire protection can be 20% of the steel structure cost (approximately
15/m2). A sprinkler system may cost 45/m2 floor area, and so the savings in a dual cooling - fire
protection system can be significant (60/m2).

Connection Design

The RHS beam to SHS column connections require careful consideration when water is required to be
passed between these members, as the beam-column interface should be effectively sealed unless a
separate liner is used. A typical end plate connection using Flowdrill bolts is illustrated in Figure 40. A
100 mm diameter opening in the face of the SHS column and in the end plate provides for sufficient
movement of water in a 6 m 6 m floor bay. The flow speed through the opening will be typically 0.2
m/s. This plate may also incorporate a control device to regulate flow.

The end plate connection also possesses significant bending resistance and stiffness allowing it to be
used in a moment resisting frame. Alternatively, the structural connection is made independent of the
water distribution at this point. This may take the form of separate manifolds and slabs on the top or
side of the RHS beam.

35
 250 x 250
SHS column
200 x 150 RHS 200 200

50
100

400 100 mm dia.

25
50 100 50
Flowdrill hole
for 22 mm dia. bolt

View on connection View on end plate

Figure 40 : Connection detail in RHS beam to SHS column in water-cooled structures

Maintenance aspects

Probably more investigation is required regarding maintenance aspects and strategy on durability of
such a system.

1.2.5. Laser-welded steel sandwich panel

A hydronic system fitted in a steel sandwich panel beneath steel-composite deck systems was
investigated. This is the laser-welded steel sandwich panel (LSP) called I-Core (producer: Meyer-
Werft, Papenburg (D)).

The main characteristics of the LSP are: Very light construction, therefore very low thermal inertia,
combined with good thermal conductivity of steel, leading to the concept of integrating a piping system
for heating and cooling. This system was investigated numerically and by testing.

steel sheets from to

[mm] [mm]
b
t

Width 500 3000

L
Length
e
g
n 1000 10000
hs

ts
t 2 10
steel pipe p 120 120
p
t

hs 40 100
webs ts 3 4
sound insulation

floor panel

Figure 41 : Laser-welded steel sandwich panel system (panel, assembly in demonstration

building RWTH Aachen, principle of complete deck system, available dimensions)

36
 Figure 42 : LSP system with steel pipes for heating /cooling (steel pipes implemented in shop)

This deck system was implemented in a FEM-calculation (Software: Marc/Mentat) in two variations:
with and without insulation and floor plate. These two configurations were also investigated by
measurements.

Section for 2D-FEM-Simulation

i top
t
hs

ts F,m F

bottom
t

i p

Figure 43 : LSP system, FEM-model without and with insulation / floor plate

For typical boundary conditions (temperature room ti = 26C, temperature water tw = 18C) the
temperature distribution was calculated and the cooling capacity determined.

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 C 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 C 26

Figure 44 : LSP system, FEM-results without and with insulation / floor plate

37
Based on the results of the FEM calculations a simulation model for a whole building simulation was
developed. These simulations were performed using the reference cell concept. The results are given in
WP 3.

The detailed investigation of thermally activated LSP leads to the following results:

Table 6 : Specific Capacity, taken from numerical calculations (ti = 26C, tw = 18C)
spec. capacity top spec. capacity bottom
W/m W/m
I-Core, without insulation/floor plate 28.5 66.4
I-Core, with insulation/floor plate 4.3 71.3

These results can be used to develop curves for this deck system in order to compare it with other
cooling ceilings:

160

Form A
140
Form B
cooling capacitiy q [W/m]

Form C
120
Form D
I-Core
100

80

60
FEM-Result

40

20
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

temperature difference room - water ti - tw [K]

Figure 45 : Cooling capacity LSP system, comparison to other cooling ceilings (closed constructions,
Form A: perforated metal cassettes, Form B: capillary pipes in plaster, Form C: capillary pipes in
perforated cassettes, Form D: aluminium cassettes with copper pipes, Reference: Recknagel /
Sprenger)

1.2.6. Phase changing materials

Regarding the cooling systems analyzed, probably it could be relevant to consider and to compare or to
combine with phase changings materials (PCM).

Phase change material (PCM) is a material that will change its phase at a designed temperature, in order
to absorb or release large amounts of energy.

This subject didnt take part on the purpose of the current research.

The subject should be investigated in a future project regarding energy efficient buildings.

38
1.3. WP 1.3: Steel-composite structures

1.3.1. Introduction

This part of the project has investigated the contribution that can be made by the building structure to
maintaining comfort temperatures, and in particular the design issues associated with composite floor
profiles. Work done by SCI (Ogden and Kendrick, 2000) and others prior to the EEBIS project
demonstrated that steel intensive construction should performs similarly to heavier concrete
construction but did not address the effects of profiles in the steel sheet which can significantly increase
surface area, or the cross-sectional shape of the concrete in the floor. These issues have been
investigated in detail in this project to achieve a much improved understanding of how floors should be
designed in order to optimise effects.

A schedule has been compiled by the project partners detailing systems that allow close coupling of
thermally massive slab elements to the internal air volume. This optimises both resistance to
overheating and advantageous roll forward of beneficial heat gains from hours when heat and solar
gains are available, to colder periods when they are not.

The project also sought to resolve problems with calculation procedures based on EN ISO 13790:2004
which appeared particularly to prejudice the use of lightweight structures in cold Nordic climates, but
which also potentially would be problematic generally throughout Europe. As a result, detailed studies
were undertaken by the University of Helsinki to calibrate the overestimates of performance in order to
establish the true competitiveness of lightweight and steel intensive solutions. This is particularly
important for the residential sector. These studies showed that the differences between the thermal
performances of high and low mass solutions are marginal.

1.3.2. Thermal analysis of composite slabs over daily heating and cooling cycles

The effective thermal mass of composite slabs may be utilised over a daily heating cycle by absorbing
heat from the room space below. The effectiveness of this action depends on the surface area that is
exposed and the mass of concrete. Typical composite deck profiles and their slabs depths are illustrated
in Figure 46. They are: deep decking profile used in Slimdek, a trapezoidal composite slab, a re-entrant
slab and a flat tray profile; these are typical of the current range of products for various spans.

Transient thermal analysis was carried out over a heating period of 10 hours, expressed as a sinusoidal
curve, in order to determine the heat absorbed by the slab for the above four cases. For simplicity, this
analysis assumed that the top surface is insulated so that heat passes only through the under side as
influenced by the steel deck profile. The steel is assumed to be 1.2 mm thick. The results may be
compared to those from using a solid slab in order to establish the influence of the profile shape for the
same effective depth.

300
225
140
60
600 333

(a) Deep decking (b) Trapezoidal decking

150

50
130 120
60

150 300

(c) Re-entrant decking (d) Flat ' tray' decking

Figure 46 : Geometrics for thermal analysis of composite slabs

39
The models were set up and analysed by Oxford Brookes University using the properties described
below:
- Heat2 software was used to build models of the four different slab types above, and a 100mm
and 200mm flat slab for comparison. A medium density concrete is assumed to have a thermal
conductivity of 2W/mK. Steel decking is assumed to have a thermal conductivity of 52W/mK.
- In each case, boundary conditions were taken as below:
- Lower surface: sinusoidal temperature variation, 22C average, amplitude 4C, phase 6 hours,
period 24 hours, surface resistance 0.13m2K/W.
- Upper (insulated) surface: 20C, surface resistance 0.13m2K/W.
- Sides: adiabatic (heat flow = 0)

Different depths of slab were modelled, depending upon the geometry of each slab. The model width
was dictated by the axes of symmetry in each case. The model was run for a period of seven days to
allow thermal stabilisation, with results taken from the final cycle.

Heat storage in different slab types

40

30

20
mm Flat slab
10 Deep deck
Trapezoidal
W/m sq

0 Re-entrant
1

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

Flat Tray
-10
mm Flat slab

-20

-30

-40
Time
Figure 47 : Heat flow for each slab type

The diagram Figure 48 illustrates an example of the distribution of temperature in a composite floor
deck (in this case a flat tray), and is an indication of the form of analyses used. A full account is
contained in appendices to the relevant semester report.

Figure 48 : Temperature distribution in flat tray composite slab

40
 Table 7 : Results summary in terms of heat absorbency (W/m2 surface area)
Description Max heat flow W/m2 Average (0800-1800h) W/m2
200mm flat slab 23.71 17.42
100mm flat slab 23.87 16.91
Deep deck 37.35 25.42
Trapezoidal 23.81 15.64
Re-entrant 28.97 20.29
Flat Tray 24.44 17.65

The results from these thermal analyses are as follows:

- Deep deck slabs give 46% more heat storage capability than 200 mm deep flat slabs due to the
improved surface area relative to their thermal mass. Deep deck profiles are beneficial in terms
of thermal capacity.
- Re-entrant profiles give 16% improvement over 100 mm deep slabs for the same reasons.
- A trapezoidal profile gives similar results to a 100 mm deep slab, whilst the flat trays slightly
improve performance as a result of the ribs embedded in the slab.

It is concluded that the deep deck profile provides improved passive heat storage and can provide better
regulated internal temperatures than conventional flat slab and the flatter forms of composite deck
profiles analysed.

1.3.3. Energy Efficient Flooring Systems

The following steel intensive floor systems have been identified as having good thermal characteristics
and meeting the new requirements for sustainable building design. Such systems achieve the desired
intimate coupling of the internal building environment with thermally massive elements, but their good
thermal properties are not as yet widely acknowledged.

Table 8 : Energy efficient floor options

Construction Details of
Form of Construction Example
System Construction
Systems Based on Air Delivery
Slimdek - Air moved below Prototype method by
Airdek underside of ribbed Corus
Slimdek - Airdek
decking and through
openings in the ASB
beams
RHS Air Supply Deep decking Prototype method by
in Airdek supported by RHS Corus
RHS Slimflor
edge beams acting as
conduit for air supply

Termodeck - Termodeck Nottingham Trent

Hollowcore P.C. hollow-core slab University, UK
Slab on Steel supported by I beams
Beams Termodek or Slimflor beams

RHS Air Supply Hollowcore precast Possible method

in Termodeck concrete slabs with
air delivered through
RHS / PC slab
RHS beams

41
Construction Details of
Form of Construction Example
System Construction
Air-cooled Deck Decking placed on Prototype method in
on Flat Slab existing concrete flat the UK
slab, below which air
Air-cooled deck
passes to cool the
slab.
CoolDeck below System installed Stevenage Council
flat slab below the slab for offices, UK
night-time cooling
Cooldeck which utilises the
thermal capacity at
the flat slab.
Concretcool Ribbed metallic ducts System developed
placed in the centre by Kiefer, Stuttgart
of in-situ concrete
Concretcool slabs to achieve a
concrete core cooling
using cooled air.
Systems Based on Water Delivery
Water-cooled Water pipes placed in Barclaycard HQ, UK
Slabs composite or flat slab
to provide
Water-cooled slab
heating/cooling.

Exposed Flat Flat composite slab, Bondek is widely

Composite Slab which may be used in used in Australia
water-cooled slabs

Integrated Services in Structure

Double Layer Cassette floor cepezed Building,
Floor on ASB supports decking and Delft, NL
Beams (IDES) IDES
gypsum screed floor
slab. Services can
run in 2 directions.
Inverted Steel Steel beams cast into Various projects in
Beams (INFRA inverted slab which NL
+) acts as exposed
ceiling. Floor acts as
INFRA +
plenum for air
supply.

Steel Beams Zone above PC slab University of Surrey

Supporting PC acts as a plenum for Management
Slabs on bottom delivery of air or School, UK
flange installation of
Floor plenum
services.

Enhanced Thermal Capacity

Curved PC slab Integrated beam or Wessex Water, Bath,
on Integrated Slimflor beam UK
Steel Beams Arched P.C. slab
supports a curved
precast slab and
concrete topping
Arched slab Curved slab cast on Possible method
steel plate with
perimeter asymmetric
Arched slab
steel sections

42
Construction Details of
Form of Construction Example
System Construction
Archdek Arched deck profile Method used in
supported by France and the UK
asymmetric I-sections
Arched deck

Partially Some additional Construction system

Encased Steel thermal capacity due in Germany
Beams to exposed encased
Partially Encased Beams
beams

Hoesch Addtif Deep composite Currently used in car

slabs supported by parks in Germany
bars welded to I
Hoesch Addtif beams. Some thermal
capacity

Kvantti Floor Inverted slab Method used in

supported by light Finland
steel sections that
achieve some thermal
Kvantti Floor capacity

Composite Composite beams Used in CRM4 office

beams system: building in Lige
(Belgium)
Beams: IPE 200
Steel Deck
Slab: e = 25 cm

2. WP 2: Improved Energy Performance of the Building Envelope

2.1. WP 2.1: Double-skin roofs

Regulations related to energy management in buildings evolve. Until now, they especially focused on
winter comfort but as the energy consumption of air conditioning becomes more and more important,
summer comfort has become a relevant preoccupation. Due to its low thermal inertia and high solar
absorbance, classical metallic roofs can heat up to unacceptable levels in sunny periods, resulting in a
dramatic increase in energy consumption in individual houses with air conditioning.

To avoid this kind of problem, a ventilated and anti-radiative double skin roof was developed and
tested. This double skin system has the objective of protecting the building against the thermal effects
of sun radiation.

Figure 49 : Metal roofing

43
The system is based on two main principles:
1. Ventilation of the spacing between both steel skins with outside air
2. Reduction of radiative transfer between both skins thanks to a low emissivity coating

2.1.1. Radiative properties of the materials

Results obtained at the simulator enable a comparison of the influence of the radiative properties of the
upper and lower steel sheet on the transmitted heat flux through the roof. The results of the tests at the
simulator are presented in this report. The different steel sheets have a good quality surface finish and a
good resistance to corrosion. A number of different surface properties were tested. The principal
sheets studied were:
Stainless steel (thickness 0.4mm, mirror aspect)
AluZn coating on steel (thickness 1mm)
Stainless steel Ugitop (thickness 0.4mm, matt, diffusive surfaces)
Prepainted white on steel (matt aspect)
Prepainted red on steel (metallic)

Table 9 : Radiative properties of various sheets (test results)

Sol IR
Stainless steel : 0,3 0,12
AluZinc : 0,2 0,07
Ugitop : 0,4 0,13
White prepainted : 0,6 0,8

The more appropriate coatings are AluZinc and stainless steel due to their radiative characteristics.
Taking into account the first two tests (stainless steel and AluZn over a 900mm simulator), the
following conclusions can be drawn:
In both cases, the thicker the roof, the smaller the transmitted thermal fluxes,
Air flow is favourable,
For a horizontal simulator, the temperature of the upper steel sheet does not vary with the
thickness of the roof,
Natural convection is the upper limit for the transmitted thermal fluxes, forced ventilation
reduces the thermal fluxes.

AluZn seems to be more efficient than stainless steel.

2.1.2. Influence of the incline

In this study both steel sheets were made of stainless steel. The thickness was 6cm and the influence of
the incline and the air velocity was evaluated. The length was 1800mm and the incident heat flux was
1076W/m.

The general behaviour of the transmitted thermal fluxes is the same as the one observed for the 900mm
simulator. In fact, if the air velocity increases, the transmitted thermal fluxes decrease.

A first remark concerning the incline of the roof is that the system seems to be more efficient in natural
convection, if the incline increases. The transmitted heat flux reduces as the incline increases. But the
temperature of the sheet is not affected by the incline.

2.1.3. Influence of the length

In this study, both steel sheets were made of stainless steel. The incline was 0. No external ventilation
was provided, thus natural convection was considered. The incident heat flux was 777 W/m for
900mm, 1076 W/m for 1800mm and 1115 W/m for 2700mm.

44
The transmitted heat flux increases with larger exchange surfaces. The thickness of the roof is
important. The decrease of the flux is about 40% between 6cm and 14cm of thickness. As the length
increases, the transmitted flow increases linearly.

2.1.4. Influence of the radiative properties

In this study, the length of the simulator was 900 mm (incident heat flux = 777 W/m), the incline was
0 and the thickness was 6cm.

Three systems were compared: stainless steel (stainless steel, r = 0.06), AluZinc (AZ, r = 0.04), and a
special combination with the external face of the superior sheet made of white prepainted steel, the
internal face of the superior sheet made of Ugitop as well as the inferior sheet (BUU, r = 0.07).

Figure 50 : Comparison between stainless steel roof, AluZn roof and BUU roof

The following table shows the temperature of the upper sheet for each configuration.

Table 10 : Temperature of external sheet, deping on material

Mean temperature of the superior
Stainless steel AZ BUU
sheet
Natural convection 58C 48C 71C
2 m/s 52C 41C 62C
6 m/s 40C 33C 46C

The heat transfer is by convection and radiation. It is remarkable that the transmitted heat fluxes for the
stainless steel and BUU are very close even when the temperature of the superior sheet for BUU is
10C higher than for stainless steel. From the radiative point of view, this can be explained by the fact
that the absorptivity of the white prepainted steel (B) is higher than the stainless steel, and that the
emissivity of the Ugitop and stainless steel are nearly identical.

If the air velocity increases, the radiative heat transfer is less important.

To illustrate the duality which exists between the convective heat transfer inside the double skin roof
and the radiative heat transfer, the following diagram shows the difference in temperature between the
inferior steel sheet and the temperature of the laboratory.

45
 Figure 51 : Difference of temperature

These results are completed using the following configurations:

UUU: both steel sheets with Ugitop
UBU: external face of the upper sheet with Ugitop, internal face of the upper steel sheet with
white prepainted steel and lower steel sheet with Ugitop (r = 0.13)
UBB : external face of the upper sheet with Ugitop, internal face of the upper steel sheet with
white prepainted steel and lower steel sheet with white prepainted steel (r = 0.67)
BUB : external face of the upper sheet with white prepainted steel, internal face of the upper
steel sheet with Ugitop and lower steel sheet with white prepainted steel (r = 0.13)
RBU : external face of the upper sheet with red prepainted steel, internal face of the upper steel
sheet with white prepainted steel and lower steel sheet with Ugitop (r = 0.13)

Figure 52 : Transmitted heat flux

The results on the previous figure can be explained as follow:

BUU shows that it is essential to have very low emissivity for the internal faces of the double
skin.
UUU is very similar to BUU despite the lower absorptivity of the Ugitop compared to white
prepainted steel. Nevertheless, we have to remember the influence of the temperature of the
laboratory. But these results confirm the influence of the absorptivity of the external face of the
upper steel sheet.
UBU and RBU are very close. The temperature of the laboratory is more or less identical for
both tests. The difference between these two coatings can be explained by the absorptivity.
BUB has been tested with a relatively high temperature of the laboratory. The temperature
difference was 2C, which can explain the difference of 8-9W/m.
UBB is the configuration that can not be used for the ventilated double skin roof application.

46
 2.1.5. Conclusions from the tests

For each configuration, we can observe:

For a fixed heat source, increasing the air velocity significantly decreases the heat flux. The air
velocity principally influences the temperature of the upper steel sheet.
The transmitted heat flux decreases if the thickness of the roof increases, even if there is no
effect on the temperature of the steel sheets. An optimal thickness seems to be 10cm.
The transmitted heat flux increases with the length of the roof. For a long roof, the best solution
seems to be to increase to thickness of the double skin roof.
The transmitted heat flux decreases if the incline of the roof increases but the effect seems to
??diminish after 30. The influence of the incline blurs, even if it is significant, as soon as
ventilation is forced into the roof.
The incline of the roof has no significant influence on the temperature of the steel sheets.
The solar absorptivity of the external face of the upper steel sheet does not have a significant
effect (on what??) for short roof lengths,.but its influence becomes important as the length of
the roof increases, by influencing the temperature of the steel sheets.

The thermal tests carried out on the ventilated and anti-radiative double skin roof lead to the following
results:
Optimal thickness of the air gap 100 mm
Positive effect of the roof slope : 20
Optimal geometry of the air inlets/outlets is important.

2.2. WP 2.2: Double-skin facades

2.2.1. Introduction

Using solar energy for heating is not a new concept and has been explored extensively in the last
decades. The basic idea is illustrated in Figure 53. The system is already incorporated into the
commercially available SolarWall system (http://www.solarwall.com). Solar radiation heats the
building's cladding, which in turn warms the air in the gap between the building's wall and over-
cladding. Thus preheated, the fresh air could be used in conjunction with conventional heating, thereby
saving energy. The cladding has perforations, which decrease heat losses from the wall to the ambient
and therefore increases the system's efficiency. In the EEBIS-project, different ventilation concepts
were determined for facades solar air collector systems and feasibility studies were carried out in order
to determine the energy saving postential of the system.

Figure 53 : Idea of faade solar air collector system

47
 2.2.2. Ventilation concept 1: Faade solar air collectors with mechanical exhaust ventilation

Principle
The faade solar air collector system with mechanical exhaust ventilation (Figure 54) meets the criteria
of indoor classification S2-S3 [4]. The faade solar air collectors serve as a fresh air pre-heater and the
heat can also be used for heating in northern climates. For the coldest and darkest months in Finnish
conditions, a separate air heater e.g. circulating air heater, or other kind of heating device is needed.

Exhaust
fan

Figure 54 : Faade solar air collector with mechanical exhaust ventilation.

Air inlet and outlet

The fresh air flows through the faade solar air collectors. In this basic system constant air flow routes
are applied i.e. no dampers are used (Figure 55). In advanced solutions the inlets are controlled by
dampers. Ideally the fresh air inlets should be placed in the upper part of the wall in order to avoid
draught during the coldest and darkest months, but when solar gain is achieved, the warm air flow
might stay in the upper part of the space, and the warm air is not fully utilised. This becomes
problematic if the hall is high and exhaust air inlets are placed close under the roof. When the height of
the building is around 3 m, the gradient in indoor air temperature does not become too high. In higher
halls, the inlets should be placed lower, or alternatively the warm air close to ceiling should be guided
downwards. One of the easiest ways to do this is to use a circulating fan in the roof space. In high
spaces the air distribution need careful design when mechanical exhaust ventilation is installed.

The supply air can be controlled by mechanical dampers such as are typically used in apartment
buildings. In that case collecting air ducts (Figure 55) are not needed. However, in some cases supply
air distribution needs to be aided with an auxiliary fan. The collecting channel is dimensioned in the
same way as air ducts i.e. according to air flow and pressure drop.

48
 Figure 55 : Supply air is controlled with a mechanical damper/grid (left). Supply air with an auxiliary
fan and collecting air duct (right).

By-pass and control options

In summer and even spring, the supply air from the faade solar air collectors occasionally becomes too
warm, thus a by-pass is needed. The by-pass should preferrably be in the north faade, since in that
faade the fresh air is at its coldest. Since fresh air intake is from at least two facades, the quality of air
intake needs to be decided with the architect (e.g. no car parking close to fresh air intake).

The fresh air intake is typically controlled by mechanical dampers. An alternative is to control the
dampers with a thermostat. Air flow is controlled with a mechanical exhaust, together with inlet
dampers. Basically the design of this system is analogous to a conventional mechanical exhaust system,
but the supply air valves are replaced with faade solar air collectors. Important information for the
designer includes the flow resistance curve of the chosen faade solar air collectors. The fresh air flow
through the solar faade collectors depends on the system, but typically varies between 5.6 36.0 l/s,m
solar_facade. Ideally the choice of air flow and the collector area are optimised, but often in practice
fresh air flow demand and the collector area determine the choice. In the following examples, the air
flow giving the highest temperature increase is used (5.6 l/s,m solar_facade).

Integration with the heating system and energy performance

Even in February supply air can be heated by solar radiation as high as 26C on sunny days (Figure 56).
However, due to cold nights and the short daytime hours of sun possibly a separate re-circulating air
heater or other kind of space heating system is needed. A further option is to install a separate preheater
to the supply air, such as by electrical cable as used in conventional systems. By installing an air heater,
the draught problems can be minimised.
40
Outdoor temperature

30 South facade

West facade

20
Temperature (oC)

10

0
1-Feb 6-Feb 11-Feb 16-Feb 21-Feb 26-Feb

-10

-20

-30

Figure 56 : Outdoor temperature, supply air temperature after passing the faade solar air collectors
when the collectors are placed on the south and west faades. The air flow through the faade solar
collectors is 5.6 l/s,m2 solar faade.

49
Other design aspects
Other design aspects needing consideration are supply air filtering and cleaning the air flow channel of
faade solar air collectors. Also air routing and fire aspects as well as noise control need to be carefully
designed. The airtightness of the building, especially when industrial halls are considered, might be
problematic since if the building is not airtight, the system cannot work in the way it was designed to
work.

2.2.3. Ventilation concept 2: Faade solar air collectors with mechanical exhaust and supply
ventilation and heat recovery

Principle
Faade solar air collector systems with mechanical exhaust and supply ventilation and heat recovery
(Figure 57) meet the criteria of best indoor classification S1 (individual control). However, S1 criteria
are not always needed. Thus, the system should be adjusted to different indoor climate levels. The
advantage with mechanical supply and exhaust ventilation is that the supply and exhaust air flow rates,
and a balance between them, can be controlled easily. The air distribution is also rather easy to control.

+/- +/-

Figure 57 : Supply and exhaust ventilation with faade solar wall can be either mechanically or
automatically controlled. Supply air can be heated according to different options. M indicates
motorised damper and T temperature measurement.

The ventilation unit is a typical one with heat recovery, including heating units for different zones or
rooms depending on the desired indoor temperature level. Faade solar air collectors can supply extra
heat, but probably a separate heating device is also needed. The heat recovery unit can be either
regenerative or recuperative. The factors deciding the choice of used heat recovery are similar to those
for traditional buildings such as exhaust air impurity level and the economic viability of the selected
heat recovery device.

Supply air inlets and control

In order to control the air flow equally from all parts of the faade with solar air collectors, dampers in
each collector part are needed. These dampers can be manually adjusted and fixed if the use of the
building is not changed and if the air flow rate does not change much during operation time. However,
other dampers, preferably with automatic controls, are needed to control the supply air flow rate to the
ventilation unit. Dampers in warm faades are placed next to the supply air chamber and work with the
cold faade damper choosing from which faade the fresh air is taken according to temperature
indicators from the exhaust air. Where heating is needed, the air is taken from the warmer faade and
where cooling is needed, from the colder faade. It is advantageous for heat recovery to be controlled in
an optimum way, especially when there is cooling need (i.e. heat recovery by-pass). The supply air
chamber should be dimensioned in the same way as the air ducts i.e. according to air flow and pressure
drop.

50
 Heat
Recovery

Figure 58 : Principle of a supply air chamber.

If the faade is installed to different fire protection zones, special supply air chambers are needed to
fulfill fire protection requirements. In practice that frequently means automatic dampers are needed.
Supply air chambers must have thermal insulation. The noise insulation needed depends on the building
site and air velocity, but typically in urban areas dampers are required in order to prevent outdoor noise
penetrating indoors. Supply air should be filtered in order to maintain good indoor air quality and to
protect heat recovery from impurities.

The space requirements depend on air flow rates, and are dimensioned in the same way as typical air
ducts. The placement of the chamber should be close to the joint between the outer wall and the roof. If
possible, a long chamber should be installed in an attic or false ceiling.

Air distribution is similar to that in traditional systems. If variable air volume is used, special care
should be taken when the supply air valves and dampers are chosen, to optimise noise control.

Heat recovery by-pass

On cold sunny days, it is beneficial to by-pass heat recovery devices in order to retain most of the heat
indoors. When the warm air is not caught in by-passes, the exhaust air may cool the supply air in heat
recovery devices. If cooling is needed, and the supply air is cold enough for cooling purposes, a by-pass
from heat recovery devices can be an advantage. In order to optimise the use of the heat recovery
devices, some automation and motorised dampers are needed. The best way to control the supply air is
to use the heat from faade solar air collectors, as long as the exhaust air temperature is under the
desired limit (typically 21-23C in office environments, in order to avoid overheating). If there is
heating demand, the supply air temperature can be as high as 40C, or even higher if the air distribution
is designed in a way that it does not cause discomfort. In that case also by-passes can be used in order to
avoid unnecessary cooling of supply air.

Supply air by-pass and control options

Since in summer time and even in spring the supply air becomes too warm in the solar wall, a by-pass is
needed for this air. The supply air by-pass should preferably be in the north faade, since in that faade
the fresh air is at its coldest. The fresh air intake can be controlled either mechanically (to
winter/summer conditions by adjusting the damper) or by automation if the damper is motorised. The
advantage of automatic control is that more solar heat can be utilised. The thermal environment of the
building can also be better controlled. The damping control should be set rather high in order to
maintain a stable system. Since the fresh air intake is from two facades at least, the suitability of air
intake needs to be decided together with the architect (e.g. no car parking close to fresh air intake).

Integration with the heating system and energy performance

Even in February, supply air can be over 25C on sunny days. However, due to cold nights and short
daytime sun hours, probably separate space heating systems are needed. An option is to install a

51
separate preheater to the supply air, such as by electrical cable as used in conventional systems. By
installing an air heater, draught problems can be minimised.

Other design aspects

Other design aspects which need consideration are supply air filtering and the cleaning of the air flow
channel of the faade solar air collector. Air routing and fire aspects as well as noise control need to be
carefully designed.

2.2.4. Feasibility study of the integrated ventilation wall system behind steel plate cladding

The objective of the present study is to develop a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model to
assess the feasibility of this concept for the UK climate. A sample shed-type building with dimensions
50m 50m 8m was chosen as a test building for this study.
The geometrical model, mesh, physical model and results visualization are performed within ANSYS
Workbench Environment 10 and ANSYS CFX 10. The CFD software ANSYS CFX solves numerically
and subject to user specified boundary conditions the partial differential equations governing the fluid
and heat flow and also accounts for the radiation exchange between surfaces and gases. The model
developed accounts for the effects of thermal radiation, conduction within the solids (insulation and two
steel sheets) and convection (both forced from a fan and natural due to buoyancy). Figure 59b)
illustrates the boundary conditions used and more modeling details can be found in Annex 8 of the
"EEBIS Semestrial report 5".

Figure 59 : Sketch of the problem (a) and model (b). Temperature field (c)

The objective of the present study is to develop a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model to
assess the feasibility of this concept for the UK climate. A sample shed-type building with dimensions
50m50m8m was chosen as a test building for this study.

The geometrical model, mesh, physical model and results visualization are performed within ANSYS
Workbench Environment 10 and ANSYS CFX 10. The CFD software ANSYS CFX solves numerically
and subject to user specified boundary conditions, the partial differential equations governing the fluid
and heat flow and also accounts for the radiation exchange between surfaces and gases. The model
developed accounts for the effects of thermal radiation, conduction within the solids (insulation and two
steel sheets) and convection (both forced from a fan and natural, due to buoyancy). Figure 59b)
illustrates the boundary conditions used and more modeling details can be found in Annex 8 of the
"EEBIS Semestrial report 5".

Both a full 3D and a simplified 2D model are developed and the results are compared for a single case
with typical ambient conditions and operational parameters. Inspection of the three-dimensional field
reveals that the flow is almost two-dimensional and the predicted useful heat from the 2D and 3D

52
models compare to within 3% of each other. All subsequent analyses are therefore performed using the
2D model in order to save computational time.

Figure 59c) shows a temperature plot from the 2D model. It illustrates the typical temperature boundary
layer on a hot vertical plate and also in the space between two vertical plates at different temperatures.
In order to determine the efficiency of the system, the model was run for combinations of 15 different
ambient and operating conditions. To determine the effect of the solar radiation intensity ( I ), three
discrete levels were considered 200W/m2, 500W/m2 and 800W/m2. For the cases with assisted
ventilation a mass flow boundary condition was specified at the opening of the channel. Apart from a
purely buoyant flow, four discrete values of the mass flow out ( m & ) of the channel were considered:
0.15 kg/s, 0.2 kg/s, 0.25 kg/s and 0.3 kg/s. Results for the temperature at the outlet are shown on Figure
91a). The ambient temperature for all these cases is fixed at 5C. The general trend is that the higher the
flow rate, the greater the useful heat and the lower the outlet temperatures are. An efficiency can be
defined as = IA Q , where I, A and Q are the intensity of the solar radiation [W/m2], area of wall
considered (m2) and heat flow out of the outlet (W), respectively. The area of the wall is taken as
8m0.1m=0.8m2. The efficiency as a function of the mass flow rate is shown on Figure 91b). It can be
seen that for the pairs ( m
& , I ), the efficiency is significantly affected by the mass flow rate and can be
from 35% for buoyancy driven flow to almost 60% for a fan assisted flow.

25 60 3000 solar irradiation

[200Wm^2]
Temperature difference [C]

usefull energy
[500Wm^2] 55 2500
20
[800Wm^2]
efficiency [%]

50
2000

Wh/m ^2/day
15
45
1500
10 200 Wm^2
40
500 Wm^2 1000
5 35 800 Wm^2
500
0 30
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
0
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
mass flow rate [kg s^-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
mass flow rate [kg s^-1]
month

a) b) c)
Figure 60 : Performance of the Solar "air - steel sheet" heating system, 0.1m of "solar wall". Outlet
temperature (a) and efficiency (b). An estimation of the amount of useful heat during the year for
London (c)

The results from the CFD calculations are taken further to calculate the amount of useful heat that could
be extracted from such a system in London, UK. The daily averaged incident solar radiation on a
vertical south facing surface is shown on Figure 91c). As a first approximation towards determining the
amount of useful heat for one year, an average efficiency of 45% has been assumed. For visualization
purposes the solar data has been averaged over one month and is presented together with the useful heat
extracted from the system over one year (Figure 91c). This first approximation reveals that the total
useful heat for the heating period (Oct-April) is around 0.15 MWh/m2 of the wall. For example, for the
typical shed considered, the useful heat is 60 MWh ( 50m 8m 0.15MWh/m2).

For the set of tested environmental and operational conditions the efficiency of the system varies from
35% to 60%. The efficiency is higher while the outlet temperature is lower at higher flow rates. A first
approximation of the useful heat that could be delivered by the system is 0.15 MW/m2 of wall (for the
heating period October-April and 0.32 MWh/m2 for the whole year).

2.3. WP 2.3: Solar Energy Collection System

2.3.1. Principle and advantages

A building integrated solar system is a system that collects solar energy and converts it into thermal or
electrical energy to cover a part or all of a buildings energy demand. Typically these systems serve for
space heating, hot water heating, or electricity generation.

Systems that serve multiple purposes usually become more cost-effective than systems that have only a
single use. Therefore integration of solar systems into building components is advantageous. This

53
chapter summarizes the experiences gained from integrating solar energy systems into steel-intensive
roofing systems as part of providing the overall energy balance.

2.3.2. Roof integrated solar PV system

Description of the system

The Solar Electro roof integrated PV system is based on a thin amorphous silicon laminate on top of the
roofing sheet, which produces solar electrical energy. The roof can supply the electrical needs of
holiday homes and can also be used as a supplementary energy source in any kind of building. A roof
integrated PV systems is nearly unnoticeable, and as such it does not affect the architecture of the
building. However, for optimum performance PV faade orientation south and tilt angle 30 60 are
the major architectural requirements.

The system composes of sheet steel roofing laminated amorphous silicon PV panel, Figure 1. The size
of the PV laminate is 0,394 x 5,486 m corresponding to 2,16 m2. The rated power and operating voltage
are 64 W and 24 V correspondingly. The system performance was measured at VTTs test houses in a
previous ECSC-project. [European Commission 2005].

Figure 61 : Roof integrated PV system. The PV panels are directly laminated onto a standing seam
steel roof.

Potential energy savings

In the climate of Southern Finland the system produces approximately 70 kWh/panel-m of electrical
energy per year. The energy saving potential is 5 15% for a fairly energy efficient detached house
(panel size 10 m2.50 m2). The relative saving potential increases as the energy efficiency improves.

2.3.3. Roof integrated solar air systems

Types of solar air systems

A solar air system is a system that collects solar energy for heating air. The system consists of a
collector and air circulation system. The collectors absorbant surface converts the solar energy into
heat. Air is circulated behind, through, or above the absorber. Air circulation transports the heat to
either direct use or to storage for later use.

The collector may be a faade or roof integrated panel that is either glazed or not. The panel can also be
a part of the buildings weather skin. Other types of absorbers are double windows, transparent layers
over the basic wall, or glazed spaces such as atriums.

Solar air systems can serve multiple purposes, such as

space heating
heating or preheating of ventilation air
water preheating

54
 solar cooling
electricity generation by hybrid PV systems

Solar integrated ventilation heating system

Description of the system
The solar integrated ventilation heating system composes of a roof integrated air collector, mechanical
ventilation system with heat recovery, double flap valve control system controlled by temperature
measurements, and air duct heaters at air inlet terminals. The system is meant as a primary heating
system for detached and terraced houses. The system can be built of standardized steel products
available on the market. The steel cladding serves as an absorber surface. Solar absorption co-efficient
of coated steel roofing is high, above 0,90, irrespective of colour. The duct heating equipment can use
any energy source: direct electricity, district heat, ground heat, pellet boilers etc. The principle of the
system is shown in Figure 62. The collector itself is based on existing typical sheet steel components,
Figure 63.

Figure 62 : Principles of the solar integrated ventilation heating system

The ventilation heating system is controlled using five temperature measurement points:
In winter, all the fresh air flows through the collector. Snow cover on the roof serves as an
exterior insulation helping preheating.
- Inlet air is heated up to a sufficient temperature after heat recovery by duct or inlet terminal
heaters
In spring and autumn the double flap valve system and heat recovery are controlled through
heat demand inside the house.
- As the inlet temperature exceeds the heating set point, heat recovery is stopped
- As the room temperature exceeds the heating set point, fresh air from summer fresh air duct
is mixed with collector air.
In midsummer, all the fresh air flows from the summer fresh air duct.
- Heat recovery is stopped

55
 Figure 63 : Exploded view of the solar integrated ventilation heating system.

The system was tested at VTTs test houses [European Commission 2005]. The test roof composes of
load bearing corrugated steel structure and a collector. The corrugated steel structure serves as the air
channel for the collector. The collector is a standing seam sheet steel cladding with black surface. The
size of the solar air system depends on the air flow rate. The VTT test house stand alone systems
dimensions were 2,4 x 7 m.

System tests were carried out as momentary measurements using 10 minute average temperatures. The
maximum temperature of the preheated air was 39oC while outdoor and indoor air temperatures were
+4oC and 22oC correspondingly. Air flow rate was 58 l/s corresponding to roughly 0,6 air changes per
hour in the building. At this rate the air velocity is 0,9 1,0 m/s in a collector air channel. Examples of
temperature variations are in Figure 64.
Roof integrated solar air collector

25 500

20 400
Outdoor temperature
Irradiation [W/m2]
Temperature [oC]

15
300
10 Air flow to ventilation
200 unit
5 Indoor temperature
100
0 Irradiation on
horizontal surface
-5 0

-10 -100
0 6 12 18 24
March 15, 2002

Figure 64 : Temperature variations in the air collector system on a spring day. The temperature of the
flow to ventilation unit was measured from the air duct in front of the ventilation machine.

Figure 65 shows the collector efficiency as a function of hourly irradiance. The efficiency (solar
gains/irradiation on the collector surface) is roughly 10 - 20% according to the test system
measurements at VTT's test house. Orientation, slope, collector area and mode of use affect the
efficiency.

The following general conclusions were drawn about the system:

Low investment costs: existing, typical steel products for sloped roofs,
Pre-heater for mechanical ventilation system: increased yearly system efficiency,
Integral part of a ventilation heating system: day time solar heat leads to reduced day time
auxiliary energy consumption,
Easy to control.

56
 100

90

80

70

Efficiency [%]
60 38 l/s
58 l/s
50
70 l/s
40 82 l/s

30

20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Hourly irradiance [W/m2]

Figure 65 : Efficiency of the solar air system according to measurements at VTTs test house.
Approximately 10 20% of the solar energy on the collector surface can be used for heating the test
building with required air exchange rate of 0,5 1/h corresponding to 44 l/s for the test house.

Potential energy saving

The integrated solar air system can contribute 2000 2500 kWh to a detached houses heating energy
demand. The energy saving potential depends on indoor temperature and ventilation rate. Especially
during spring, all the heat collected from the roof cannot be utilized due to over-heating of the indoor
air. The performance would improve if heat storage can be used as a part of the solar air system.

2.3.4. Applications

Ventilation heating system of Villa 2000

Villa 2000 is an energy-efficient detached house where new technology has been adopted for energy-
efficiency. The house was built by Ruukki for the Finnish Building Fair in 2000. Energy-efficiency is
based on the high-performance steel building envelope, super windows, heat recovery, accurate control
of indoor air conditions and utilization of solar energy in the buildings heating system. The building
space heating energy consumption is only 33% of that in typical buildings.

The roof of Villa 200 serves as a solar collector. The steel roof integrated photovoltaic system
contributes to meeting the buildings electricity demand. The roof integrated solar air collector is a part
of the buildings heating system. The total collector area is approximately 77 m2. The air collector
principle corresponds to that of Figure 62 and Figure 63. Figure 66 and Figure 67 show the actual
collector roof.

Figure 66 : Roof integrated solar air collector of Villa 2000. The collector channels have a perforated
sheet steel end fitting. The total area of perforations is approximately 10% of the channel area. The end
fitting creates a pressure difference that provides a uniform flow of air in the whole channel system.

In autumn, winter, and spring, the fresh air flows through the air collector. If the temperature increase in
the collector is not sufficient, back-up heaters (district heat) supply the required heat. In summer, by-

57
passing the ventilation heat recovery and the air collector by using fresh air intake vent on the north side
of the house decreases cooling demand. Air flow rate increases if cooling demand occurs. The houses
communications network (open Lonworks bus) works as a local network, which helps to control the
buildings services systems. Therefore simultaneous heating and cooling of individual rooms is not
possible.

Figure 67 : Roof integrated solar air collector of Villa 2000.

The total collector area is approximately 77m.

Sources
European Commission. 2005, Steel in residential buildings for adaptable and sustainable construction,
Technical steel research, ECSC-project 7215-PP/058.

2.4. WP 2.4: Super-insulated Cladding Systems

In this work package, we investigated the super insulation used as infill panels for curtain walls. The
following work is divided in two parts:
Advantages of using this technology as the core for a steel sandwich panel
The integration of such sandwich panels as infill for curtain walls and a comparison between
curtain walls in aluminium and curtain walls in steel from the thermal point of view.

2.4.1. Vacuum Insulating Sandwich Panels

VISPs consist of laminating the sheet steel cladding of different thicknesses; this concept produces
significant synergies at the mechanical and thermal level, as well as having significance in terms of
durability.

Figure 68 : VISP in diagrammatic form

The results obtained by VISP are as follows:

From the mechanical point of view

In order to carry out the tests a selection of VIPs were procured from a UK supplier. The following
panels were purchased, all in 30 mm thickness:
3No. 300x600mm
3No. 300x900mm
3No. 300x1200mm
6No. 600x1200mm

Before commencing testing, the nature of the sample had to be established. The concept design under
consideration had sheet steel bonded to both sides of the VIP with adhesive. As this was the case
discussion was held with partners at the Steel Construction Institute (SCI) and 0.5mm sheet steel with a

58
colorcoat coating was agreed to be appropriate. Discussion with the VIP manufacturers about the bags
provided guidance about the type of adhesive that would be appropriate and a single part polyurethane
adhesive was selected . 0.5mm thick S280 HPS200 was provided by Colors for use in the tests; this was
cut to size and bonded to the bags then left to cure for the recommended period before testing
commenced.

Four Point Bending Tests

Initially four point bending tests were set up to test the behaviour of the panels. A small amount of
testing work had been carried out on VIPs at Swinden Technology Centre previously and large loads
were not expected to be required. The possibility of calibrating load cells down to the required loading
was explored and rejected as it was felt that some accuracy would be lost. With this in mind, a dead
load system was devised with a spreader to apply the point loads and a series of equal weight plates to
add incrementally. Figure 69 shows the spreader mechanism in use.

Figure 69 : A 300x900mm VIP panel undergoing 4-Point Bending

As we were not expecting to fail the panels, the tests were based on deflection limits. A deflection limit
of span/250 was taken, as it was not anticipated that brittle finishes would be applied to the panels.

The results of the four point bending tests showed some interesting results. All of the panels exhibited
creep behaviour during loading, whereby when the load has been applied the sample settled
immediately, and then slowly continued to deform for some time after loading. Due to this behaviour
after each load increment was applied, a two minute waiting period was used before the deflections
were recorded, in order to get as close to the actual deflection as possible.

The first test on a 300x1200mm VIP was completed, the load was removed and the panel left to
recover. The panel did not return to its original undeformed state after the load had been removed for a
two-hour period, it remained deflected by approximately 4.06mm at the centre of the panel. With this in
mind, the panel was allowed to rest for a further 18 hours in order to see if further recovery was
witnessed. The panel actually recovered to 0.51mm from horizontal.

Following this, the second test was carried out on a 300x900mm panel, which also demonstrated creep
behaviour and recovered to approximately 0.18mm from horizontal. However, having reached this point
the panel began to settle back downwards again.

The full set of four point bending tests involved two separate panels of each of the following sizes
300x600mm, 300x900mm and 300x1200mm being tested and the results recorded separately. The
results were not consistent for panels of the same size; this was unexpected, as it implies that the core
material is not behaving as an elastic material with predictable behaviour.
Figure 70 and Figure 71 below show the results for the two 1200mm panels and demonstrate the
difference in their behaviours.

59
 VIP PANEL (1200mm x 300mm)

DEFLECTION mm
4

3 mm

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
LOAD kN

Figure 70 : Test 1 Deflection limit of L/250 @ 0.173kN

VIP PANEL (1200mm x 300mm)

7
DEFLECTION mm

5
mm
4

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
LOAD kN

Figure 71 : Test 6 Deflection limit of L/250 @ 0.124kN

Using the results from these two tests gives flexural rigidity values of 90.99kNm for Test 1 and
64.99kN/m for Test 6. Similar differences in performance were noted in both other sample sizes.

Following these results it was decided that the core material was most likely flowing when the direct
point loads were placed on the surface. The nature of the core material is similar to very fine sand and
the panel stiffness is gained from the vacuum providing some structure for these grains. A load applied
to one spot is likely to make the material flow away from the source of loading in a local zone.

Each of the tested panels was allowed to rest fully supported on a flat surface once testing was complete
and they all returned to being completely flat, which makes the flow theory seem quite likely.

Given the way the panels performed during four point bending tests, more consistent results were
required in order to assess the spanning capability of the VIPs. A uniformly distributed load test would
allow the load to be applied without generating concentrated loads on any one area of the panel, and in
theory should prevent the same degree of flow behaviour and unpredictability.

Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) Tests

Using the same sample sizes and arrangement of bonded skin a set of UDL tests were carried out on the
VIP panels. In order to ensure that the load remained uniformly distributed, a set of weights was
manufactured using strips of sheet steel the width of the panel that were taped into a continuous strip.
The tape allowed the strips the flexibility to deform with the panel as the load increased. Figure 72
below shows the testing set up that was employed for the UDL tests.

60
 Figure 72 : A 300x600mm panel undergoing uniformly distributed loading

The tests using the UDL still demonstrated creep behaviour. As before, the loads were applied
incrementally and a measured period of time, again two minutes, was allowed to pass before the
recordings were taken. The behaviour of the samples under UDL was far more consistent, yielding very
similar results for equal sized samples.

When the panels were unloaded they were observed to see if they returned to their original undeformed
state. In all but one case they did not fully recover upon unloading, and remained fractionally deformed.

Table 11 below shows the flexural rigidities of the various sized panels tested. On all panels the
supports were placed 50mm from the outer edge to prevent crushing of the edges. As such the span
tested is 100mm shorter than the panel length, e.g. 600mm long panel = 500mm span.

Table 11 : Results mechanical tests of VIP

Panel Size Flexural Rigidity UDL
(mm) (kNm2) (kN/m2)
300x600 44.8 1.10
300x900 173 1.04
300x1200 324 0.758

Although these results show an increase in rigidity in line with the increase in size of the samples there
is no obvious relationship between the panel dimensions and their rigidity. It is thought that this is due
to the complex nature of the samples. Each sample consists of evacuated core material wrapped within a
paper which is in turn contained within a multi-layered metallized plastic film bag. The steel sheets
have been bonded to the film. This coupled with the non-homogenous nature of the core material makes
analysing the samples more difficult.

From the durability point of view

Used correctly, steel constitutes a total barrier. It thus protects the full face and water and gas
penetration can now only occur via the edges. By way of an example, a 1000X1000 mm VISP panel, 30
mm thick, has its exchange surface reduced to 5% of the initial surface.

One consequence is greater freedom in choosing the barrier film to use. Put another way, it gives the
option of using a film with lower performance (less costly); this difference in permeability is
compensated for by the reduction in the exchange surface. In addition, the risk of damaging the film is
reduced.

From the thermal point of view

VISP has very bad thermal performance when it is used with aluminium film. In effect, the sheet metal
cladding has the effect of draining the heat to the thermal bridges and accentuating their effect.

61
 Table 12 : DERPI project results
Configurations Value of (in mW/m.K)
Test using a fluxmeter of a 900x900 mm VIP panel (without
sheet steel cladding).
Only the conductivity of the central part (300x300mm) is
taken into account; the thermal bridges due to the film are
ignored.
900mm

= 4,2 mW/m.K
300mm
900mm

Test using a hot box of a 900x900 mm VIP panel (without

sheet steel cladding).
Thermal bridges due to the film are taken into account.
900mm

= 9,1 mW/m.K
900mm

Test using a hot box of a 900x900 mm VISP panel (with sheet

steel cladding).
= 14,7 mW/m.K
The thermal bridges are taken into account as well as the
draining effect of the sheet steel.
Test using a hot box of a 900x900 mm VISP panel (with sheet
steel cladding).
= 18 20 mW/m.K
The thermal bridges are taken into account as well as the
draining effect of the sheet steel.

These results are obviously of great concern since they bring the performance of the more
expensiveVISP close to that of good insulators like PUR (22 mW/m.K).
As explained above, laminating sheet steel to VIP permits a wider choice of encapsulating film. Thus
using film of the evaporated metal type could enable the thermal loss aspects (by avoiding thermal
bridges) and the durability aspects to be reconciled. The poor performance of the evaporated metal film
is compensated for by the minimization of the exchange surfaces.

A better solution: VISP with evaporated metal film

Permeation across the film is a function of its permeability and the exchange surface. In other words,
you multiply permeability by 100 and divide the area by +/- 20.
Permeation of VISP with an evaporated metal film is in the region of 5 times greater than that
of VIP with an aluminium film.
The thermal conductivity of this latter solution has yet to be verified.
Option of using precipitate silica.

62
First conclusion
Applications of VISP (used as a semi-finished panel) could be very various: residential roof terraces,
incorporation into faade elements by process development and faade specialists, etc...
The semi-finished product would be as follows: precipitate silica (less effective than fumed silica but
about half the price) in a PET type metallized barrier film; assembly of the sheet steel carried out by
prior colamination of the film.
Thus defined, the following properties could be expected: thermal conductivity in the region of
10mW/m.K (minimization of thermal bridge due to the film), 50 year durability, perfect flatness, good
fire performance and good mechanical resistance (impact and compression).

2.4.2. Curtain wall application

The objectives are:

1. Determination of U-values (Uf) and of -values (p) for curtain walls with the frame in steel (first
configuration) or in aluminium (second configuration) in order to calculate Ucw according to EN
13947:

U cw =
U g Ag + U f A f + U p A p + g l g + p l p
(A g + A f + Ap )

2. Determination of linear cold bridge for corner for each configuration according to EN ISO 10211.

Figure 73 : Principle of curtain wall

63
Configurations

Figure 74 : Section curtain wall in steel (fixed window, Figure 75 : Section curtain wall in
Source Janssen) aluminium (fixed window, Source
Technal)

Table 13 shows different thermal transmission coefficients of infills.

Table 13 : Overview U-Values of infills

Faade element Up (W/(mK))
VISP 20mm - = 0.005 W/m 0.24
VISP 20mm - = 0.015 W/m 0.67
Glazing 20mm - = 0.035 W/m 1.35

The following tables show thermal transmission coefficients which were obtained by numerical
simulations according to EN ISO 10211:

Table 14 : U-Value of frames

Frame type Uf ( W/(mK))
Steel (Jansen) 1.4
Aluminium (Technal) 1.6

Table 15 : Linear thermal bridges

Frame type VISP p (W/(mK))
Steel (Jansen) = 0.005 0.11
= 0.015 0.10
Aluminium (Technal) = 0.005 0.12
= 0.015 0.11

64
Figure 76 : Steel frame, graphical result Figure 77 : Aluminium frame, graphical result

Figure 78 : Corner, Steel configuration Figure 79 : Corner, Aluminium configuration

Table 16 : Linear thermal bridges, corner

Frame type VISP (W/(mK))
Steel (Jansen) = 0.005 0.42
= 0.015 0.39
Aluminium (Kawneer) = 0.005 0.90
= 0.015 0.87

65
 2.4.3. Overall performance

The investigations show that vacuum insulation has a high thermal performance. For use in faade
constructions, the vacuum panels have to be combined with additional components; two options will be
investigated:
- VISP as an infill panel in a curtain wall system,
- Vacuum insulation as an additional insulation layer in other light weight systems.

The results of the investigations are presented in chapter 3.3.2.3.

2.5. WP 2.5: Thermal Bridging between Envelope and Structure

2.5.1. General

The reduction of thermal losses from exterior components and their junctions is important in saving
heating energy. By achieving a high level of insulation, thermal bridge effects are minimised. This is
therefore an important goal in the design of building envelopes. This chapter focusses on thermal
transmission heat losses of building envelopes in steel. General information on thermal bridges,
definitions, modelling and testing, boundary conditions, material characteristics and European
standardisation can be found in [15].

2.5.2. Transmission heat transfer

The transmission heat transfer coefficient, HT, is calculated acccording to EN ISO 13789 by:

H T = U i Ai + j Lj + k
i k j

Ui thermal transmittance of element i of the building envelope (calculated according to EN ISO

10211 for elments using steel), in W/(mK);
Ai area of element i of the building envelope, in m;
j linear thermal transmittance of thermal bridge j, calculated according to EN ISO 10211, in
W/(mK);
Lj length of linear thermal bridge j, in m;
k point thermal transmittance of point thermal bridge k, calculated according to EN ISO 10211, in
W/K (point thermal bridges which are normally part of plane building elements and already taken
into account in their thermal transmittance shall not be added here).

All linear and point thermal bridges, normally part of plane building elements (e.g. joints, bolts) have to
be considered in the calculation of the thermal transmission coefficient Ui of every single element i. The
thermal transmission coefficient U of building elements in steel have to be calculated according to EN
ISO 10211.

2.5.3. Building envelopes in steel

The following pictures show typical facade constructions in steel, used in European countries for
different types of buildings.

66
Figure 80 : Lightweight Steel-framed Construction Figure 81 : Sandwich Element Construction

Data and information of the thermal performance of lightweight steel-framed construction can be found
e.g. in [16] to [18]. In the EEBIS project, many numerical and experimental thermal bridge
investigations were carried out, focusing on sandwich element constructions and penetrations in steel.

2.5.4. Sandwich element constructions

Sandwich element constructions are widely used as metal cladding for buildings. According to new
requirements and regulations, transmission heat losses of linear and point thermal bridges have to be
taken into account.

Thermal transmission coefficient U

The thermal transmission coefficient of metal faced insulating sandwich panels is calculated according
to EN 14509 and EN ISO 10211. The thermal performance of sandwich elements depends on
(1) insulation material, (4) thickness,
(2) shape or facing, (5) type of joint,
(3) number of mechanical fasteners, (6) sheet material.

Therefore a wide range of elements with different thermal performance is available throughout Europe.
All kind of sandwich elements from different producers have to be investigated in the future to
determine the thermal performance and thermal bridge effects to prove their compliance with
regulations and requirements.

Mechanical Fasteners
Using Finite Element (FE) Calculations according to EN ISO 10211, the influence of stainless steel
bolts on the U-value of sandwich elements were investigated. The following figures show the FE-Model
with one stainless steel bolt (diameter 6,3 mm) penetrating a sandwich element (d = 80 mm,
polyurethane-insulation) and the temperature distribution and heat flux distribution resulting from the
calculations.

Figure 82 : FE-Model Figure 83 : Temperature Figure 84 : Heat Flux

Distribution Distribution

67
The investigation shows, that if not more than 1 bolt per m is used for fixation of the sandwich
element, the additional heat loss can be neglected. According to EN ISO 6946, the influence on the
thermal transmission coefficient of mechanical fasteners have to considered if the total correction of the
U-value is higher than 3% of the U-value without fasteners.

Thermal Bridge Junctions

One typical market for light-weight envelopes using steel structures is industrial buildings. Often self-
supporting sandwich panels are used for the building envelope. For example, sandwich panels with
polyurethane foam as insulation material with a very low thermal conductivity of about = 0,025
W/(mK) lead to a minimum of insulation thickness. In recent years, architects and engineers have
become interested in using sandwich panels for cladding office and administration buildings, with
higher requirements regarding building physics.

Optimisation of thermal bridging of junctions of building envelopes is necessary to fulfil national

requirements in several European countries. For example, in Germany heat losses in the area of
junctions have to be considered in the calculation of transmission heat losses for every new building.

This is one important aspect of the German requirements regarding energy saving in buildings, named
Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEV), which came into force in February 2002. Caused by these
requirements in Germany and other European countries manufacturers of building envelope structures
using different building materials are optimising the junctions to minimise thermal bridging. According
to [15] the effect of thermal bridging, expressed as linear thermal transmission coefficient , can be
classified as follows:

Table 17 : Classification of thermal bridges

Classes of thermal bridges, based on the evaluation of the -value
C1 C2 C3 C4
< 0,10 0,10 < 0,25 0,25 < 0,50 0,50
negligible effect poor effect important effect very important effect

This classification can be used to asses a single thermal bridge effect, but it is very important to
evaluate the sum of all thermal bridge effects on the overall transmission heat losses of a building.
Specific information on regulations, methods and requirements on thermal bridging in several European
countries can be found in [15] and in national regulations.

This report focusses on the evaluation of the overall performance of transmission heat losses caused by
thermal bridges according to procedures applied in Germany and UK. In UK the heat losses through
thermal bridge junctions should be lower than 10% of the heat losses through the plane elements of the
building envelope. Regarding this requirement several manufacturers of sandwich panels have
published -values of standard and enhanced details of junctions, e.g [19]. These catalogues are
necessary tools for architects and engineers for planning and designing the envelope, and for reaching
the national requirements. For comparing German and UK requirements regarding thermal bridge
junctions, the -values taken from [19] were used in calculating the transmission heat losses of about
10,000 different virtual industrial buildings, shown in Table 18.

68
 Table 18 : Junctions and -values according to [19]
-value
Building Linear thermal bridge
[ W/(mK) ]
Detail Junction L [m] Standard Enhanced
A Ridge l 0.010 0.004
B Eaves 2l 0,310 0,100
C Verge 2b 1,010 0,010
E1 Cladding Drip 2(l+b) 0,860 0,600
E2 Ground Floor 2(l+b) 0,160 0,160
F Corner 4h 0,180 0,010
G1 Window Head 2l 0,970 0,620
G2 Door Head 2,0 0,910 0,620
H1 Window Sill 2l 0,480 0,100
Parameters:
I1 Door Jambs 8,0 0,800 0,080
Width: 10 m b 50 m
I2 Window Jambs 4,0 0,670 0,080
Length: 20 m l 100 m
J1 Head Large Door 4,0 0,680 0,620
Height: 5 m h 25 m
K1 Jamb Large Door 8,0 1,700 0,710

There is no specific limit on the heat losses through thermal bridges according to EnEV. But heat losses
of thermal bridge junctions have to be considered. So far point thermal bridges need not be taken into
account to determine the transmission heat losses HT. There are different ways to calculate HT
according to German regulations:

H T = U i Ai + j L j = U i Ai + U TB Ai [ W / K ]
i j i i

(UTB: global additional value for transmission heat losses of thermal bridge junctions)

The first formula considers -values of thermal bridge junctions investigated by detailed numerical
investigations (e.g. -values from [19] ), the second formula allows the application of global values
according to the national regulations. According to the EnEV it is possible to assume UTB,EnEV = 0,10
W/(mK) without any further investigation. If thermal bridge junctions are assessed according to
recommendations in a special German standard it is allowed to assume UTB,EnEV = 0,05 W/(mK).

In any case it is possible to use -values for a detailed and accurate calculation of transmissions heat
losses. To compare the above mentioned values UTB,EnEV with an accurate calculation with -values
the global additional value UTB can be calculated as follows:

j Lj
j W
U TB ,cal = [ ]
Ai m2 K
i
-values of thermal bridge junctions of sandwich panels are being investigated but not yet published in
Germany as standard values for thermal bridge calculations. Therefore a case study according to
German regulations has been performed with -values of standard resp. enhanced junctions and the
ranges of parameters according to Table 18. The results for UTB,cal compared with the global value
according to EnEV are given in Figure 85 and Figure 86. The results depend on the ratio of the total
transmission heat area A to the Volume V (A/V) of the particular building. Until 2002, when EnEV

69
came into force in Germany, transmission heat losses were usually calculated without the heat losses
through thermal bridge junctions.

Figure 85 : UTB with Standard Details Figure 86 : UTB with Enhanced Details

Figure 87 : Transmission heat losses HT through Figure 88 : Transmission heat losses HT through
plane elements and junctions (Standard Details) plane elements and junctions (Enhanced Details)

Figure 87 shows that, depending on the A/V-ratio with this method, up to 30% of the total transmission
heat losses were not taken into account until 2002 where standard details were used. For enhanced
details, the previously unconsidered heat losses through thermal bridge junctions are shown to reach
about 18% of the total heat losses (Figure 88). The case study was carried out for buildings and
parameters according to Table 18. The area of the rooflights is assumed to be 10% of the total roof area.
The U-values for the calculations are taken from [19].

New building regulations in European countries require improved building envelopes and especially the
optimisation of thermal bridge effects. In Germany there is no special limit for maximum heat losses
through thermal bridges. Since 2002 they are part of the transmission heat losses, and at the same time a
reduction of the maximum building energy use for heating of about 30% came into force. Therefore
improving the thermal protection of the building envelope is essential and one of the major ways to save
heating energy.

UK regulations require a maximum of total heat losses through thermal bridge junctions of 10% of the
total heat losses through the plane elements, but for buildings where this cannot be verified a second
and easier method to fulfil UK requirements can be used.

The results of case studies for both countries show the necessity of improving thermal protection of
building envelopes by using steel elements to achieve energy efficient buildings.

70
 2.5.5. Penetrations

The effect of a steel beam penetrating the thermal insulation of a faade was investigated with
numerical and experimental methods. The starting point is a conventional beam, in a second step a
thermal break was implemented (Schck KST 22 [20]). The graphical results are given in Figure 89, the
testing using the Hot-Box-Method according to EN ISO 8990 is shown in Figure 90.

HEA 220 penetrates thermal insulation Temperature Distribution

HEA 220 with thermal break (Schck KST 22) Temperature Distribution
Figure 89 : Steel beams penetrating thermal insulation (numerical investigation)

Photo inside Hotbox (warm side) Infrared picture inside Hotbox (warm side)
Left side: HEA 220 penetrate thermal insulation (d = 100 mm, = 0,035 W/(mK))
Right side: HEA 220 with thermal break (Schck KST 22)
Figure 90 : Steel beams penetrating thermal insulation (experimental investigation)

The main results obtained from the numerical and experimental investigations using standardised
boundary conditions (see chapter 2.5.6) are that the number of penetrations should be minimised (both
with and without thermal breaks) and they should be airtight. If this is the case, then thermal losses at
penetrations with and without thermal breaks can be neglected. To avoid condesation and mould
growth, thermal breaks are normally necessary.

In all cases it should be demonstrated that the actual boundary conditions are similar to the standardised
conditions. If this is not the case, then the thermal performance of every thermal bridge (e.g.

71
penetration) has to be proofed according to national regultaions and requirmentens regarding risk of
condensation and mould growth.

2.5.6. Risk of condensation and mould growth

In many buildings, especially houses, which have absorbent surfaces, the main consequence of lower
surface temperatures caused by thermal bridges is mould growth, which occurs at a relative surface
humidity of 80%. However, mould growth is very rare on impermeable internal surfaces of metal faced
walls and roofs. Condensation, which does not occur until the surface relative humidity has reached
100%, is more likely in this case.

EN ISO 13788 gives a calculation method for determining the internal surface temperature of a building
component or building element, below which mould growth is likely, given the internal temperature and
relative humidity. The method can also be used to assess the risk of other surface condensation
problems.

According to [15] is the temperature factor (fRsi) a realistic value for the evaluation of the condensation
risk, based on typical boundary conditions. This means that the boundary conditions to be used are
different from those used for heat loss evaluation when safe values are assumed rather than realistic
values. The design temperature factor (fRsi,min) at the internal surface, is the minimum acceptable
temperature factor at the internal surface:

si ,min e
f Rsi =
i e

With: si,min minimal internal surface temperature, below which mould growth and
condensation problems can be expected (under well defined
circumstances of humidity),
i internal temperature,
e external temperature.

For example, according to German regulations, the internal surface of the building envelope must be
checked regarding mould growth and surface condensation. To comply with DIN 4108 the design
temperature factor fRsi shall be not smaller than 0,7.

With the following standardised boundary conditions, the requirement fRsi 0,7 leads to the minimal
internal surface temperature si,min, which shall be not be smaller than 12,6 C to avoid mould growth
and surface condensation.
Internal temperature: i = 20 C
External temperature: e = -5 C
Internal thermal transfer resistance: Rsi = 0,25 (mK)/W
External thermal transfer resistance: Rse = 0,04 (mK)/W
Relative air humidity: i = 50%
Relative air humidity close to surface: si = 80%

According to German regulations, the verification of thermal bridges caused by steel elements has to be
performed with numerical investigations (FEM) according to EN ISO 10211 with the above mentioned
boundary conditions.

More in detail about risk of condensation and mould growth can be found in [15]. All investigations
regarding thermal bridging caused by steel elements in the EEBIS project show a great need for future
research in this field.

72
2.6. WP 2.6: Steel-glass facades

2.6.1. Introduction

The use of steel and glass architecture is very popular, in particular for prestigious office buildings.
The following pictures show some examples of this type of building and measured (and published)
primary energy demand for heating, cooling and ventilation. These results show that steel-glass
architecture is not obviously an energy-efficient form of architecture. Therefore the specific advantages
and disadvantages have to be worked out to reach recommendations for more efficient steel-glass
buildings in the future.

Haus der Wirtschaftsfrderung Arag-Hochhaus Zentrum fr Zahnheilkunde

Duisburg, 1993 Dsseldorf, 2000 Zrich, 1998
QPE = 540 kWh/(ma) QPE = 700 kWh/(ma) QPE = 410 kWh/(ma)
Figure 91 : Examples of Buildings with a high proportion of glazing [24]

But as well as these frequently published figures, buildings exhibiting positive features also exist. For
example the steel-glass-project Stadttor Dsseldorf. This building has an energy consumption of 77
kWh/ma for heating (incl. heat for sortion chiller in summer case) and no electrical demand for
cooling.

2.6.2. Thermal bridging of steel-glass-interfaces

The effect of thermal bridging in steel-glass-constructions must not be underestimated. The best
glazings and infill panels cannot improve a curtain wall remarkable to a sufficient energy efficiency due
to the dominating impact of the metallic parts and the thermal bridges of the junctions.

The effect of thermal bridging in steel-glass-constructions must not be underestimated. The best
glazings and infill panels cannot substantially improve the energy efficiency of a curtain wall system
due to the dominating impact of the metallic parts and the thermal bridges of the junctions.

Some aspects for improvement include:

Stainless steel instead of aluminium (further information can be taken from chap. 2.4.2),
Warm-edge spacer profiles for the glazing.

A significant step forward will be expected from composite profiles (mixed material technologies, e.g.
Steel Fibre Reinforced Plastics).

73
 2.6.3. Investigation and Optimization of Solar gains and Daylighting

The high transparency of the faade in combination with light-weight steel construction necessitates an
accurate design process to prevent unwanted behaviour by the building, such as increased energy
demand, overheating during summer and cold surfaces in winter. On the other hand, there are also
advantages which have to be considered.

Table 19 : Advantages and tasks of steel-glass-architecture concerning energy performance

Advantages
Daylight high amount of daylight reduces provide glare protection by blinds,
consumption of electricity for
artificial light and fulfils
architectural demands
Solar gains high passive solar gains during
heating period
Thermal inertia Fast control of temperature for
heating (reduced temperature at
night, e.g.)
Heat protection Quality of glazing and frames
strongly improved over the last
20 years
Tasks
provide good ambient illumination
conditions for workstations
Prevent overheating during summer
by use of efficient solar shading
Optimize indoor summer climate
Optimise performance of thermal
bridges

General effects were studied using the reference cell concept. The results are presented in chap. 3.3.2.

2.6.4. Double skin faade systems in glass

A specific challenge is in the design of

transparent double facades. The number of
parameters is increasing (shape and size of Exhaust opening
openings, depth of cavity, height of cavity (one with grid
(hex= 120 mm)
storey, multi-storey), quality of internal and
external glazing), therefore the number of
solutions is increasing dramatically. The general Blinds

principle of natural ventilation of a building with

a transparent double faade was studied, using the
method of computational fluid dynamics (CFD). external internal

Two different cases were investigated:

intermediate period (spring / autumn) Window, tiltable

hot period (summer)

d = 225 mm
This study was performed using a typical single-
storey cavity (Figure 92).
Opening inlet air
with grid
(hin= 120 mm)

Figure 92 : Double skin faade in glass

Intermediate Period
Outside conditions: low solar radiation (overcast sky), external temperature ca. 16 C.

Figure 93 shows the result of a CFD-calculation: It is a section through a typical office room ventilated
by windows tilted towards the glazed double faade. The analysis of this result shows that the air
change rate in this room is sufficient, the temperature in the room and in the cavity is adequate, too.

74
Figure 93 : Result CFD-calculation, intermediate Figure 94 : Result CFD-calculation, summer
period period

Summer period
Outside conditions: high solar irradiation, external temperature ca 32C.
The summer is more critical for buildings with transparent double facades. The cavity is heated up to
more than 40C by solar irradiation, the pre-heated air is used to ventilate the room. The result (Figure
94) shows that further measures are needed to achieve acceptable conditions during the hot period
through, e.g.:
more sophisticated openings in the inner faade,
mechanical ventilation,
cooling ceiling / thermo-active deck system.

A further investigation was performed to work out the optimum opening sizes in the external faade.
The opening should be big enough to realize a sufficient air change rate; on the other hand they should
be as small as possible to achieve better performance during winter and to get the best protection
against wind and noise. A number of tests using scale models were performed at the Institute of Steel
Construction of RWTH Aachen.

The following diagram (Figure 95) shows the air flow rate (in m/h per m faade) forced only by
thermal buoyancy, normalized on a temperature difference internal external of 1 K. The main result of
this study is, that the faade should have openings (Aex,eff) of approx. 0,2 m per m faade. Higher
fractions of openings increase the air flow only marginally, whereas smaller openings lead immediately
to an important reduction of airflow. The size of the opening of the inner window (Ain,eff) could be
varied by the user frequently; therefore determining this size is not the main task in the design of a
double faade.

120
Ain,eff [m/m]
0.05
Airflow [m/(h m)]

100
0.10
80 0.15
0.20
60 0.30
0.50
40 0.60
0.75
20
0.90
0 1.15

0.6 0.7
0.4 0.5
0.2 0.3
0 0.1

Figure 95 : Air flow through double facades, variation of internal and external opening [21]

75
3. WP 3 : Assessment Tools for Whole Building Energy Performance

3.1. WP 3.1: Identify Building Types for Assessment

3.1.1. Review practice and legislation affecting energy performance in each of the
participating countries

New energy saving regulations in Europe lead to requirements that will affect the design of buildings.
For saving energy, it is necessary to optimise the thermal behaviour of the envelope and the energy
efficiency of building services. Investigations of the energy performance of several steel buildings
exposed to different climatic conditions show that there is significant potential for saving energy. In
particular, the energy performance of steel building envelopes can be improved by optimising the
thermal protection of the building envelope (see also chapter 2.5).

Based on the Action Plan to Improve Energy Efficiency in the European Community [22], the
Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and Council on the Energy Performance of Buildings
(EPBD) [26] came into force on 4 January 2003. Legislation in all member states was required to be in
place by 4 January 2006 and affecte all types of buildings. EPBD contains minimum requirements for
the limitation of the energy supply of buildings. For example, an energy passport will be introduced
which includes the energy efficiency of the envelope and the services. Energy performance of buildings
has therefore become an important aspect of innovative and cost-effective building design.

In recent years, all regulations dealing with the energy performance of buildings in EU Member States
have been updated and are still under development, see [23] and [27]. Most current regulations in
Europe deal with heating energy demand. Future requirements will cover energy demand for lighting
and cooling (Figure 96).

Figure 96 : Development of energy performance requirements (Germany)

Calculations of the energy performance of buildings according to the EPBD should include the
following energy flows:
- thermal characteristics of the building envelope including. airtightness
- heating installation and hot water supply
- air-conditioning installation

76
 - ventilation and built-in lighting installation
- position and orientation of buildings, including outdoor climate
- passive solar systems and solar protection.

At present, national legislation in European member states usually require only a maximum value for
the buildings energy use for heating. According to the EPBD, the energy supply for cooling and
lighting must also be considered in the calculation of the energy performance and this will lead to
energy efficient buildings covering all energy forms, which fractions vary for different European
climates.

Under the EEBIS-Project, standardised calculations were carried out according to EN 832 and EN ISO
13790:2004 regarding energy use for space heating of typical steel buildings. Basis for these
calculations (see chapter 3.3) are the thermal transmission coefficients given in the following table (see
[23]).

Table 20 : Reference values for thermal transmittance of envelope components [23]

U-values [ W/(mK ]
Passive and Low Severe Standards Weak Standards
Energy Buildings (North & mid EU) (South EU)
Outer Walls U < 0,15 0,15 < U < 0,40 0,40 < U < 0,65
Windows/Doors * U < 1,00 1,25 < U < 2,50 2,50 < U < 3,25
Roof/ ceiling U < 0,15 0,22 < U < 0,45 0,45 < U < 0,90
Floor/ basement U < 0,15 0,15 < U < 0,40 0,40 < U < 0,65
*
for transparent elements (0,15 for opaque elements)

Numerical calculations assessed the effect of various heating and cooling measures.

3.1.2. Residential and commercial buildings review of shape, construction and use as basis
for further investigations

The choice of representative buildings that are exemplary or typical for Europe was dicussed, but a
satisfactory solution could not be found. Therefore, three different strategies were defined for the
different investigations:

(1) Reference Zone Method, to investigate general parameters and the performance of innovative
systems of WP 1+2 (see below)

(2) Virtual design of an office building to investigate the systems described in WP 1.1 (see section
1.1), because this technical soltion is strongly related to the whole building design.

(3) Simplified building forms and occupancy patterns (see Figure 97) to investigate
- differences in regulations and calculation methods
- influence of climatic conditions on the net energy use for heating of the building

77
 23.40

2.80 2.80
2.50

2.80 2.80
2.75

.00
12
13
.40
8.00

One-family house Office Building

2.75
2.75
2.75

21.00

10.50
42.00
12.0
0 10.50
2.50

Apartment Building

Figure 97 : Building types for further investigations

Reference zone method

A primary aspect of the EEBIS-project is to assess different innovative concepts and products using
steel products, and their impact on the energy efficiency of buildings. Furthermore, the differences of
the various European regions should be taken into account, namely their different climates and different
building shapes and dimensions. The original concept comprised a typical or mean building.
During the course of the project it became obvious that it is not possible to define typical or mean
buildings for the whole of Europe. Therefore the strategy changed towards a reference zone, which
allows variation of the dimensions as parameters, and assembly of different building types (Figure 98).

Reference Zone
3,00

4,0
0 5 ,00

Reference zonel, representing

the main properties of a complete building

Figure 98 : The reference zone concept

78
Many relevant aspects of the energy performance of a building can be studied by using a representative
part of the building, the reference zone. This need not be a room in the complete building; it just has to
represent a typical part of the building with respect to the following ratios: faade to floor area, faade
to volume and window fraction. The reference zone shows the same characteristics as the whole
building, or rather for regular parts of the half of the building with the same orientation as the reference
zone, with respect to heating and cooling energy, the effect of thermal inertia etc. Non-regular parts of
the building, like rooms in the corner of a building, have to be investigated separately, but the main
features can be worked out by using this concept.
3,00

4, 0
0
3,00

3,00

4,0 4, 0
0 0

Figure 99 : Reference zone concept variation of different parameters (window size, orientation, depth
of building, thermal inertia of deck system)

This method is frequently used during the design of a building in the optimisation phase of the faade
and building services. It allows the effects of the different technical solutions.

3.1.3. Identify climatic conditions to be used in the simulations (e.g. western, central,
northern and southern European climates)

The analysis of European climates led to their division into three main categories, covering the major
part of Europe:

a) Northern Climate (Dfb/Dfc), exemplary location: Helsinki (Fin),

b) Mid European Climate (Cfd), exemplary location: London (UK) and Berlin (D),
c) Mediterranean Climate (Csa), exemplary location: Madrid,

The mid European climate is subdivided into a more oceanic climate (London) and a more continental
climate (Berlin). These data were taken from METEONORM, a commercially available database which
contains consistent monthly data for standardised calculations and hourly data for numerical
simulations.

79
 Helsinki
Mean
25 daily min. 280

global rad. [kW/m]

20 daily max. 240
15 mean rad. 200

temp [C]
' MJ 10
5
160
120
0 80
Helsinki -5 40
-10 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
month

London Berlin
Berlin 30
Mean
daily min.
240
25 210

global rad. [kw/m]

daily max.
20 180
mean rad.

temp [C]
15 150
& MI 10
5
120
90
0 60
Madrid -5 30
-10 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
m onth
&H London
Mean
25 daily min. 250

global rad. [kW/m]

20 daily max. 200
mean rad.
temp [C] 15 150

10 100

5 50

0 0
Site
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Helsinki Berlin London Madrid m onth
Tmean [C] 4,6 9,1 10,8 14,8
Tyear [K] 23,4 19,6 12,6 19,1
Madrid
Mean
Tday [K] 4,6 9,5 7,3 11,0 35 daily min. 350
30 daily max. 300

global rad. [kw/m]

25 mean rad. 250
temp [C]

20 200
15 150
10 100
5 50
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
m onth

Figure 100 : Characteristics of European climates

The main climate characteristics affecting the energy efficiency of buildings are:

Helsinki: High annual amplitude of temperature Tyear (cold winter, medium summer), low daily
amplitude
Berlin: Annual mean temperature 4.5 K higher than Helsinki, annual amplitude slightly lower,
high daily amplitude
London: Low annual and daily amplitude, annual mean slightly higher than Berlin
Madrid: High annual mean, annual amplitude similar to Berlin, high daily amplitude.

80
3.2. WP 3.2: Tools for Overall Building Energy Performance

3.2.1. Investigate existing tools (standardised and numerical) to evaluate overall energy
performance

3.2.1.1. Standardised methods according to EN 832 and EN ISO 13790: 2004

To asses the energy performance of typical steel buildings an Excel-Tool was developed to investigate
different performances and the influence of climatic conditions (solar irradiation and outside
temperatures).

The net energy use for space heating is calculated from:

Q h = QT + Q V Qi Qs [kWh/(ma)]

The parameters are:

QT transmission heat losses
QV ventilation heat losses
Qs solar gains
Qi internal gains

Monthly heat losses Ql,M are calculated according from the following equation:
Ql,M = 0,024 ( HT + HV ) ( 19C - Te,M ) tM [ kWh/M ]
with:
HT heat transfer coefficient by transmission
HV heat transfer coefficient by ventilation
tM the number of days per month
Te,M mean outside temperatures

Ttransmission heat losses are calculated according to chapter 2.5 and the ventilation heat losses are
calculated from:
HV = L cpL n V [ W/K ]
with: L cpL density and specific heat capacity of air
n air change rate
V heated volume

The following aspects influence the monthly solar gains Qs,M of a building:
- area of the transparent sections
- total energy transmission coefficient (g-value) of the glass (see EN 410)
- internal and solar gains
- orientation and inclination of building envelope elements
- location of the building
- external shading

The monthly solar gain Qs,M are calculated from the following equation:

Qs,M = 0,024 g A tM [ kWh/M ]

with: g total energy transmission coefficient

A transparent area

81
The monthly internal gain Qi,M are calculated from the following equation:
Qi,M = 0,024 qi AN tM [ kWh/M ]
with: qi mean internal gains
AN floor area

Using this European standardised method according to EN 832 and EN ISO 13790:2004, the buildings
described in chapter 3.1.2 and chapter 3.3 were investiagted.

According to German regulations and standards, which are based on EN 832, the following equation
was used to calculate the annual primary energy use for heating of the One-Family-House and the
Apartment Building at the Berlin location. These calculations showed the influence of the energy
efficiency of the building services (heating, ventilation) on the energy performance.
QP,cal = ( Qh, a + Qw ) eP [ kWh/a ]
with:
Qh,a annual net energy use for space heating
Qw heat required for hot water (only residential buildings, const., 12,5 kWh/(ma))
eP factor for energy efficiency of building services (incl. primary energy supply),
according to DIN V 4701-10

This method is only suitable for heating energy, in the future cooling and lighting have to beconsidered.

3.2.1.2. Numerical methods for calculation of energy demand

The convenient numerical method for calculation of energy demand is the thermal building
simulation, which is basically a time-step simulation using hourly meteorological data with specific
features to incorporate properties and sizes of building components, use patterns, control strategies etc.

Different tools were used by different partners (Table 21). It was necessary to achieve approximately
equal results for temperatures and energy consumption with the different simulation programs to
generate reliable results and to enable comparisions between different steel solutions to be made.

Table 21 : Tools for Thermal Building Simulation of different partners

Partner Software Advantages Limits
- Adaptability for new components
RWTH TRNSYS Not very user-friendly data introduction
- Control systems interaction
Labein DOE2 - Strong calculations Non Friendly user interface
- Strong calculations
- Friendly user interface
Labein Energy Plus - Interoperability with CAD
- Automatically acquisition from IFC
data files
CAPSOL A lot of parameters have to be
RDCS
(Physibel) specified.
- User friendly
Apache/
- Plenty of predefined data No direct accounting for thermal
CORUS Virtual
- Easy to define geometry bridges
Environment
- Quick run times

The different simulation tools used by the partners in the project have variant features regarding the
input parameters, the definition of control strategies and the output and presentation of the results.
Nevertheless the results of main interest can be calculated by all the simulation programs. At the start of
the project, benchmark tests using a representative zone (Figure 101) of the office building (see Figure
97) were performed. They showed very high differences in the energy demand up to a factor of 10. A
detailed analysis of the input data clarified the main reasons for this: different control strategies for
ventilation and use patterns and some material properties. The detailed fixing of these parameters led to
sufficient convergence of the results.

82
 Figure 101 : Representative zone of the office building for benchmark tests

3.2.2. Verification and applicability of the standardised methods (EN 832 and EN ISO
13790:2004) with special regard to steel constructions

Generally the relevant standards EN 832 and EN ISO 13790:2004 should be independent from the
construction materials. Nevertheless some specific aspects of steel constructions are high-lighted:

Thermal bridges
Thermal bridges are considered in the standards. A problem is, that the specific linear or point thermal
transmittances (- and -Vaulues, see chapter 2.5.2) are frequently not available. Numerical
calculations lead to reliable results, for the future comprehensive cataloques are desirable for efficient
dimensioning.

Light versus heavy construction

In the standards a classification of the building mass is considered. Comparisions of numerical and
standardised calculations show, that in the standards the effect of the thermal mass is slightly over-
estimated (see chap. 3.3.2).

Cooling demand
At the beginning of EEBIS cooling energy demand was not considered in the standards. The EPBD
claims, that also cooling and lighting has to taken into account, the required calculations methods were
published during the course of the project (e.g. DIN V 18599). Steel specific solutions with an impact
on the cooling energy demand like deep deck composite slabs (WP 1.3) or double skin roofing (WP 2.1)
are not covered by this new standard.

Overheating versus daylight use

Steel constructions offers specific solutions for an enhanced use of daylight. Reduced dimensions of
lintels and embrasures, thin columns etc. cause higher daylight factors. On the other hand, solar gains
are unwanted in summer, in collaboration with light construction the overheating problem increases.

Air-tightness
The relevance of air-tightness, which is not covered by EEBIS, is evident. Due to the modular
construction of steel buildings the junctions are numerous. The calculated ventilation losses are
frequently higher than the transmission losses the real, measured ventilation losses are mostly
absolute unknown. The existing standards covering air-tightness are inconsistent, further research to
this topic is needed.

83
 3.2.3. Use of these tools in the whole building simulations in Work Packages 1 and 2

The steel products introduced in Work Packages 1 & 2 were investigated using numerical tools and
(partly) standardised methods. The benefit of the various technical solutions depends strongly on the
climatic conditions and on the use of the building. These results are presented in chap. 3.3.2:
Calculations of energy demand with numerical tools to investigate various operational and climatic
conditions on whole building performance were carried out.

3.3. WP 3.3: Overall Energy Performance of Typical Steel Buildings

3.3.1. Calculation of the energy demand with standardised methods to investigate various
operational and climatic conditions on whole building performance

3.3.1.1. General
The following types of buildings in steel were investiagted in EEBIS:
- One-Family House (OFH)
- Apartment Building (AB)
- Office Building (OB)
- Industrial Building (IB)

The internal temperature for the heating period was taken as i = 19 C. The external temperatures and
the solar irradiation were obtained from the Meteonorm Software for every location (see chapter 3.1.3).
All buildings were designed as light construction using steel elements.

3.3.1.2. Thermal transmission coefficients

Table 22 shows the values of the thermal transmission coefficients (U-values) used in the calculations.

Table 22 : Thermal transmission coefficients

Plane Elements
Temperature Best Medium Low
U-values
Factor Fx Performance Performance Performance
[ W/(mK ]
Outer Walls 1 0,10 0,30 0,50
Windows/Doors 1 1 0,90 2 1,60 3 2,90 4
Curtain Walling 5 1 0,92 1,33 2,25
Roof/ ceiling 6 1 / 0,8 0,10 0,30 0,70
Floor/ basement 7 0,5 0,10 0,30 0,50
Thermal Bridges
UTB 8 1 0,01 0,10 0,15
[ W/(mK ]
1
Uw according to EN ISO 10077
2
Ug = 0,70 W/(mK), Af = 0,3 Aw, Uf = 1,00 W/(mK), enhanced glass edge system
3
Ug = 1,10 W/(mK), Af = 0,3 Aw, Uf = 2,00 W/(mK), typical glass edge system
4
Ug = 2,60 W/(mK), Af = 0,3 Aw, Uf = 3,00 W/(mK), typical glass edge system
5
Ucw according to EN 13947
6
Fx = 0,8 (reduced heat losses from the ceiling to unheated space, simplified method)
7
Fx = 0,5 (reduced heat losses to the soil, simplified method)
8
see chapter 2.5

84
 3.3.1.3. Thermal transmission area
The following tables show the thermal transmission areas for every building type.
Table 23 : Thermal transmission area One-Family House
Exterior wall Roof Slab above
Orientation Window Door Basement
(net area) = 45 first floor
Aew,1 = 30,39 Aw,1 = 5,36
North
m m
Aew,2 = 24,9 Aw,2 = 6,00 Ar,1 = 42,43
East Ad = 2,10 m
m m m
Aew,3 = 23,24 Aw,3 = 12,51
South
m m
Aew,4 = 27,0 Aw,4 = 6,00 Ar,2 = 42,43
West
m m m
Horizontal As = 36,0 m Ab = 96,0 m

Table 24 : Thermal transmission area Apartment Building

Exterior wall
Orientation Window Door Roof Basement
(net area)
Aew,1 = 259,9
North Aw,1 = 86,6 m
m
East Aew,2 = 85,5 m Aw,2 = 29,9 m Ad,1 = 4,2 m
Aew,3 = 259,9
South Aw,3 = 86,6 m
m
West Aew,4 = 85,5 m Aw,4 = 29,9 m Ad,2 = 4,2 m
Horizontal Ar = 504 m Ab = 504 m

Table 25 : Thermal transmission area Office Building

Exterior wall
Orientation Curtain wall Doors Roof Basement
(net area)
Aew,1 = 148,0
North Ad,1 = 2,1 m
m
Acw,1 = 262,1
East
m
Aew,2 = 148,0
South Ad,2 = 2,1 m
m
Acw,2 = 262,1
West
m
Horizontal Ar = 313,6 m Ab = 313,6 m

3.3.1.4. Other design issues

Table 26 to Table 28 show other design issues investigated with standardised calculations for the three
buildings.
Table 26 : Design parameters
OFH AB OB
Total Thermal Transmission Area: A [ m ] 354 1940 1452
Heated Volume: V [ m ] 429 4158 3512
A / V [ 1/m ] 0,83 0,47 0,41
Floor area: AN [ m ] (simplified) 132 1512 1254
Internal heat gains: [ W/m ] 5 5 6
g value [ - ] 0,58 0,58 0,58

85
 Table 27 : Air change rate (standardised calculations)
Best Medium Low
Performance Performance Performance
Air change rate Mechanical ventilation Window ventilation or Window ventilation,
with heat recovery, air- mechanical ventilation, air-tightness not
tightness proofed air-tightness proofed proofed
n 0,55 0,60 0,70

Table 28 : Energy efficiency of heating system (standardised calculations, One-Family-House)

Energy Efficiency of High Medium Low
Heating System Efficiency Efficency Efficiency
eP 1,1 1,5 1,9

3.3.1.5. Results
The following tables summarise the results of the calculatuions using standardised methods according
to EN 832 and EN ISO 13790:2004.

Table 29 : Results without influence of climatic conditions

Best Medium Low
Performance Performance Performance
OFH AB OB OFH AB OB OFH AB OB
HTB [ W/K ] 4 19 9 35 194 93 53 291 139
HT [ W/K ] 59 362 572 172 1014 1027 302 1815 1777
HV [ W/K ] 61 622 525 67 679 573 78 792 669
HT [ W/(mK) ] 0,17 0,20 0,39 0,49 0,52 0,71 0,85 0,94 1,22
HV [ W/(mK) ] 0,17 0,32 0,42 0,19 0,35 0,46 0,22 0,41 0,53

With: HTB with UTB according to Table 22

HT with U-values according to Table 22, caculation according to chapter 2.5
HV with Volume according to Table 26, air change rate according to Table 27
HT heat transfer coefficient through transmisson per m building envelope (HT / A)
HV heat transfer coefficient through ventilation per m building envelope (HV / A)
A total thermal transmission area according to Table 26

Table 30 : Results with influence of climatic conditions

Net energy use for heating Qh [ kWh/(ma) ]
Best Medium Low
Performance Performance Performance
OFH AB OB OFH AB OB OFH AB OB
Helsinki 54 35 50 155 85 92 280 155 169
Berlin 28 17 26 94 49 54 178 96 104
London 19 10 17 74 36 39 146 76 82
Madrid 5 3 6 34 16 17 77 39 41

The following figures illustrates these results: Both parameters climate and performance have a
strong impact on the heating energy demand. For instance, a low performance building in Madrid has
nearly the same demand than a high performance building in Helsinki.

86
 300
Helsinki OFH

net engery use for heating

250 Berlin OFH
London OFH
200 Madrid OFH
[kWh/ma]
150

100

50

0
Best Medium Low
Performance Performance Performance

Figure 102 : Results One-Family House Net energy use for heating

300
Helsinki AB
net engery use for heating

250 Berlin AB
London AB
200
[kWh/ma]

Madrid AB
150

100

50

0
Best Medium Low
Performance Performance Performance

Figure 103 : Results Apartment Building Net energy use for heating

300
Helsinki OB
net energy use for heating

250 Berlin OB
London OB
200
Madrid OB
[kWh/ma]

150

100

50

0
Best Medium Low
Performance Performance Performance

Figure 104 : Results Office Building Net energy use for heating

87
Heat losses and gains for OFH with Medium Heat losses and gains for OFH in Berlin with
Performance and Variation of Location Variation of Performance

Figure 105 : Results One-Family House Variation of location and performance

88
 120

Annual primary energy use

100 9

for heating [%]

11 33
80 47
60 8
6
40 80
59
20 46

0
High Efficiency Medium Efficiency Low Efficiency

Net energy use for heating Energy demand hot water

Energy demand heating system

Figure 106 : Results One-Family House Variation of energy efficiency of heating system, basis:
medium performance Building in Berlin

3.3.1.6. Industrial Building

Industrial buildings are not in the main focus of the project, nevertheless this building type is of great
importance for using steel technologies. Several investigations regarding the thermal performance of
building envelopes in steel for industrial buildings were performed in the project (see chapter 2.5).
There is a need for further investigations regarding the energy efficiency of industrial buildings in the
near future (see Conclusions).

3.3.2. Calculation of the energy demand using numerical tools to investigate the effects of
various operational and climatic conditions on whole building performance

In the final phase of the project, different systems covered in WP1 and WP2 were tested using the
reference zone concept. Some general parameters were first investigated, and then the systems from WP
1 and WP 2 were tested.

3.3.2.1. General investigations

This investigations covered the following parameters:
window size
orientation
depth of reference cell
thermal inertia

89
Impact of window size

3,00

4,0
0

Variation A B C D E
Window % 10 30 50 70 90
Figure 107 : Impact of window size as a percentage of the facade

120

100
80
kWh/m

60
40

20

0
10 30 50 70 90
% window

Berlin Madrid Helsinki London

Figure 108 : Impact of window size: heating energy demand

The heating energy demand increases for higher transparent fractions in mid and northern European
climates. For Spain the situation is different: a higher fraction of glazing reduces the heating energy
demand. This statement is valid for this specific quality of glazing (1.4 W/mK, g-value: 0.6) and this
orientation (east). Other solutions might have an optimum at higher transparent fractions.

90
Impact of orientation

3,00

4, 0
0

Variation A C D B E F
South- South-
North East South West
Orientation East West
(-180) (-90) (0) (90)
(-45) (45)
Figure 109 : Impact of orientation

120
100
80
kWh/m

60
40
20
0
North East South-East South South-West West
(-180) (-90) (-45) (0) (45) (90)
Orientation

Berlin Madrid Helsinki London

Figure 110 : Impact of orientation:, heating energy demand

Orientation has a huge impact on heating energy demand. Between the north and south-oriented
reference cells, heating demand approximately doubles for mid Europe (London, Berlin). For Madrid,
the heating energy demand is almost zero for the south oriented room.

91
Impact of room depth
The depth of the reference cell is a parameter relating to the A/V-ratio of a building. The results show
that a deep reference cell reduces specific energy demand because the transmission losses are
proportional to the faade area.

3,00

4,0
0

Variation A B C D
Depth [m] 4 5 6 7
Figure 111 : Impact of room depth

120

100

80
kWh/m

60

40

20

0
4 5 6 7
Room Depth [m]
Berlin Madrid Helsinki London

Figure 112 : Impact of room depth: heating energy demand

92
Impact of thermal inertia
The most important component contributing to the thermal inertia in a room is usually the ceiling. (The
walls are variable, sometimes covered by furniture or pictures and the floor is covered by carpet or by
furniture). In this study, the thermal capacity is simplified to cm of concrete.

3,00

4,0
0

Variation A B C D E F G H
concrete [cm] 0 1 2 3 5 10 15 20
Figure 113 : Impact of thermal inertia

100

80

60
kWh/m

40

20

0
0 4 8 12 16 20
thermal inertia [cm concrete]

Berlin Madrid Helsinki London

Figure 114 : Impact of thermal inertia: heating energy demand

The simulations show that thermal inertia has only a small impact on the heating energy demand.
higher mass leads to slightly lower heating energy demand. Calculations according DIN V 18599 show
the same trend.

93
Impact of thermal inertia; cooling case
Further calculations were performed to work out the effect of thermal inertia on cooling energy demand
for three different climates.

-35 100%

-30
80%

rel. Cooling energy demand

-25

60%
-20
kWh/m

-15
40%

-10 (Ger)
20% (Fin)
-5 (Spain)

0 0%
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
thermal inertia [cm concrete] thermal inertia [cm concrete]

Figure 115 : Impact of Thermal inertia (Cooling energy demand for different climates -
Comparison with calculation ref. DIN V 18599)

As with heating energy demand, the impact of variations in thermal inertia on cooling energy demand is
low.

Overheating hours
Additionally, simulations were carried out to investigate the behaviour of the reference cell without
mechanical cooling, and to determine the maximum indoor temperature in this case. The study showed
that light construction has a tendency to overheat. In Spanish and German climates, the maximum
temperature in the light reference cell is 4 K higher than in the heavy one. Only in Nordic climates is
this effect smaller, the reduction of the maximum temperature is 2 K.

42
Tmax [C]

38

34

30
0 5 10 15 20
thermal inertia [cm concrete]

Berlin Helsinki Madrid

Figure 116 : Impact of Thermal inertia (Max. Temperature, no mechanical cooling)

3.3.2.2. Impact of deck systems (WP 1)

Air-cooled floors

As the design and the performance of these floors is strongly related to the whole building design, the
reference zone concept cannot usefully be applied ,(see chap. 1.1).

Water-cooled floors

Differerent water cooled floor systems were investigated (see WP 1.2). Water cooled deck systems lead
to energy savings because:

94
 The large surface allows a low inlet temperature (heating case) resp. high inlet temperature (cooling
case), therefore the conditions are beneficial for the use of renewable energy sources, which
generally provides head or cold with quit small temperature differences
the transport of heat / cold needs less energy if water is used for the transfer instead of air
the effect of heated / cooled surfaces on the operative temperature (mean value of air and radiative
temperaure) is positive, so that the air temperature can be reduced

The percentage of energy saving depends on the heat / cold sources (ground water, heat pump, e.g.) and
on the climatic conditions.

Detailed calculations using the reference zone concept were performed on the laser-welded sandwich
panel (LSP). For cooling purposes it is possible to drive the thermo-active LSP directly with water from
ground-water or soil storage (if available). This works because of the high inlet temperatures around
20C, which are close to the indoor temperature. To compare this system with a conventional cooling
system, a reference room with cooling maintained at 25C, and a room with an activated LSP were
simulated with TRNSYS. The thermo-active ceiling in the simulation is not able to guarantee a
maximum temperature of 26C, e.g. , but the times when this limit is exceeded amount to only a few
percent per year, depending on the internal loads and the climatic zone.

This is one reason why the thermo-active LSP has a lower energy demand than the reference system.
For the reference room, the set temperatures of 21C for heating and 25C for cooling were kept in any
case. To achieve these fixed values a higher maximum cooling energy was needed.
In the following chart (Figure 117) the comparison of the cooling energy demand (depending on the
interior loads) in relation to a conventional cooling system is shown. Three different internal loads, low
(70 Wh/md), medium (105 Wh/md) and high (210 Wh/md) were chosen.

100%
rel. Cooling energy demand

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%
50 100 150 200 250
interior load [Wh/m d]

Berlin Helsinki Madrid London

Figure 117 : Comparison of cooling energy demand, thermo-active LSP vs. conventional cooling

The thermo-active deck system reduces the cooling energy demand by about 10%. For Helsinki the
demand is reduced by as much as 30% (based on quite low absolute value). The trend is the same for
water cooled composite floors; the higher mass leads to increased heat storage capacity and in parallel
the control of indoor temperature is reduced.

Passive systems

The concept of passive heating and cooling systems is based on the use of thermal inertia. Surplus heat
is stored (mainly) in the deck; this energy can be extracted by night ventilation. These calculations were
based on steel-composite decks (deep deck, e.g. Corus Slim deck SD 225, Hoesch additiv; re-entrant
deck, e.g. Arcelor Cofrastra 40/150, Holorib), which have shapes and mass different from conventional
concrete slabs. The calculations were carried out for a room with conventional air conditioning, the
internal loads are the same as in the previous chapter (low = 70 Wh/md, medium = 105 Wh/md, high
= 210 Wh/md). The reference case is a concrete deck with suspended ceiling.

95
The results show that the energy savings (absolute values) are in the same range for all the cases studied
(2 4 kWh/ma, see Figure 118 to 120) Due to the very different absolute levels cooling energy
demand the percentage of saving varies between 5 and 50 % for the different climates and internal
loads.

40

cooling demand [kWh/ma]

30

20

10

0
suspended ceiling deep deck re-entrant deck

Berlin Madrid Helsinki London

Figure 118 : Comparison of slab systems (Cooling energy demand for

different climates, low interior load)

50
cooling demand[kWh/ma]

40

30

20

10

0
suspended ceiling deep deck re-entrant deck

Berlin Madrid Helsinki London

Figure 119 : Comparison of slab systems (Cooling energy demand for

different climates, medium interior load)

60
cooling demand [kWh/ma]

50

40

30

20

10

0
suspended ceiling deep deck re-entrant deck

Berlin Madrid Helsinki London

Figure 120 : Comparison of slab systems (Cooling energy demand for

different climates, high interior load)

96
 3.3.2.3. Building Envelope (WP 2)

To investigate the effect of the building envelope on energy demand, the double-skin roofing (WP 2.1)
and the Super-insulated cladding systems (VISP, WP 2.4) were investigated using the reference cell
concept.

Double-skin roofing

The results from the laboratory tests from RDCS were used to define a numerical model in TRNSYS.
The effects shown by the tests were reduced to the following three main impacts:
The second skin in combination with reduced emissivities reduces the thermal transmittance of the
roof by acting like additional insulation,
the moving air in the cavity between skins extracts energy from the construction, therefore the
impact of the solar radiation is reduced,
the low absorptivity of the external skin reduces the absorbed solar energy.

Based on these test results an equivalent TRNSYS model was designed to test the effect of the double
skin roof on energy demand. The test cell was modified to model conditions at the top level of a
building thereby representing a single story building (Figure 121).
3,00

4,0
0 5,00

Figure 121 : Reference cell for investigating a double skin roof

50

40
kWh/m

30

20

10

0
conv. Flat Aluzinc, stainless, Aluzinc, 2 stainless, Aluzinc, 6 stainless,
roof nat. conv. nat. conv. m/s 2 m/s m/s 6 m/s

Helsinki Berlin Madrid

Figure 122 : Cooling energy demand per m of the reference cell, with various ventilated roofing
options

97
 100%

80%

kWh/m
60%

40%

20%

0%
conv. Flat roof Aluzinc, nat. conv. Aluzinc, 2 m/s Aluzinc, 6 m/s

Helsinki Berlin Madrid

Figure 123 : Cooling energy demand (relative to that with a conventional flat roof) of the reference
cell, variation of air velocity for Aluzinc

The tendency is the same in all climates: Aluzinc has a slightly better performance than stainless steel
and increasing air velocity leads to further reductions in the cooling energy demand (Figure 122).
Furthermore it becomes obvious that improvements due to mechanical ventilation (2 m/s, 6 m/s) are
small and therefore not recommended (Figure 123, Figure 124).

For a warm climate, the ventilated roof using stainless steel or Aluzinc reduces the cooling energy
demand about 10 kWh/ma. For a mid-European climate, the reduction amounts to 5 kWh/ma. For the
Nordic climate, a reduction of approximately 3 kWh/ma was found. On the other hand, the heating
energy demand increased somewhat, but for the natural ventilated solution, the increase was only about
a third to a half of the reduction of the cooling energy demand.

100%

80%
kWh/m

60%

40%

20%

0%
conv. Flat roof stainless, nat. stainless, 2 m/s stainless, 6 m/s
conv.

Helsinki Berlin Madrid

Figure 124 : Cooling energy demand (relative to that with a conventional flat roof) of the reference
cel;, variation of air velocity for stainless steel

Super-insulated cladding

Vacuum insulation by itself has a high thermal performance, as shown in chapter 2.4.2. For use in
faade constructions, the vacuum panels have to be combined with further components.

As infill panels in curtain walling, the heat transfer is dominated by the frame elements and thermal
bridges. The integration of vacuum elements in the opaque section of curtain walls improves the
thermal performance of the whole curtain wall only marginally. Using the geometry of the reference
cell and product data from chap. 2.4.2, the U-value for the opaque part of the faade (parapet, etc.) is
1.1 W/mK. The benefit if VISP in this case can be the reduced thickness of the panels, leading to a
gain in floor space and more flexibility in the design. An analysis using the reference cell concept for
numerical simulations is not useful because no significant benefit in energy saving can be expected for
this construction.

98
Vacuum insulation (VIP) as an additional insulation layer in other lightweight constructions allows
further improvements of the U-Value. VIP as additional insulation for light weight facades can make
significant improvements in the U-Value, in realised projects U-values of 0.11 to 0.15 were reported. In
the following diagram VIP-solutions (0.11 and 0.15 W/mK) are compared with conventional insulation
(Best practice: 0.166 W/mK, typical: 0.30 W/mK). Basis: Reference cell, office use with medium
internal loads, 50% opaque faade (Figure 127).
3,00

4,0
0

Figure 125 : Reference cell for investigation of U-Value

100

80
VIP Superinsulation conventional
Insulation
kWh/m

60

40

20

0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Uwall [W/mK]
Helsinki Berlin London Madrid

Figure 126 : Optimisation of U-Value using VIP: reduction in heating energy demand

100%
kWh/m

90%

80%

70%
0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10
Uwall [W/mK]

Helsinki Berlin London Madrid

Figure 127 : Optimisation of U-Value using VIP, relative reduction of heating energy demand

99
Also in this case optimization of the U-Value reduces the heating energy demand by only about 10%
compared to the typical value of 0.30 W/mK (Figure 126, Figure 127). This low percentage is caused
by the high impact of the window, and futhermore the ventilation losses. Therefore another calculation
using a smaller window (20% of the faade) was performed. Now the effect of VIP increases: a
reduction of about 20% in heating energy demand is possible (Figure 128, Figure 129).

100 conventional
VIP Superinsulation Insulation
kWh/m 80

60

40

20

0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Uwall [W/mK]
Helsinki Berlin London Madrid

Figure 128 : Optimisation of U-Value using VIP: reduction of heating

energy demand (window fraction 20%)

100%
kWh/m

90%

80%

70%
0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1
Uwall [W/mK]

Helsinki Berlin London Madrid

Figure 129 : Optimisation of U-Value using VIP: relative reduction of

heating energy demand (window fraction 20%)

3.3.2.4. Exemplary study of a whole building and comparison of numerical and standardized
calculation procedures
The previous paragraphs studied the impact of different technical solutions for various European
climates using a simplified geometry (reference zone). In this section the realistic situation of a
complete apartment building is investigated, but only a reduced numbers of parameters and one climatic
zone (Finland) is taken into account. The investigation covers the effect of thermal inertia, other
building and HVAC factors on energy performance and thermal comfort of apartment buildings in cold
(particularly Nordic) climates. The study was conducted using a dynamic simulation tool IDA-ICE and
the monthly calculation method, which complies with the European standard EN ISO 13790:2004. The
simulation results are compared against the results of the standard. A complete report with detailed
results can be found in [6].

Calculations were carried out using IDA Indoor Climate and Energy 3.0 (IDA-ICE) building simulation
software. A modular simulation application, IDA-ICE, has been developed by the Division of Building
Services Engineering, KTH, and the Swedish Institute of Applied Mathematics, ITM [1].The software
allows the modelling of a multi-zone building, HVAC-systems, internal and solar loads, outdoor
climate, etc., and provides simultaneous dynamic simulation of heat transfer and air flows. It is a

100
suitable tool for the simulation of thermal comfort, indoor air quality, and energy consumption in
complex buildings.

Case study building and assumptions

The object of the case study is a modern seven-storey building in Helsinki, see Figure 130. In order to
minimize simulation time and effort, only a part of the building is simulated. Part of the 3rd floor is a
reasonable choice for the zone simulated, which is shown enclosed by dots in Figure 131.

Figure 130 : The simulated building

Figure 131 : A plan of the simulated (3rd) floor. The simulated zone is outlined by dots

Staircase 4R+K 3R+K

2R+K 1R+K

Figure 132 : The floor plan of the simulation model. The bi-directional leakage openings between the
zones and the environment are marked with an arrow

101
In the simulation model, separating walls inside the apartments are not taken into account because the
mass of the lightweight interior walls was considered insignificant. Each apartment is therefore
simulated as one zone.

The simulations are carried out using hourly Helsinki weather data (1979), commonly used as test data
for energy calculation in Finland [14].

The solar shading by another building is studied for a particular case where the shading from the
adjacent building is taken into account. The distance of the other building from the simulated one is
15m and the height of both buildings is the same. In other simulation scenarios, the shading from the
other building is not taken into account, except in those cases where the original clear triple-glazed
windows were replaced by solar protection glass.

Two different ventilation systems are compared in this study. The basic air handling unit is the
centralized constant air volume (CAV) supply and exhaust ventilation system; the alternative is the
mechanical exhaust ventilation system. In both cases, the air handling unit is assumed to operate
continuously, twenty four hours a day, and the level of ventilation is the same. The basic air handling
unit is equipped with a heat recovery system. The temperature ratio of the recuperative plate heat
exchanger is 60%.

The design air flow rate of the apartments is based on the Finnish classification of indoor climate S3
(FiSIAQ, see [4]) and the Finnish building code (Ministry of Environment, [8]). The supply and return
air flow rates of the supply and exhaust ventilation system are equal; the typical air change rate was 0.6
to 0.7 1/h.

In this study, the building is equipped with district heating via two alternative heat distribution systems,
i.e. hydronic radiators or hydronic floor heating. So the comparison is between fast and slow
temperature control. Two types of cooling system are also studied in the simulations, i.e. centralised
cooling and split cooling. In the case of centralized cooling, the air handling unit is equipped with a
cooling coil, while in the split cooling case there is a split unit in every apartment.

In the study of the thermal inertia of building structures, the internal heat gains should be at a
reasonable level, as should be the schedule of heat gains. This is because the study focuses on the effect
of short-term storage of internal and solar heat gains. To study the effect of heat gains, two levels of
internal heat gains are studied. In Case 1, the heat gains are approximated as normal Finnish heat gains,
while in Case 2, the internal heat gains are in agreement with the CEN standard EN ISO 13790:2004.

The building structures modelled represent modern Finnish apartment buildings. The structures are
chosen so that extreme cases with ultra light and massive structures can be included in the study.
Separating walls inside the apartments are not taken into account because the mass of the lightweight
interior walls is marginal. U-values of the walls were 0.23 W/m2/K meeting Finnish standards.

Table 31 : Annual specific energy consumption

Theoretical Lightweight Semiweight Massive Extra massive*
lightweight
External wall Type 1 Type 1 Type 1 Type 2 Type 2
Partition walls Type 1 Type 1 Type 1 Type 1 Type 2
between flats
Intermediate Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Type 4*
floor
*Concrete density 2500 kg/m3 instead of 2000 kg/m3.

102
 Table 32 : The building structure variables in the simulations
External wall types
Type 1: Type 2:
Structure from inside to outside: Structure from inside to outside:
13 mm plasterboard 120 mm concrete
0.7 mm sheet metal 0.7 mm sheet metal
200 mm LGS Termo profile + mineral wool 200 mm LGS Termo profile + mineral wool
9 mm wind shield board 9 mm wind shield board
Partition wall types
Type 1: Structure Type 2: Structure
213 mm plasterboard 200 mm concrete
50 mm air gap
213 mm plasterboard
Intermediate floor types
Type 1: (m = 33 kg/m2): Type 2: (m = 140 kg/m2)
3 mm floor coating 3 mm floor coating
22 mm particle board 10 mm screed
100 mm mineral wool/ LGS joists 300mm 60 mm concrete
13 mm plaster board 100 mm mineral wool/ LGS joists 300mm
213 mm plasterboard
2
Type 3: (m = 340 kg/m ) Type 4: (m = 510/630 kg/m2)
3 mm floor coating 3 mm floor coating
10 mm screed 20 mm screed
80 mm concrete 235 mm concrete
100 mm mineral wool / Steel beams 300mm
80 mm concrete

In the basic cases, windows are clear triple-glazed; the U-value of the glazing and frames is 1.4 W/mK.
The frame fraction of the gross window area is 10%. The effect of solar gains is studied with the
original windows replaced by solar protection glass (Pilkington Suncool Brilliant 66/33). In that case,
the U-value of the glazing is 1.2 W/mK, but the frames and gross window area remain the same as in
the original windows. The air tightness of the building was studied by changing air leakage at 50 Pa
between 0 and 3 1/h. In the special case, with a higher level of thermal insulation, an extra 50 mm of
thermal insulation material is added to the external walls. With this extra insulation, the U-value
improves from 0.23W/mK to 0.18 W/mK. All the other building structures remain the same.

Simulation Results

The annual specific energy consumption (total energy consumption per net floor area of 297.3m of the
simulated zone) is summarized in Table 31. All the cases are simulated over a period of one year. Table
31 shows separately, for all the simulated cases, district heat energy consumption and electricity
consumption, including HVAC- and household electricity used, for all the simulated cases. The district
heat energy is used in heating the zones (radiators or floor heating), ventilation (a heat coil of the air
handling unit) and domestic hot water. Consumption of hot domestic water is based on an extensive
measurement study carried out in the metropolitan area of Finland between 2004 2005 [7]

The study indicates that the thermal inertia has an insignificant effect on the energy efficiency of
residential apartment buildings in the Finnish cold climate (Figure 133), while other factors, such as

103
ventilation systems (Figure 134), airtightness of the building or even shading by another building have a
great impact on energy efficiency.

The effect of tightness with two different structures on

specific consumption
180

160
Specific consumption, kWh/m,a
140

102.5% 102.5% 107.7% 107.7%

100% 100%
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Lightweight, Massive, Lightweight, Massive, Lightweight, Massive,
Light weight Massive Light weight Massive Light weight Massive
n50 = 0 1/h n50 = 0 1/h n50 = 1 1/h n50 = 1 1/h n50 = 3 1/h n50 = 3 1/h

Figure 133 : Annual total specific consumption with different air leak rate (n50 = 0.3 l/h)

The energy efficiency of residential apartment buildings can be substantially improved by using
ventilation heat recovery. In the studied cases, the ventilation system has a major role in energy
efficiency. When the mechanical supply and exhaust ventilation system, with heat recovery (60%
temperature ratio, that means the inlet air after passing the heat recovery has temperature shift of 60 %
of the temperature difference room ambient of the outlet air), was replaced by the traditional exhaust
ventilation system, the total energy consumption of the building increased by 25-32%.

104
Table 33 : Annual heat energy and electric consumption of the house in all the simulated cases

Case Specific consumption, kWh/m,a

Structure n50 District heating Electricity Total
1/h Radi- Floor Venti- Domestic Cooling Fans Household
ators heat- lation hot water and electricity
ing pumps
The effect of tightness and the thermal inertia of structures
TLW-0 Theor. lightweight 0 15.4 0 16.7 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 113.6
LW-0 Lightweight 0 14.7 0 16.9 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 112.9
SW-0 Semiweight 0 14.3 0 17.0 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 112.7
M-0 Massive 0 14.2 0 17.0 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 112.6
TLW-1 Theor. lightweight 1 17.8 0 17.1 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 116.4
LW-1 Lightweight 1 17.0 0 17.3 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 115.7
SW-1 Semiweight 1 16.7 0 17.4 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 115.5
M-1 Massive 1 16.6 0 17.4 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 115.4
EM-1 Extra-massive 1 16.4 0 17.5 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 115.2
TLW-3 Theor. lightweight 3 23.0 0 17.8 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 122.2
LW-3 Lightweight 3 22.2 0 18.0 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 121.6
SW-3 Semiweight 3 21.8 0 18.1 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 121.3
M-3 Massive 3 21.7 0 18.1 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 121.2
The effect of the floor heating system and the thermal inertia of structures
FH1 Theor. lightweight 1 0.0 18.0 17.5 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 116.8
FH2 Lightweight 1 0.0 19.2 16.6 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 117.2
FH3 Semiweight 1 0.0 18.7 16.8 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 116.9
FH4 Massive 1 0.0 18.6 16.8 37.0 0 7.5 36.9 116.8
The effect of the mechanical exhaust ventilation system and tightness
ME2-1 Lightweight 1 75.4 0 0.0 37.0 0 2.9 36.9 152.2
ME2-3 Lightweight 3 75.5 0 0.0 37.0 0 2.9 36.9 152.3
The effect of the centralized cooling (air handling unit) and the thermal inertia of structures
COOL1-Ce Theor. lightweight 1 17.3 0 17.9 37.0 1.0 7.5 36.9 117.6
COOL2-Ce Lightweight 1 16.6 0 18.1 37.0 1.0 7.5 36.9 117.1
COOL3-Ce Semiweight 1 16.3 0 18.2 37.0 1.0 7.5 36.9 116.9
COOL4-Ce Massive 1 16.2 0 18.2 37.0 1.0 7.5 36.9 116.8
COOL5-Ce Extra-massive 1 16.0 0 18.3 37.0 1.0 7.5 36.9 116.7
The effect of the mechanical cooling (split type) and the thermal inertia of structures
COOL1-Sp Theor. lightweight 1 18.2 0 17.5 37.0 5.9 7.5 36.9 123.0
COOL2-Sp Lightweight 1 17.3 0 17.4 37.0 5.2 7.5 36.9 121.3
COOL3-Sp Semiweight 1 16.9 0 17.5 37.0 5.1 7.5 36.9 120.9
COOL4-Sp Massive 1 16.8 0 17.5 37.0 4.9 7.5 36.9 120.6
COOL5-Sp Extra-massive 1 16.6 0 17.6 37.0 4.8 7.5 36.9 120.4
The effect of the additional themal insulation in exterior walls and the thermal inertia of structures
AI1 Theor. lightweight 1 15.4 0 17.6 37.0 0.0 7.5 36.9 114.4
AI2 Lightweight 1 14.7 0 17.8 37.0 0.0 7.5 36.9 113.9
AI3 Semiweight 1 14.4 0 17.9 37.0 0.0 7.5 36.9 113.7
AI4 Massive 1 14.2 0 18.0 37.0 0.0 7.5 36.9 113.6
AI5 Extra-massive 1 14.0 0 18.0 37.0 0.0 7.5 36.9 113.4
The effect of the windows with the solar protection glass
SPG2 Lightweight 1 16.6 0 18.1 37.0 0.0 7.5 36.9 116.1
The effect of a shading of the other building
SH2 Lightweight 1 23.2 0 19.0 37.0 0.0 7.5 36.9 123.6
The effect of the thermal inertia of structures with lower heat gains (case 2)
LOAD1 Theor. lightweight 1 28.7 0 19.1 37.0 0 7.5 21.4 113.7
LOAD2 Lightweight 1 27.8 0 19.4 37.0 0 7.5 21.4 113.0
LOAD3 Semiweight 1 27.5 0 19.5 37.0 0 7.5 21.4 112.9
LOAD4 Massive 1 27.3 0 19.5 37.0 0 7.5 21.4 112.7

105
 Specific consumption with the balanced ventilation system and the
mechanical exhaust ventilation system
180
Balanced ventilation system
Mechanical exhaust ---||--- 132% 125%
160

Specific consumption, kWh/m,a

140
100%
100%
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
n50 = 1=1/h
n50 1 ME, n50
ME, n50 ==111/h nn50
50 = 3
= 1/h
3 ME,
ME,nn50
50 = =
3 1/h
3

Figure 134 : Annual total specific consumption with the balanced or the mechanical exhaust ventilation
system. Air leak rate of the building is n50 = 1.3 l/h

The airtightness of the building has a significant influence on its energy efficiency, although infiltration
air change of the apartments was quite low due to the simulation model being comprised of only one
floor. The calculated air infiltration was therefore based only on leakage between the apartment and the
outdoors, and airflow between the staircase and apartments was not taken into account. Nevertheless,
air tightness has as much as an 8% effect on total energy consumption at leakage value n50= 3 1/h
compared to the completely tight building.

Shading by surrounding buildings has a significant impact on the heat energy consumption of the
building. When shading corresponds to that likely in a city-centre where the height of the surrounding
buildings is equal to that of the studied building (seven 7 floors), the increase in total energy
consumption of the simulated zone on the 3rd floor was 7%. It is possible that the effect might be
slightly higher in reality, because the radiation model of the simulation does not take into account the
effect of shading (caused by another building) on diffuse radiation. Usually this small phenomenon is
not taken into account in building energy simulation tools.

Cooling does not substantially increase the effect of thermal inertia on the energy efficiency of
buildings in the Finnish climate, but has some effect on peak cooling power. For the building simulated
with centralized or split-type cooling, the influence of thermal inertia on total energy consumption was
less than 1% in both of the systems. The energy consumption of cooling itself is low, because cooling
was required for less than 25% of the year, even in the one-room flat, which was the warmest apartment
of the simulated zone.

Thermal inertia has some short-term effects on indoor air temperatures over 25C, while it has no effect
on temperatures under 25C. The maximum difference between the structures in the number of hours
(over 25C) is only 50 during a whole year, and the maximum difference in the degree-hours is about
800Kh. However, the maximum temperatures are unacceptably high in all the different structures. Only
with extra-massive structures does indoor air temperature meet the ultimate limit (35C) of the Finnish
classification of indoor climate S3 and Finnish building code D2.

The solar protection glass and shading by the surrounding buildings decrease indoor air temperatures
remarkably. The protective glass and the shading reduce the number of degree-hours exceeding 25C by
5000 Kh (=Kelvin-hours), so the effect of both these factors is at least 6 times higher than that of
thermal inertia.

With centralized cooling, indoor air temperature in all the simulated apartments meet the classification
S3. Temperatures are however still high, exceeding 25C for over 2000 hours in the warmest
apartments. In the simulated building, the cooling capacity of the centralized system is limited, due to
the CAV ventilation system and the minimum supply air temperature of 17C. With a different
ventilation system, e.g. a variable air volume (VAV) ventilation system with temperature control and

106
lower supply air temperature, the cooling capacity of the centralized system would be higher. With the
split-type cooling, indoor air temperature does not exceed the set point of 25C, so the temperature
meets the Finnish classification of indoor air climate S2. With split-type cooling, thermal inertia has an
effect on peak cooling power, the highest cooling power of the split unit during the year. Compared to
the extra- massive building, peak power is between 11 and 14% higher in the lightweight building.
However, peak cooling power depends mainly on the orientation of the windows in the cases studied.
The peak powers in the four-room flat were between 33 and 44% lower than in the one room flat, where
all the windows were facing south or west.

This study is a modern residential apartment building in Finland. Therefore, its conclusions are valid for
a typical modern Finnish apartment building in a Nordic climate.

The difference between the simulation and EN-calculation was significant, especially in the case of the
lightweight structures. The heat demand of the building, according to EN-calculation, was as much as
46% higher than the simulation result with the theoretical lightweight case. A reason for this large
difference was not only the structure of the building, but also the infiltration and the values of the
numerical parameters (0 and a0). The maximum difference between the simulation and EN-calculation
with a completely airtight building (n50 =1 1/h) was less than 21%.

The values of the internal heat capacity were calculated according to EN ISO 13790:2004 and prEN
15203. The prestandard defines a rough estimate of the internal heat capacity, while EN ISO
13790:2004 uses a more accurate method to determine its value. According to the calculation, the rough
estimate of the internal heat capacity of the massive structures might be reasonably accurate, because
the difference in heat demand was less than 2%, although the heat capacity was more than twice as high
according to the rough estimate. Nevertheless, the rough estimate of the theoretical lightweight
structures produced an estimated 14% difference in heat demand, and so it is safer to recommend the
more accurate method of EN ISO 13790:2004 for all the structures studied.

Compared to the simulation approach, EN ISO 13790:2004 overestimates the infiltration air flow rate
and, as a consequence, heat demand in accordance with EN ISO 13790:2004 was over 60% higher than
the simulation result when n50 = 3 1/h. In EN ISO 13790:2004, infiltration airflow is calculated using
the following equation:

V n50 e
V&x = 2
f V Vex
1 + sup
e V n50

When the supply and return air flow rates are equal, the denominator of the equation above disappears
and the equation is reduced to the simple form:

V x = V n50 e

The studied case can therefore be considered as a special case for EN ISO 13790:2004.

The numerical parameters (0 and a0) have a significant effect on the results of EN ISO 13790:2004 in
the cases studied. With the original values suggested by EN ISO 13790:2004, the maximum difference
between the simulated heat demand of the building and that of EN ISO 13790:2004 was over 40%,
while it was less than 7% with the modified parameters. The values of the parameters can also be
provided at a national level, but the modified values defined by this study cannot be considered as the
correct values due to the low number of cases calculated. Any changes in the values of the parameters
would therefore require more cases and a more detailed analysis.

107
Summarising the results of chap. 3.3.2.2 - 3.3.2.4, the primary conclusions are:
thermal inertia has an impact on the energy demand (heating and cooling), but the effect is small.
In order to compare the results of a standardised (EN ISO 13790:2004) and numerical calculation, it
is important to carefully check each parameter. In particular, differences in ventilation can
significantly affect the results. If all the parameters are similar, the numerical and standardised
calculations give similar results.

3.3.3. Assessment of energy saving potentials in typical steel buildings

3.3.3.1. Application of components

In the previous paragraphs numerous calculations were performed to work out the energy saving
potential of the different measures. Not all technical solutions are suitable for all kinds of buildings,
therefore a chart was developed to identify convenient combinations (Table 34)

Table 34 : Application of building components

Residential Building Non-Residential Building
Single
Apartment Office Industrial
Family
Building Building Building
House
Air-cooled slab (ACS) no no yes no
Building
fabric Water-cooled floor
- composite no no yes no
Floors - I-core
Composite Floor yes yes yes yes
Facade Solar air collector no no yes yes
Super Insulated Facades
- Curtain Wall with VISP no no
yes no
Building - light-weight faade with
yes yes
envelope additional VIP
Thermal Breaks yes yes yes yes
Facades
Thermal Studs yes yes yes yes

Steel Glass facades no no yes no

Building Ventilated Double Skin Roof yes yes yes no

envelope
Roofs Roof Solar air collector yes no no no

Some comments to Table 34:

Today cooling of residential buildings is not common in Europe, therefore air- and water-cooled
floor systems are recommanded for residential buildings. Perhaps this situation changes in the
future.
Faade air collectors are mainly interesting for large, closed facades, which is not usual for
residential buildings.
Curtain walls are only common for office buildings.
Steel-glass are only common for office buildings.
The ventilated double skin roof needs a tilted roof, which is frequently given at residential
buildings. Generally this solutions is also suitable for office buildings with tilted roof.
The roof solar air collector is suitable for single family houses (sufficient area, short distribution of
air).

108
 3.3.3.2. Energy saving potentials

The energy saving potentials as calculated in WP 3.2 are condensed to the results in Table 35.

Table 35 : Energy saving potential (per m ground surface,

exceptions: roof systems and faade collector per m faade / roof)
Energy saving
[kWh/ma]
System item min max
Building
Air-cooled slab (ACS) cooling 2 6
fabric
Water-cooled floor
Floors - composite cooling 0 4
- I-core cooling 0 5
Composite Floor cooling 0 4
Building
Facade Solar air collector heating 50 160
envelope
Super Insulated Facades
Facades - Curtain Wall with VISP heating low
- light-weight faade with heating 2 13
additional VIP
Thermal Breaks heating low
Thermal Studs heating 2 4
cooling/ not computable in general,
Steel Glass facades
heating negative effects possible!
Building Ventilated Double Skin
cooling 3 12
envelope Roof
Roofs Roof Solar air collector heating 50 160

It is obvious, that not one single measure is the best, the measures have to be assembled to achieve an
energy efficient building in steel. The specific results for the collecting system are high, but they must
be compared with the ground surface of the building where they are applicated.

3.4. WP 3.4: Cost-Effectiveness of Solutions

Effective implementation of energy efficient solutions into the construction market, requires
cost-effectiveness and reliable performance. For the discussion of cost effectiveness, three categories
can be identified:
1) No or low additional capital costs
2) Improved products to reduce energy consumption and to enhance the energy efficiency of
systems
3) Additional measures to generate renewable energy

Capital costs
A number of energy efficiency measures may be introduced which result in modest increases in costs.
In the EEBIS project the following solutions belong to this category:
Independent from the materials and details the design of building shape, orientation, window size
etc. influences the energy demand as described in Section .
Enhanced used of thermal inertia (Steel-concrete thermal interaction, WP 1.3). Considering this
aspect during the design phase of a building does not lead to additional costs. If the peak load of the
mechanical cooling sytem can be reduced, it may be possible to reduce the capital cost of the
service installations. The building owner and the architect have to accept the look of an exposed
composite deck, if not, permeable suspended ceilings could be used

109
 Reduce cold bridging by penetrations (WP 2.5). The number of penetrations can be reduced through
the building envelope, i.e. avoiding roof overhangs or balconies with beams passing through the
facades.

Improved products to reduce energy consumption

In the second category, various measures or products can be identified that improve the energy
performance. They replace conventional solutions but with some additional costs. In the EEBIS project,
the following solutions belong to this category:
Air cooled floors (WP 1.1.)
Water cooled floors (WP 1.2)
Double skin roofs (WP 2.1)
Super-insulated cladding systems (WP 2.4)
Thermallyly efficient components e.g., thermal studs (WP 2.5)

The products are at different stages regarding their market use, but general calculations regarding cost
effectiveness are possible:

Additional measures to generage renewable energy

The third category composes technical solutions, that are add-ons on existing construction to
generate energy and therefore enhancing the energy performance of the building. For these products
the cost-effectiveness is more clear: On the one hand, there are additional capital costs, on the other
hand the energy gain can be quantified. In the EEBIS project, the following solutions belong to this
category:
Double skin facades (as solar collectors, WP 2.2)
Roof-integrated solar energy collection systems (WP 2.3)

Table 36 : Cost effectiveness

Investment reduction of effective energy operational payback
cost other investment savings / costs period
investment costs energy gains
costs
/m /m /m kWh/ma /ma a
category 1: no additional costs

Shape, orientation, window size ./. ./. ./. ./. 0

Enhanced use of thermal inertia ./. 0 ... 200 0 ... -200 0-4 ./. 0

Reduction of thermal bridges ./. ./. ./. 0-3 ./. 0

category 2: improved products

yes
Air cooled floors medium low - medium 2-6 medium medium
(air-con)
0-5
(higher, if
yes
Water cooled floors low low natural energy low short
(air-con)
sources
available)
yes probably
Double skin roofs no information no information 3 - 12 ./.
(air-con) short
Super-insulated cladding systems high ./. high 2 - 13 ./. long

Thermal breaks high ./. high low ./. long

yes
(additional
Thermal studs low low 2-4 ./. short
insulation
layer)

category 3: additional measures

Double skin facades (as solar yes

low (conventional low 50 - 160 medium short
collectors)
cladding)

Roof-integrated solar energy yes

medium (conventional medium 50 - 160 medium medium
collection systems
cladding)

110
The investment costs are more or less the same all over Europe, the energy benefit depends on the
location climate and the concept of the whole building. The range of the energy gains / energy savings
can be taken from Section 3.3.

4. WP 4 : Design Strategies and Design Guidance for Steel Structures

4.1. Strategies for Energy Efficiency

4.1.1. Introduction

This Work Package is concerned with dissemination of the strategies for energy efficient design in the
form of guidance on the performance of the innovative technologies analyzed during the research.

These strategies may be classified in terms of:

building shape and orientation,
cladding systems (optimization of thermal losses and gains),
energy balance of building operation and meteorological conditions (impact thermal inertia),
active thermal regulating effect of the building fabric (enhanced use of efficient resp. renewable
heat or cold sources)

The strategies and design guidance were developed for:

housing and residential buildings,
commercial buildings.

Public buildings are partly covered by these building types, but very specific public buildings like
hospitals need separate investigations.

The Design Guide presents design guidance on new products and systems for building structure and
envelope, notably:
- air and water-cooling systems in the building fabric,
- steel-composite floor systems,
- double skin cladding and roofing systems,
- solar energy collection systems,
- super-insulated cladding systems,
- external steelwork and thermal bridging.

The Design Guide has been prepared in order to assist the designer or the user during the design process
in choosing the best components to reduce the overall energy consumption in the building.

The guidance aims to reduce the risk of misuse of components.

The Guide concisely presents the decisions, analyses and calculations to be made in the application of
energy-reducing building components. The information is intended for use as a starting point for
detailed investigations into the design of a particular energy efficient building using steel products.

4.1.1.1. General analysis of the situation.

The start of the process is the analysis of the situation. This is a very important part of the Design
Guide. It presents the analysis of four prominent environmental aspects of a typical situation or
building site. These four aspects are: climate analysis, expected internal climate, time of use and
internal loads.

111
 4.1.1.2. Choosing components
From the data set created in the analysis, a component is chosen from the Components Library which
includes the building fabric and envelope. The components data, together with the building
components, are inserted into the building model.

4.1.1.3. Comparison with reference zone and measurement of performance (calculations,

simulations)
The next phase is the comparison of the building model composed of energy reducing component(s)
with the reference building, which is a country specific reference cell. The reference cell concept
has been analysed and defined in the scope of this project. The concept is described in the Design
Guide.

The energy performance can then be calculated according to local or European standards. The result of
the calculation determines whether the energy reduction is significant. If it is, the component should be
applied. Otherwise a different component must be chosen and design process is started again.

The Design Guide introduces a procedure which allows the designer or user to choose the best
strategies or building enhancements to reduce overall energy consumption and to estimate the resulting
differences and improvements. Using the basic reference case data supplied, the energy savings become
instantly clear. The guidance also reduces the chance of ineffective strategies being applied.

The EEBIS work packages are incorporated in different chapters. The Components chapter contains all
the components and systems as proposed by the different partners in WP 1 and WP 2, Systems for
energy balance through the building fabric and structure and Improved energy performance of the
building envelope respectively. The assessment of the energy performance is based on the work of
WP 3 Assessment tools for building energy performance.

4.1.2. Energy design strategies

4.1.2.1. General analysis of the situation

Introduction
The analysis of the situation is perhaps the most important part of the Design Guide. It represents the
analysis and/or determination of the four most prominent environmental aspects of a particular
situation or building site. These four aspects are the following:
Local climate
Expected internal climate
Time of use
Internal loads

These four aspects are discussed below.

Climate analysis
The starting point for energy efficient design is the analysis of the local climate (details are given in
chap. 3.1.3). The assessments and comparisons for the different technical solutions (see chap. 4.1.3.2:
Innovative Components in Steel) are based on four European climates, representing a wide range of the
existing climatic zones. It has to be decided, which of these representative climates is close to the
specific local climate (see Figure 135). This is the basis to choose the correct performance curve in the
energy performce characteristics in the library of Innovative Components in Steel, chap. 4.1.3.2..

Expected internal climate

The second step is to determine the internal climate. It depends on the use of the building (dwellings,
offices, industry, etc.). For dwellings and offices nearly the same temperature range - from 20 to 26 C -
is accepted, with deviations of 1 or 2 K for both set points (depending on national or regional
requirements). The upper limit depends on the user, for example, how acceptable are temporary

112
excursions (DIN 4108-2, e.g.). For industrial or storage halls the situation may be totally different;
depending on the nature of the work and products, other temperature levels may be required.
Helsinki Berlin
Mean Mean
25 daily min. 280 30 240
daily min.
25 210

global rad. [kW/m]

20 daily max. 240

global rad. [kw/m]

daily max.
15 mean rad. 200 20 180
mean rad.
temp [C]

temp [C]
10 160 15 150
10 120
5 120
5 90
0 80
0 60
-5 40 -5 30
-10 0 -10 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
month m onth

London Madrid
Mean Mean
25 daily min. 250 35 daily min. 350

global rad. [kW/m]

30 daily max. 300

global rad. [kw/m]

20 daily max. 200
mean rad. 25 mean rad. 250
temp [C]

temp [C]
15 150 20 200
10 100 15 150
10 100
5 50
5 50
0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
m onth m onth

Figure 135 : European climates (locations used for exemplary calculations)

Time of use
The third step is determination of the time of use. Office buildings are usually not used during the night
hours; for dwellings, generally night cut off is possible since reduced temperatures at night are desired.
For industrial buildings the time of use depends on the production process (1, 2 or 3 shift, 5 to 6 days
per week).

Internal loads
The last step is the determination of the internal loads, which are a result of the time of use and the
equipment of the building (lighting, electrical devices, ). Two simple examples are shown in Figure
136 The daily sum of the internal loads for a residential and an office building with low to medium
internal loads are nearly equal, although the profiles are different.

7
residential
6
internal loads [W/m]

office
5

0
0 6 12 18 24
time [h]

Figure 136 : Internal loads, residential and office

113
 4.1.2.2. General strategies
The data set created after analysis will help the choice of a suitable components with respect to energy
efficiency from the component library: a collection of components, that were tested in the project, is
given below.

Introduction
From an architectural point of view, the use of energy saving components should not, ideally, be visible
unless they are explicitly a way of giving expression to the building. Furthermore it is not desirable that
the choice of certain energy saving components should lead to compulsory adaptation of another
building component or part, whether visible or not.

The time or phase in which the component must be introduced in the design process for optimal
operation determines its design flexibility. Components which must be incorporated early in the design
process should allow more flexibility during that process in terms of sizing, appearance and shape etc.
An example of components like these is faade systems (WP2: Solar wall, double skin roofs).

Strategies of building design for buildings

The following table presents a summary of these building components. The application of the
component to various types of building, residential and non-residential, is specified.

Table 37 : Application of Building components

Residential Building Non-Residential Building
Single
Apartment Office Industrial
Family
Building Building Building
House
Air-cooled slab (ACS) no no yes no
Building
fabric Water-cooled floor
- general no no yes no
Floors - I-core
Composite Floor yes yes yes yes
Facade Solar air collector no no yes yes
Super Insulated Facades
no no yes no
Building (Curtain Wall with VISP)
envelope Light weight faade yes yes yes no
Facades Sandwich Panel Construction
yes yes yes yes
(Composite Panels)
Thermal Bridges system yes yes yes yes
Roof Solar air collector yes no no no

Building Ventilated Double Skin Roof yes yes no no

envelope
Building Integrated PV yes yes yes yes
Roofs Sandwich Panel Construction yes yes yes yes
Light gauge steel roof yes yes yes no

114
4.2. Develop design guidance for the new products and systems

4.2.1. Components for Energy Efficient Design in Steel

4.2.1.1. Explanation of Data Sheets

Description of the Systems

The systems are described in a few sentences; a picture or drawing illustrates the product respectively
the system and its principle.

Architectural implications
The technical solutions described above interact more or less with the architecture. Therefore some
points relevant to the building design are noted.

Potential energy savings

The energy saving potential of the various technical solutions depends on many parameters. Parameter
studies were performed in the scope of EEBIS RFCS project. It is not possible to reduce the energy
saving to only one value for each solution. Therefore a simplified diagram was developed to give
information on the primary characteristics of the technical solutions, but it has to be highlighted that
these values provide only a clue. For specific projects the energy saving may vary.

The energy saving potential (heating or cooling) is given in building energy need for heating or
cooling per year, as defined in prEN ISO 13790. This is the energy amount, that has to be delivered to
or extracted from the conditioned space by a heating or cooling system to maintain the set-point
temperature.

Heating or Cooling 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
Short description of reference and variations
kWh/ma

Madrid
O: Reference
-10 London
A: System, Var. A
B: System, Var. B
-15

-20
O A B

Availability and exemplary projects

The availability of the presented components vary; it ranges from prototypes to widely available
products. If it exists, an exemplary building is mentioned.

Designer / Manufacturer
If available, the designer and/or manufacturer of a component is given.

115
 4.2.1.2. Innovative Components in Steel

The library of building components is based on the results of studies (experimental tests and numerical
simulations) carried out during the EEBIS project. Most of them are described in the following pages.

A. Building Fabric and Structure

A1. Air-cooled floors

a. ACS Air-cooled slabs

Description of the system

The ACS-Slimdek is a floor system which uses channels formed between the ribs of deep composite
decking to pass air below the slab and to achieve heat exchange with it. The thermal regulating effect
can reduce the cooling demand by the building.

Figure 137 : ACS incorporated into SlimDek

One in every three troughs in the soffit is covered by steel sheets to form an air duct beneath the trough.
Air is passed through this duct, enabling enhanced convective heat exchange with the deck surface
before it is passed into the room for ventilation. Alternatively, ventilation air can be passed through the
main trough void without contacting the slab when cooling is not required. Supply air 3-4C below
ambient temperature can be provided in this way for space cooling. Advantages over conventional
passive slab cooling include increased controllability of the cooling (can be switched on as required),
and rapid overnight chilling of the slab without cooling the space to unacceptable temperatures.

The system does not replace an air conditioning system, as internal space temperatures cannot be
guaranteed. However, if installed alongside mechanical cooling, the useful cooling capacity of 25W/m2
can decrease chiller consumption by up to 70% (depending upon the temperature setpoint).

Architectural implications
Fresh air is brought into the building either at each floor, or through chimneys at roof level. This
leads to strong architectural features in the buildings design.
Fresh air can be brought in at each floor continuously along the faade through louvres or at
discrete points. There is a requirement for careful detailing to avoid dust, noise pollution and insect
infestation.
External air is cooled by contact with the slab and may be subject to some condensation in extreme
conditions.
Air brought in via chimneys may lead to a compartmentation problem in terms of fire spread
between floors.

116
 Fresh air can be introduced via a glazed double faade, which provides for thermal regulation of the
space.

Apart from the points above, flooring systems in general should not have much architectural implication
since they are part of the main construction and most of the time are covered by floor and ceiling
finishes.

Potential energy savings

Cooling 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
O: Reference (conventional concrete slab,

kWh/ma
Madrid
suspended ceiling)
-10 London
ACS: Air cooled slab

-15

-20
O ACS

Availability and exemplary projects

Single components for the air-cooled slabs are available. Prototypes for testing were produced; the first
projects are in preparation.

Designer / Manufacturer
Corus, UK, product name Airdek.

117
A2. Watercooled Structures

a. Water-cooled slab system

Description of the system

Water-cooling or heating through pipes embedded in a concrete slab is an established technology.
Plastic (usually polybutylene) pipes of typical internal diameter 16 mm are laid at a spacing of
200-400 mm and depth of 50mm for maximum heat transfer. Cool water is delivered at a relatively high
temperature from an external source such as a borehole, lake or roof tank, providing a temperature
differential of 6-8C relative to the ambient temperature of the space. This differential in temperature
leads to a cooling flux of 30 to 50 W/m2.

300 Pipe 140

225 60 60
100 333
Rebar
600

150
50
130
120
60
50 150
300

Figure 138 : Water-cooled composite decks

For a composite slab with steel decking, the most efficient deck shapes are those providing a more
uniform surface temperature, depending on the position of the cooling pipes. The Luxembourg
Chamber of Commerce used a special sinusoidal deck profile in a form of Slimdek construction. This
achieved an efficient uniform heat flux from the exposed slab.

Although close temperature control is not achievable, thermal comfort is improved greatly, with hours
of overheating being reduced by at least 50%. If combined with an air conditioning system, large
energy savings can be made. However, a water-cooled slab system is ideally implemented as a low
energy alternative to air conditioning.

Architectural implications
As these energy reducing measures are mostly integrated into the structure of a building (floors and
frame) the architectural implications are somewhat limited. Systems like these, however, must not
dominate the architectural expression and freedom of the overall design. For example when a system
dictates a certain grid size, it seriously limits the design possibilities for the architect. The soffit,
however, should be exposed to allow maximum heat transfer with the surroundings.

Another point of interest is the possible restriction of using certain finishes on floors and ceilings (e.g.
plasters and paints) because of the active temperature control of the floor and structure.

Potential energy savings

The values below were estimated on the basis of the amount of energy that has to be extracted from the
conditioned space by cooling. Cooled slabs offers the opportunity to use natural cold sources. In this
case the saving of primary energy is much higher; only energy for pumping needs to be added.

118
Cooling 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
O. Reference (conventional concrete slab,

kWh/ma
Madrid
suspended ceiling)
-10 London
A: Water cooled slab, low internal loads
B: Water cooled slab, medium internal loads
C: Water cooled slab, high internal loads -15

-20
O A B C

Availability and exemplary projects

Steel sheets for composite deck elements are available, integration of hydronic system on site, therefore
realisation is actual possible.

Designer / Manufacturer
Several producers of composite deck systems are on the market, e.g. Arcelor, Corus, Ruukki, Hoesch
additiv, Holorib etc. Integration of the hydronic system has to be designed by a building services
engineer.

119
b. Laser-welded Sandwich panel

Description of the system

The Laser-welded sandwich panel (LSP) is a steel deck system with an integrated hydronic system
fitted on the lower sheet to generate a thermo-active deck element.

The main characteristics are: very light construction, therefore very low thermal inertia, which
combined with the good thermal conductivity of steel leads to the concept of integrating a piping
system for heating and cooling.

steel sheets from to

[mm] [mm]
b

t
Width 500 3000
L
Length
e
g
n 1000 10000

hs
ts
t 2 10
steel pipe p 120 120
p

t
hs 40 100
webs ts 3 4
sound insulation

floor panel

Figure 139 : LSP steel deck system (panel, assembling, principle complete deck system, available
dimensions)

Steel pipes
implemented
in shop

Figure 140 : LSP with steel pipes for heating /cooling

For typical boundary conditions (room: 26C, water 18C) the temperature distribution was calculated
and the cooling capacity determined.

120
 Table 38 : Specific Capacity, taken from numerical calculations (boundary conditions: RAL 964, mean
water temperature: 18 C, room temperature: 26 C)
Cooling capacity (top surface) Cooling capacity (lower surface)
W/m W/m
LSP, without insulation/floor 28.5 66.4
plate
LSP, with insulation/floor plate 4.3 71.3

Architectural implications
Very thin deck systems are possible
uspended ceilings should be avoided

Potential energy savings

The values below were estimated on the basis of the energy, that has to be extracted from the
conditioned space by cooling. Cooled building components offer the opportunity to use natural cold
sources.I In this case the saving of primary energy is much higher, only energy for pumping needs to be
added.

Cooling 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
O: Reference (conventional concrete slab,
kWh/ma

Madrid
suspended ceiling)
-10 London
A: Thermo-active LSP, low internal loads
B: Thermo-active LSP, medium internal loads
C: Thermo-active LSP, high internal loads -15

-20
O A B C

Availability and exemplary projects

Deck elements and the, system including the hydronic system prototype are available.

Designer / Manufacturer
Meyer Werft, Papenburg (Ger), Product name I-Core

121
A3. Steel-Composites

a. Steel-composite decks

Description of the System

Various types of steel-composite decks are available (see figure below). Two were investigated in
detail: deep decking and re-entrant decking.

300
225
140
60
600 333

(a) Deep decking (b) Trapezoidal decking

150

50
130 120
60

150 300

(c) Re-entrant decking (d) Flat ' tray' decking

Figure 141 : Composite deck systems

Architectural implications
suspended ceiling or use of permeable cladding should be avoided
metallic surface should be avoided; painting is needed

Potential energy savings

The values below were estimated on the basis of the energy that has to be extracted from the
conditioned space by cooling. Efficient energy storage in combination with night cooling frequently
offers the opportunity to avoid mechanical cooling. In this case the saving of primary energy is much
higher.
Cooling 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
O: Reference (conventional concrete slab,
kWh/ma

Madrid
suspended ceiling)
-10 London
A: Deep deck, low internal loads
B: Deep deck, medium internal loads
C: Deep deck, high internal loads -15

-20
O A B C
Cooling 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
O: Reference (conventional concrete slab,
kWh/ma

Madrid
suspended ceiling)
-10 London
A: Re-entrant deck, low internal loads
B: Re-entrant, medium internal loads
C: Re-entrant, high internal loads -15

-20
O A B C

Availability and exemplary projects

These deck systems are widely available and in use.

Designer / Manufacturer
Several producers of composite deck systems are on the market, e.g. Arcelor, Corus, Hoesch additive,
Holorib etc.

122
B. Building Envelope

B1. Double skin roofs

a. Ventilated Double Skin Roof

Description of the System

The ventilated double skin roof incorporates a second sheet of steel over an existing or new roof. The
two sheets of steel are separated by around 10cm with a perforated beam to allow convective air flow
between the skins.

The inner face of the second sheet of steel must have a low emissivity to reduce radiative heat transfer
between the skins and consequently to minimize the energy passing through the roof.

Figure 142 : Ventilated Double Skin Roof

The ventilated double skin roof has the following advantages :

Possible application for new building and also for renovations

Simple construction system
Important reduction of the total heat transfer through the roof during summertime

Architectural implications
Direct visibility
An additional metal system has to be installed on the roof
Presence of metallic separator between the two skins is noticeable.

Influence on other parts of the building

Time of introduction into the design phase has to be considered
It is possible to add the double skin roof after construction has been almost completed

Possible reduction of the efficiency of the system when used for flat roofs.

Potential energy savings

The effect of the ventilated roof is only significant for the top level of a building. The energy saving is
only valid for this storey, not the whole building if it is multi-storey.

123
Cooling 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
Aluzinc

kWh/ma
Madrid

O: Reference, non-ventilated light weight steel -10

roofing
A: Aluzinc, ventilated natural -15
B: Aluzinc, ventilated 2 m/s
C: Aluzinc, ventilated 6 m/s -20
O A B C
Cooling 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
Stainless steel

kWh/ma
Madrid

O: Reference, not-ventilated light weight steel -10

roofing
A: Stainless steel, ventilated natural -15
B: stainless steel, ventilated 2 m/s
C: stainless steel, ventilated 6 m/s -20
O A B C

Availability and exemplary projects

Not yet available, only demonstration project.

Designer / Manufacturer
./.

124
B2. Double skin facades

a) Unglazed transpired collector

Description of the system

The faade solar air collector system consists of a metal cladding panel, which forms an additional outer
skin on the building. The metal cladding panel can be either perforated or non-perforated. The
perforated plate usually exhibits better efficiency. The solar radiation heats the air behind the metal
cladding and this heated air is drawn into the buildings air supply system in order to preheat the
ventilation air. The warm air collector device can be used as a cladding structure and energy source in
detached family houses, terraced houses, and especially in industrial buildings which require high levels
of ventilation.

Figure 143 : Unglazed transpired collector (UTC)

Facade solar air collectors have the following advantages:

Pre-heater for mechanical ventilation system which leads to increased yearly system efficiency
Integral part of a ventilation heating system: day time solar heat results in reduced day time
auxiliary energy consumption
Easy to control
Can also be used to reduce overheating in summer time
Low investment costs: existing, typical steel products for facades

Architectural implications
Systems can be integrated into any faade systems for both new and existing buildings. The efficiency
of the system is better with dark coatings.

The system is not efficient if the south faade is of limited area or if it is shaded by neighbouring
buildings.

Direct visibility
An extra metal cladding system has to be installed onto the southern faade

Influence on other parts of the building

System has to be integrated into the house ventilation system.

Time of introduction in design phase

Ideally at an early stage, but can easily be retrofitted.

125
Potential energy savings
Heating 200
Berlin
150 Helsinki
(internal temp.: 20 C, diagramme shows solar

kWh/ma
Madrid
gains per m of collector!)
100
A: UTC, small (0.01 m collector per m/h supply
air) 50
B: UTC, 0.02 m collector per m/h supply air
C: UTC, 0.03 m collector per m/h supply air 0
D: UTC, large (0.04 m collector per m/h supply A B C D
air)

Availability and exemplary projects

The system is available.

Designer / Manufacturer
Solarwall

126
B3. Solar energy collection system

a) Roof solar air collectors

Description of the system

Warm air is available throughout the heating season as soon as the surface temperature of the roof is
higher than the outside air temperature through the warming effect of the sun. The system is based on a
simple structural solution where collector pipes for ventilation, warm-air collectors, are formed under
standing seam roofing sheets. When the sun warms the roof, air warms up in the ventilation channels
and rises to the collecting channel on the ridge of the roof. The air is directed by an air handling unit
from the collecting channel into the building. In the summer, warm air is directed outdoors to cool the
attic and the roof structure. The warm air collector device can be used as a cladding structure and
energy source in detached family houses, terraced houses, and multi-storey houses. This solution can
also be used for drying and warming holiday homes from early in the spring. Parts of the receiving
channel and the collecting channel are standard parts (deep profile trapezoidal sheets), pre-dimensioned
to build a functional unit. The system can also be combined with a heat-recovery system, when a
temperature controlled heat exchanger is switched off if the incoming air is warmer than the inside air.
The efficiency of the warm air collector can reach as much as 10-20% of total radiation energy.

Facade solar air collectors have the following advantages:

Low investment costs: existing, typical steel products for sloped roofs
Pre-heat for a mechanical ventilation system: increased yearly system efficiency
Integral part of a ventilation heating system: day time solar heat => reduced day time auxiliary
energy consumption
Easy to control
Can also be used to reduce overheating in summer

1 Solar air collectors

2 Heat exchanger
3 Inlet valve
4 Outlet valve
1

Figure 144 : Principle of roof solar air collector

Architectural implications
Systems can be integrated into any steel roofing system. The efficiency of the system is greater with the
use of dark coatings.

Direct visibility
Only limitation is that roofing covering has to be made of steel.
Influence on other parts of the building
System has to be integrated into the house ventilation system. Special roof construction is needed to
ceate air collector channels
Time of introduction into design phase: Early stage

127
Potential energy savings
The efficiency of warm air collectors can reach about 10-20% of total radiation energy. Typically this
means e.g. in a Nordic climate 45-50 kWh per m2 roof area when only seasonal use between September
and May is considered.

The system efficiency decreases during mid-winter if the roof is covered by snow.

Heating 200
Berlin
150 Helsinki
(internal temp.: 20 C, diagram shows solar gains

kWh/ma
Madrid
per m of collector)
100
A: Solar roof collector, medium (0.01 m
collector per m/h supply air), south orientation 50
B: Solar roof collector, small (0.02 m collector
per m/h supply air), south orientation 0
C: Solar roof collector, small (0.04 m collector A B C
per m/h supply air), south orientation

Availability and exemplary projects

The system has been used in some demonstration projects.

Figure 145 : Demonstration project Roof solar air collector

Designer / Manufacturer
Ruukki (Fin)

128
B4. Super-insulated cladding systems

a) Vacuum-insulation

Description of the system

The semi-finished product is made up of a precipitate silica core (less effective than fumed silica but
about half the price) in a PET type metallized barrier film. The assembly of the sheet steel is carried out
by prior co-lamination of the film. Thus defined, the systems properties are: thermal conductivity in the
region of 5 mW/m.K (with minimization of the thermal bridge due to the film), 50 year lifespan, perfect
flatness, good fire performance and good mechanical resistance (impact and compression). The edges of
the panel have to be finished to achieve the final in-fill panel used in common curtain walls.

Figure 146 : Vacuum-insulation panel in curtain wall

The VISP has the following advantages:

Very good thermal performance,
Space requirement similar to that of double glazing,
Good fire safety as it contains inorganic core material.

Architectural implications
Influence on other parts of the building
Some technical equipment (such as air conditioning) could be integrated into the faade, due to the
thinness of the panels.
Time of introduction in design phase
Early stage is preferable in order to take advantage of the reduced space requirements.

Different colours are possible.

It is not possible to cut up the panel; thus, the proper dimensioning and manufacturing of the elements is
essential.

Potential energy savings

The U-values for the curtain wall (Ucw) depend on the dimensions of the panels (dimensions of
modulus). The U-value Up (for the in-fill panel) is 0,24 W/m.K and the linear thermal transmittance
between the frame and the panel is =0,11W/m.K.

In combination with the columns and girders (made of steel or aluminium), the thermal performance of
curtain walling is limited and the high performance of the vacuum insulation does not lead to significant
improvements of the U-Value Ucw. Therefore the benefit of vacuum insultation was tested as an
additional insulation to improve the U-value of lightweight steel construction.

129
Heating 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
Case A: 50% window / 50% panel

kWh/ma
Madrid
-10 London
O: Reference (conventional insulation, U-value
0.3 W/mK))
A: Vacuum insulation, U-value -15
0.15 W/mK))
B: Vacuum insulation, U-value -20
O A B
0.11 W/mK))

Heating 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
Case B: 20% window / 80% panel

kWh/ma
Madrid
-10 London
O: Reference (conventional insulation, U-value
0.3 W/mK))
A: Vacuum insulation, U-value -15
0.15 W/mK))
B: Vacuum insulation, U-value -20
0.11 W/mK)) O A B

Availability and exemplary projects

Vacuum-insulation panels and curtain wall systems are available, with several projects already
constructed.

Figure 147 : Residential building using vacuum-insulation (Variotec, D)

Designer / Manufacturer
Variotec (Panels), Schco VakuTherm (Curtain wall system)

130
B5. Thermal bridging between envelope and structure

a) Light-weight external wall panel with thermal studs

Description of the system

This panel consists of a structural frame made of galvanised web-perforated C-or U-sections of depth
125 - 225 mm and project-specific cladding. The frame is insulated with mineral wool, with cladding on
either side. The outside is clad with a windshield board and the inside may be made of construction
board or, alternatively, a factory-painted or galvanised steel sheet. Cladding can be selected from a
number of materials such as metal, wood, ceramics, rendering or stone. In exterior wall elements, the
system can be combined with glass and aluminium structures and integrated with the surface cladding.
Thermal resistance may be increased further by introducing an external extra insulation layer.

Figure 148 : Thermal studs in external wall

Prefabricated light-weight external wall panels with thermal studs have the following advantages:
Good thermal performance. Due to perforated steel studs it is possible to achieve good U-values
with low structural thickness of the wall
Flexible system for openings (windows, doors) and different cladding materials
Fast erection
Good fire safety properties due to non-combustible materials
Large variety of applications (residential, commercial)

Architectural implications
Direct visibility
No limitations, very adaptable to different kind of surfaces and finishes

Influence on other parts of the building

The system has no major influences on other building components

Time of introduction into the design phase

Early stage preferable, but because the system is suitable for different frame systems, it can also be
introduced at a later design phase

131
Potential energy savings
Heating 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
O: Reference (conventional studs, additional

kWh/ma
Madrid
insulation 80 mm, U-Value 0.25 W/mK,
-10 London
80% opaque faade, 20% window)
TS: Thermoprofils, additional insulation 80 mm,
U-Value 0.20 W/mK, 80% opaque faade, -15
20% window
-20
O TS
Heating 0
Berlin
-5 Helsinki
O: Reference (conventional studs, additional

kWh/ma
Madrid
insulation 80 mm, U-Value 0.25 W/mK,
-10 London
50% opaque faade, 50% window)
TS: Thermoprofils, additional insulation 80 mm,
U-Value 0.20 W/mK, 50% opaque faade, -15
50% window
-20
O TS

Availability and exemplary projects

The themal studs are available; numerous projects have been constructed.

Designer / Manufacturer
Ruukki (Fin)

132
B6. Steel-glass facades

Description of the system

Steel-glass facades as transparent double skin systems are used as an active faade to temper the effects
of the outside climate and respond to the requirements of the indoor climate. This active faade offers
adjustable U- and g-values depending upon the season.

A double ventilated faade is a multi-layered faade, consisting of an external screen and an internal
screen connected by a ventilated cavity. The ventilation rate and the cavity depth can vary, depending
on environmental conditions and performance requirements.

The ventilation in the cavity can be natural (buoyancy driven), forced (mechanically driven) or mixed
(both systems). The cavity can be connected to the exterior or the interior of the building or both,
depending on the system. The cavity can also be extended between storeys or only one. In this latter
case, each storey has its own cavity with its dependent ventilation process. The way the airflow is
generated and its direction in the cavity is important.

A solar shading device is generally installed in the cavity and the inner screen can be opened for
cleaning and maintenance. Depending on the system design, an inner screen can also be opened to
allow natural ventilation. A double faade therefore has the potential to reduce the amount of solar
radiation and daylight entering the building by means of effective solar control systems and facilitates
natural ventilation where it may otherwise be difficult to achieve (for instance a noisy location). The
possibility of controlling daylight in combination with an automatic adjustment for the artificial
lighting offers increased comfort and energy savings.

Architectural implications
The visual effect of a double skin faade used as an energy reducing measure is significant. Therefore
there must be a wide range of panels available which differ in structure, texture and colour. This
expands the market and encourages architects to incorporate a double skin from the beginning of the
design process. This is essential for a thorough integration of the faade system into the overall building
design.

Figure 149 : Various types of double skin envelopes

Potential energy savings

Accurate design of double-faades in steel-glass is needed to obtain an energy efficient solution. Since
many parameters influence the performance of these facades, it is recommended that specialists are
used to carry out the necessary detailed numerical calculations.

The energy savings result froms the following aspects:

natural night cooling, without safety problems (weather, crime)
replacement of mechanical ventilation

133
A determination of the energy saving is only possible for a specific project because these systems are
very sensitive to a number of parameters.

Availability and exemplary projects

Many buildings with transparent double facades have been constructed in recent years.

Designer / Manufacturer
Various producers deliver components for steel-glass-facades (e.g. Jansen, CH)

134
CONCLUSIONS

The first part of the project was concerned with technologies for innovative products and systems.
Existing systems and concepts were studied, and an understanding of their basic physical performance
developed. During the course of the project, regulations concerning the energy performance of
buildings have changed dramatically. When the project started, the thermal performance of buildings
was calculated according to EN832 and prEN ISO 13790, which only took into account the heating
demand. Calculations carried out early in the project were in accordance with these regulations.
However, as the project progressed, national and European regulations changed and EN ISO
13790:2005 now requires optimisation of the energy requirements for cooling as well as heating in
buildings. Therefore, additional numerical simulations were performed to take into account the new
requirements for cooling in buildings. Further new EU legislation will require the energy needed for
lighting to be taken into account.

For office buildings in most climates, more energy is needed to cool a building than to heat it. The
innovative floor systems studied can make a significant contribution to reducing the energy required to
cool a building. On the other hand, envelope systems like double-skin roofs and facades or solar energy
systems can successfully reduce direct heat losses and create opportunities for renewable energy.
Therefore, potential energy savings exist for both heating and cooling.

The second part of the project was concerned with evaluating the performance of floors, envelope
systems and the whole building. Estimates of potential energy saving for typical steel buildings as a
function of climatic conditions were made. These investigations led to the establishment of design
strategies and a Design Guide for energy efficient steel buildings.

This RFCS project is the first of its kind ever achieved in the field of energy efficiency of steel
structures. Further research is clearly necessary in order to develop standardised calculation methods for
optimising steel building solutions. It is important that the energy performance of steel solutions is
continuously improved in order to esnure that steel solutions perform well in the simplified calculation
methods contained in new European legislation such as prEN 15203.

Air-tightness is another important aspect of energy efficiency of specific interest to steel construction
(faades and roofs in particular) needing further work. Other aspects worthy of study are moisture
control through effective vapour barriers, control of thermal bridging and the performance of steel-glass
interfaces.

An important market for steel products in the construction sector are the industrial buildings. In the
past, the regulations regarding energy efficiency of these buildings were reduced to a limitation of the
transmittance heat losses, in the future complex user profiles covering internal loads, set point
temperatures, illumination level etc. has to be considered. The knowledge of these procedures combined
with testing and improvemts of steel products for this market is a prospective challenge. Beside the
industrial buildings further improvements for the steel-glass-architecture is needed. Several aspects
were highlighted in EEBIS, but it is obvious, that these sophisticated tasks have to be deepen to enhance
the acceptance of this building types in the future.

135
EXPLOITATION AND IMPACT OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS

The project has investigated the performance of energy efficient structural solutions such as water and
air-cooled floors, and double skin roofs. These technologies can be exploited by steel companies at a
European level and are close to practical and economic realisation. It is very important that the steel
industry actively develops these new products and systems.

Publications / conference presentations resulting from the project:

- M. Kuhnhenne, G. Sedlacek ; Improved energy performance of buildings using steel elements;
10th Nordic steel construction conference, Copenhagen, 2004.
- B. Dring, M. Kuhnhenne, G. Sedlacek; Improvement of thermal comfort in light weight
buildings made of steel with new concepts for slab systems; 10th Nordic steel construction
conference, Copenhagen, 2004.
- Juha Jokisalo, Jarek Kurnitski. Performance of EN ISO 13790 Utilisation Factor Heat Demand
Calculation Method in a Cold Climate, Energy and Buildings, 39, 2007, pp. 236-247
- Jokisalo Juha, Jarek Kurnitski. The Effect of Thermal Inertia and Building Type on heat
Demand in a Cold Climate - Comparison to the Monthly method EN ISO 13790. Healthy
Buildings 2006, June 4-8, 2006, Lisboa, Proceedings, Vol 5. pp. 253-258.
- B. Dring, M. Feldmann, M. Kuhnhenne; An innovative thermally activated light-weight steel
deck system numerical investigations and practical tests; WellBeing Indoors - Clima 2007
congress, Helsinki, 2007
- Y. Spasov, B. Dring A. Griffin; Exploiting the thermal mass in an energy efficient building a
comparison exercise between IES Apache and TRNSYS models; WellBeing Indoors - Clima
2007 congress, Helsinki, 2007

136
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 : Summary of Work Packages and Activities ............................................................................. 5

Figure 2 : Air-cooled floor based on Slimdek ........................................................................................... 7
Figure 3 : Cooling pipes integrated in floor slab ....................................................................................... 8
Figure 4 : VISP in diagrammatic form .................................................................................................... 10
Figure 5 : Junction in Sandwich Element Construction .......................................................................... 11
Figure 6 : Construction............................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 7 : Test rig on the floor, showing the ducting arrangements........................................................ 18
Figure 8 : Temperature variations during four summer days .................................................................. 18
Figure 9 : Solid model and mesh of half a rib in ..................................................................................... 19
Figure 10 : Reduced model of ACS for use with whole building energy simulations a) hc for different
flow rates b) comparison between predictions for single room model of ACS from Apache,
experimental and CFD data. The flow rate is 120 l/s........................................................... 19
Figure 11 : Illustration of the representative building and the dummy rooms used for the ACS............ 20
Figure 12 : Performance of the ACS in the representative building during the cooling period for the case
of mechanical ventilation only. The data shown corresponds to an internal office a)
temperature during the first 500h after the beginning of the cooling period (1 April) b)
working hours for which the temperature exceeds a specified value................................... 20
Figure 13 : Energy required for cooling in the sample building for the period Apr-Sep ........................ 21
Figure 14 : Plan of demonstration building............................................................................................. 21
Figure 15 : Possible elevational treatment of the demonstration building .............................................. 22
Figure 16 : Day cooling........................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 17 : Night cooling of slab............................................................................................................. 23
Figure 18 : Heating regime...................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 19 : Natural plus buoyancy driven ventilation ............................................................................. 24
Figure 20 : Detail of air core below......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 21 : Reference module, floor plan................................................................................................ 25
Figure 22 : Reference module, section .................................................................................................... 25
Figure 23 : Reference module, active elements....................................................................................... 25
Figure 24 : Airflow through active trough (ventilation mode) ................................................................ 26
Figure 25 : Whole building (representative part) .................................................................................... 27
Figure 26 : Zoning of whole building...................................................................................................... 27
Figure 27 : Whole building, Var 1 Temperatures for hot period (TA ambient temperature, TRS room
temperature Zone South, TRN room temperature Zone North)........................................... 28
Figure 28 : Whole building, Var 3 Temperatures for hot period (TA ambient temperature, TRS room
temperature Zone South, TRN room temperature Zone North, TZU inlet air temperature
through ACS)....................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 29 : Whole building, Var 4 Temperatures for hot period (TA ambient temperature, TRS room
temperature Zone South, TRN room temperature Zone North)........................................... 29
Figure 30 : Whole building hours over set C during occupied hours ................................................. 29
Figure 31 : Deep deck profile.................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 32 : Trapezoidal profile................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 33 : Re-entrant profile .................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 34 : Cassette floor decking........................................................................................................... 31
Figure 35 : Temperature profile .............................................................................................................. 32
Figure 36 : Water distribution and cooling through CHS/SHS columns, plan and sections ................... 33
Figure 37 : Water distribution and cooling through CHS/SHS columns, isometric view of slab ........... 33
Figure 38 : Long span Slimdek showing pipework layout and RHS beam, plan and sections ............... 34
Figure 39 : Long span Slimdek showing pipework layout and RHS beam, Isometric view of slab ....... 35
Figure 40 : Connection detail in RHS beam to SHS column in water-cooled structures ........................ 36
Figure 41 : Laser-welded steel sandwich panel system (panel, assembly in demonstration building
RWTH Aachen, principle of complete deck system, available dimensions)....................... 36
Figure 42 : LSP system with steel pipes for heating /cooling (steel pipes implemented in shop) .......... 37
Figure 43 : LSP system, FEM-model without and with insulation / floor plate...................................... 37

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Figure 44 : LSP system, FEM-results without and with insulation / floor plate ..................................... 37
Figure 45 : Cooling capacity LSP system, comparison to other cooling ceilings (closed constructions,
Form A: perforated metal cassettes, Form B: capillary pipes in plaster, Form C: capillary
pipes in perforated cassettes, Form D: aluminium cassettes with copper pipes, Reference:
Recknagel / Sprenger).......................................................................................................... 38
Figure 46 : Geometrics for thermal analysis of composite slabs............................................................. 39
Figure 47 : Heat flow for each slab type ................................................................................................. 40
Figure 48 : Temperature distribution in flat tray composite slab ............................................................ 40
Figure 49 : Metal roofing ........................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 50 : Comparison between stainless steel roof, AluZn roof and BUU roof .................................. 45
Figure 51 : Difference of temperature ..................................................................................................... 46
Figure 52 : Transmitted heat flux ............................................................................................................ 46
Figure 53 : Idea of faade solar air collector system............................................................................... 47
Figure 54 : Faade solar air collector with mechanical exhaust ventilation............................................ 48
Figure 55 : Supply air is controlled with a mechanical damper/grid (left). Supply air with an auxiliary
fan and collecting air duct (right)......................................................................................... 49
Figure 56 : Outdoor temperature, supply air temperature after passing the faade solar air collectors
when the collectors are placed on the south and west faades. The air flow through the
faade solar collectors is 5.6 l/s,m2 solar faade. ........................................................................ 49
Figure 57 : Supply and exhaust ventilation with faade solar wall can be either mechanically or
automatically controlled. Supply air can be heated according to different options. M
indicates motorised damper and T temperature measurement............................................. 50
Figure 58 : Principle of a supply air chamber. ........................................................................................ 51
Figure 59 : Sketch of the problem (a) and model (b). Temperature field (c) .......................................... 52
Figure 60 : Performance of the Solar "air - steel sheet" heating system, 0.1m of "solar wall". Outlet
temperature (a) and efficiency (b). An estimation of the amount of useful heat during the
year for London (c) .............................................................................................................. 53
Figure 61 : Roof integrated PV system. The PV panels are directly laminated onto a standing seam steel
roof....................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 62 : Principles of the solar integrated ventilation heating system................................................ 55
Figure 63 : Exploded view of the solar integrated ventilation heating system........................................ 56
Figure 64 : Temperature variations in the air collector system on a spring day. The temperature of the
flow to ventilation unit was measured from the air duct in front of the ventilation machine.
............................................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 65 : Efficiency of the solar air system according to measurements at VTTs test house.
Approximately 10 20% of the solar energy on the collector surface can be used for
heating the test building with required air exchange rate of 0,5 1/h corresponding to 44 l/s
for the test house. ................................................................................................................. 57
Figure 66 : Roof integrated solar air collector of Villa 2000. The collector channels have a perforated
sheet steel end fitting. The total area of perforations is approximately 10% of the channel
area. The end fitting creates a pressure difference that provides a uniform flow of air in the
whole channel system. ......................................................................................................... 57
Figure 67 : Roof integrated solar air collector of Villa 2000. ................................................................. 58
Figure 68 : VISP in diagrammatic form .................................................................................................. 58
Figure 69 : A 300x900mm VIP panel undergoing 4-Point Bending ....................................................... 59
Figure 70 : Test 1 Deflection limit of L/250 @ 0.173kN..................................................................... 60
Figure 71 : Test 6 Deflection limit of L/250 @ 0.124kN..................................................................... 60
Figure 72 : A 300x600mm panel undergoing uniformly distributed loading.......................................... 61
Figure 73 : Principle of curtain wall........................................................................................................ 63
Figure 74 : Section curtain wall in steel (fixed window, Source Janssen) .............................................. 64
Figure 75 : Section curtain wall in aluminium (fixed window, Source Technal).................................... 64
Figure 76 : Steel frame, graphical result ................................................................................................. 65
Figure 77 : Aluminium frame, graphical result ....................................................................................... 65
Figure 78 : Corner, Steel configuration................................................................................................... 65
Figure 79 : Corner, Aluminium configuration ........................................................................................ 65
Figure 80 : Lightweight Steel-framed Construction................................................................................ 67
Figure 81 : Sandwich Element Construction........................................................................................... 67

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Figure 82 : FE-Model .............................................................................................................................. 67
Figure 83 : Temperature Distribution...................................................................................................... 67
Figure 84 : Heat Flux Distribution .......................................................................................................... 67
Figure 85 : UTB with Standard Details .................................................................................................. 70
Figure 86 : UTB with Enhanced Details................................................................................................. 70
Figure 87 : Transmission heat losses HT through plane elements and junctions (Standard Details)....... 70
Figure 88 : Transmission heat losses HT through plane elements and junctions (Enhanced Details) ..... 70
Figure 89 : Steel beams penetrating thermal insulation (numerical investigation) ................................. 71
Figure 90 : Steel beams penetrating thermal insulation (experimental investigation) ............................ 71
Figure 91 : Examples of Buildings with a high proportion of glazing [24] ............................................ 73
Figure 92 : Double skin faade in glass................................................................................................... 74
Figure 93 : Result CFD-calculation, intermediate period........................................................................ 75
Figure 94 : Result CFD-calculation, summer period............................................................................... 75
Figure 95 : Air flow through double facades, variation of internal and external opening [21]............... 75
Figure 96 : Development of energy performance requirements (Germany) ........................................... 76
Figure 97 : Building types for further investigations .............................................................................. 78
Figure 98 : The reference zone concept .................................................................................................. 78
Figure 99 : Reference zone concept variation of different parameters (window size, orientation, depth
of building, thermal inertia of deck system) ........................................................................ 79
Figure 100 : Characteristics of European climates.................................................................................. 80
Figure 101 : Representative zone of the office building for benchmark tests ......................................... 83
Figure 102 : Results One-Family House Net energy use for heating ................................................... 87
Figure 103 : Results Apartment Building Net energy use for heating ................................................. 87
Figure 104 : Results Office Building Net energy use for heating ........................................................ 87
Figure 105 : Results One-Family House Variation of location and performance ................................ 88
Figure 106 : Results One-Family House Variation of energy efficiency of heating system, basis:
medium performance Building in Berlin ............................................................................. 89
Figure 107 : Impact of window size as a percentage of the facade ......................................................... 90
Figure 108 : Impact of window size: heating energy demand................................................................. 90
Figure 109 : Impact of orientation........................................................................................................... 91
Figure 110 : Impact of orientation:, heating energy demand .................................................................. 91
Figure 111 : Impact of room depth.......................................................................................................... 92
Figure 112 : Impact of room depth: heating energy demand .................................................................. 92
Figure 113 : Impact of thermal inertia..................................................................................................... 93
Figure 114 : Impact of thermal inertia: heating energy demand ............................................................. 93
Figure 115 : Impact of Thermal inertia (Cooling energy demand for different climates -...................... 94
Figure 116 : Impact of Thermal inertia (Max. Temperature, no mechanical cooling) ............................ 94
Figure 117 : Comparison of cooling energy demand, thermo-active LSP vs. conventional cooling ...... 95
Figure 118 : Comparison of slab systems (Cooling energy demand for different climates, low interior
load) ..................................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 119 : Comparison of slab systems (Cooling energy demand for different climates, medium
interior load) ........................................................................................................................ 96
Figure 120 : Comparison of slab systems (Cooling energy demand for different climates, high interior
load) ..................................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 121 : Reference cell for investigating a double skin roof ............................................................ 97
Figure 122 : Cooling energy demand per m of the reference cell, with various ventilated roofing
options.................................................................................................................................. 97
Figure 123 : Cooling energy demand (relative to that with a conventional flat roof) of the reference cell,
variation of air velocity for Aluzinc..................................................................................... 98
Figure 124 : Cooling energy demand (relative to that with a conventional flat roof) of the reference cel;,
variation of air velocity for stainless steel ........................................................................... 98
Figure 125 : Reference cell for investigation of U-Value ....................................................................... 99
Figure 126 : Optimisation of U-Value using VIP: reduction in heating energy demand ........................ 99
Figure 127 : Optimisation of U-Value using VIP, relative reduction of heating energy demand ........... 99
Figure 128 : Optimisation of U-Value using VIP: reduction of heating energy demand (window
fraction 20%) ..................................................................................................................... 100

139
Figure 129 : Optimisation of U-Value using VIP: relative reduction of heating energy demand (window
fraction 20%) ..................................................................................................................... 100
Figure 130 : The simulated building ..................................................................................................... 101
Figure 131 : A plan of the simulated (3rd) floor. The simulated zone is outlined by dots ..................... 101
Figure 132 : The floor plan of the simulation model. The bi-directional leakage openings between the
zones and the environment are marked with an arrow....................................................... 101
Figure 133 : Annual total specific consumption with different air leak rate (n50 = 0.3 l/h) .................. 104
Figure 134 : Annual total specific consumption with the balanced or the mechanical exhaust ventilation
system. Air leak rate of the building is n50 = 1.3 l/h......................................................... 106
Figure 135 : European climates (locations used for exemplary calculations) ....................................... 113
Figure 136 : Internal loads, residential and office ................................................................................. 113
Figure 137 : ACS incorporated into SlimDek ....................................................................................... 116
Figure 138 : Water-cooled composite decks ......................................................................................... 118
Figure 139 : LSP steel deck system (panel, assembling, principle complete deck system, available
dimensions)........................................................................................................................ 120
Figure 140 : LSP with steel pipes for heating /cooling ......................................................................... 120
Figure 141 : Composite deck systems ................................................................................................... 122
Figure 142 : Ventilated Double Skin Roof............................................................................................ 123
Figure 143 : Unglazed transpired collector (UTC)................................................................................ 125
Figure 144 : Principle of roof solar air collector ................................................................................... 127
Figure 145 : Demonstration project Roof solar air collector ............................................................. 128
Figure 146 : Vacuum-insulation panel in curtain wall .......................................................................... 129
Figure 147 : Residential building using vacuum-insulation (Variotec, D)............................................ 130
Figure 148 : Thermal studs in external wall .......................................................................................... 131
Figure 149 : Various types of double skin envelopes............................................................................ 133

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 : Variations for reference module............................................................................................... 26

Table 2 : Results reference module ......................................................................................................... 26
Table 3 : Summary of variations ............................................................................................................. 27
Table 4 : Results for whole building ....................................................................................................... 29
Table 5 : Design Parameters.................................................................................................................... 34
Table 6 : Specific Capacity, taken from numerical calculations (ti = 26C, tw = 18C).......................... 38
Table 7 : Results summary in terms of heat absorbency (W/m2 surface area) ........................................ 41
Table 8 : Energy efficient floor options .................................................................................................. 41
Table 9 : Radiative properties of various sheets (test results) ................................................................. 44
Table 10 : Temperature of external sheet, deping on material ................................................................ 45
Table 11 : Results mechanical tests of VIP ............................................................................................. 61
Table 12 : DERPI project results............................................................................................................. 62
Table 13 : Overview U-Values of infills ................................................................................................. 64
Table 14 : U-Value of frames.................................................................................................................. 64
Table 15 : Linear thermal bridges ........................................................................................................... 64
Table 16 : Linear thermal bridges, corner ............................................................................................... 65
Table 17 : Classification of thermal bridges............................................................................................ 68
Table 18 : Junctions and -values according to [19].............................................................................. 69
Table 19 : Advantages and tasks of steel-glass-architecture concerning energy performance ............... 74
Table 20 : Reference values for thermal transmittance of envelope components [23] ........................... 77
Table 21 : Tools for Thermal Building Simulation of different partners ................................................ 82
Table 22 : Thermal transmission coefficients ......................................................................................... 84
Table 23 : Thermal transmission area One-Family House ................................................................... 85
Table 24 : Thermal transmission area Apartment Building ................................................................. 85
Table 25 : Thermal transmission area Office Building ........................................................................ 85
Table 26 : Design parameters .................................................................................................................. 85
Table 27 : Air change rate (standardised calculations)............................................................................ 86
Table 28 : Energy efficiency of heating system (standardised calculations, One-Family-House).......... 86

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Table 29 : Results without influence of climatic conditions ................................................................... 86
Table 30 : Results with influence of climatic conditions ........................................................................ 86
Table 31 : Annual specific energy consumption ................................................................................... 102
Table 32 : The building structure variables in the simulations.............................................................. 103
Table 33 : Annual heat energy and electric consumption of the house in all the simulated cases ........ 105
Table 34 : Application of building components .................................................................................... 108
Table 35 : Energy saving potential (per m ground surface, exceptions: roof systems and faade
collector per m faade / roof)............................................................................................ 109
Table 36 : Cost effectiveness................................................................................................................. 110
Table 37 : Application of Building components ................................................................................... 114
Table 38 : Specific Capacity, taken from numerical calculations (boundary conditions: RAL 964, mean
water temperature: 18 C, room temperature: 26 C) ........................................................ 121

141
LIST OF REFERENCES

[1] Bjrsell, N; Bring, A; Eriksson, L; Grozman, P; Lindgren, M; Sahlin, P; Shapovalov, A;

Vuolle, M (1999). IDA Indoor Climate and Energy. Proceedings of the IBPSA Building
Simulation 99 conference, Kyoto, Japan.
[2] Chartered Institution of Building Service Engineers (2005) Energy Consumption Guide 19:
Energy Use in Offices, http://www.cibse.org/pdfs/ECG019.pdf
[3] Corus Construction Centre (2006). Slimdek Manual, Corus Construction Centre
[4] Finnish Society of Indoor Air Quality (FiSIAQ). (2001). Classification of Indoor Climate
2000, Publication 5 E. Espoo, Finland.
[5] Isanska-Cwiek, Agnieszka, Corus RD&T (2005). Preliminary experimental research onto
the performance of the air cooled slab system, internal report.
[6] Jokisalo, J; Kurnitski, J (2005). Effect of the Thermal Inertia and Other HVACFactors on
Energy Performance and Thermal Comfort in Finnish Apartment Buildings, Helsinki
University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Report B79.
[7] Koivuniemi, J (2005). Lmpimn kyttveden mitoitusvirtaama ja lmptilakriteerit veden
mikrobiologisen laadun kannalta kaukolmmitetyiss asuinrakennuksissa. Diplomity.
Teknillinen korkeakoulu, LVI-tekniikan laboratorio, Espoo. 83 p. (in Finnish)
[8] Ministry of the Environment (2003) D2 Finnish Code of Building Regulations: Indoor
Climate and Ventilation of Buildings, Regulations and Guidelines, Helsinki.
[9] Ministry of the Environment. (2003) C4 Finnish Code of Building Regulations: Thermal
Insulation, Guidelines, Helsinki.
[10] Ogden R. G; Kendrick C (2000). Improved Systems for Energy Efficiency in Steel
Construction, SCI report to Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions
and Corus.
[11] Shalin, P (1996). Modelling and simulation methods for modular continuous system in
buildings, Doctoral Dissertation. KTH, Stockholm.
[12] Spasov Y., Corus RD&T (2003). Numerical Simulation of an Air-Core System, internal
report.
[13] Standard SFS-EN ISO 13790. (2004). Thermal performance of buildings Calculation of
energy use for space heating. 63 p.
[14] Tammelin, B. Erki, E. 1987. Energialaskennan stiedot suomalainen testivuosi
(Weather data for energy calculation The Finnish test-year, Finnish Meteorological
Institute, Weather department Technical climatology. Report 7. Helsinki. 108 p. (in
Finnish).
[15] Practical guide for the hygrothermal evaluation of thermal bridges, SAVE-KOPRACTICE
Document, prepared by P. Wouters, J. Schietecat, P. Staendert, 2003
[16] Development of Dry Composite Construction Systems Based on Steel, ECSC-Project
7210-PR-115, Final Report
[17] DRYCONDIS- Dissemination of the knowledge in the use of steel intensive dry
construction systems in housing, RFS-C2-04036, Final Report
[18] European Lightweight Steel-framed Construction, Publication of the European Light Steel
Association (LSK), www.easysteel.info
[19] Kingspan Insulated Roof and Wall Systems: Approved Construction Details for Part L2
(England and Wales) and Part J (Scotland), 2002
[20] www.schoeck.de
[21] Ziller, C. (1999). Modellversuche und Berechnungen zur Optimierung der natrlichen
Lftung durch Doppelfassaden (PhD-Thesis), RWTH Aachen, Germany, 1999
[22] Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Action Plan to
improve energy efficiency in the European Community (COM/2000/0247)

143
[23] TEBUC Towards an European Building final report. Research funded by DG TREN of
the European Commission in the framework of the SAVE Programme (Contract N
C/4.1031/C/00-018/2000 ENPER-TEBUC) 01/04/2001 - 30/09/2002
[24] W. Eicke-Hennig; Im Schwitzkasten, Glasarchitektur Lehren aus einem Groversuch, db
5/2004, pp. 77-89
[25] European Commission. 2005, Steel in residential buildings for adaptable and sustainable
construction, Technical steel research, ECSC-project 7215-PP/058
[26] Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2002
on the energy performance of buildings, Official Journal of the European Communities
[27] www.enper.org
[28] EEBIS - Energy efficient building through innovative systems in steel, RFS-CR-03017,
Six-monthly report, Period 1 July 2005 to 31 December 2005

144
APPENDICE - DISTRIBUTED DOCUMENTS DURING THE RESEARCH EEBIS

EEBIS-X Title, partner, date

EEBIS-0 Research Fund for Coal and Steel, MODEL CONTRACT, Research, Pilot and
Demonstration Projects and accompanying measures for the promotion of the use of
knowledge gained, PARE, sent 19/01/04
EEBIS-1 Technical annex of the EEBIS contract, PARE, email 03/09/03
EEBIS-2 PARE presentation, PARE, 5/11/03
EEBIS-3 RDCS presentation, RDCS, 5/11/03
EEBIS-4 Labein presentation, Labein, 5/11/03
EEBIS-5 SCI presentation, SCI, 5/11/03
EEBIS-6a Action plan to improve energy efficiency in the European Community, Communication
from the European Commission, com(2000) 247 final, PARE, 5/11/03
-6b Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the energy
performance of buildings, COM (2001) 226 final, PARE, 5/11/03
EEBIS-7a Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December
2002 on the energy performance of buildings, PARE, 5/11/03
-7b The energy Performance of Building Directive, A summary of its objectives and contents
PARE, 5/11/03
EEBIS-8 RWTH presentation, 5/11/03
EEBIS-9 Corus presentation, 5/11/03.
EEBIS-10 Practical guide for the hygrothermal evaluation of thermal bridges, a SAVE-
KOPRACTICE-project document, prepared by P. Wouters (BBRI), J. Schietecat (BBRI),
P. Standaert (Physibel),RAU, email 12/12/03.
EEBIS-11a Benchmark tests for numerical simulations, RWTH, email 22/12/03.
-11b TRYTEST.dat file including climatic data, RWTH, email 22/12/03.
EEBIS-12 Summary of software of thermal modelling codes, PARE, email 07/01/04,
updates:16/09/04
EEBIS-13 Minutes of the 1st meeting (Esch/Alzette), PARE, email 07/01/04.
EEBIS-14 Semestrial Report n1, PARE, email 09/03/04.
EEBIS-15a Energy Efficient Buildings - Case examples of buildings in the UK
-15b Energy efficient flooring systems Possible methods, SCI, email 23/01/04, updates:
email 06/04/04, meeting Helsinki16/09/04
EEBIS-16 SCI presentation, SCI, 11/03/04
EEBIS-17a The integrated Arup Campus, SCI, 11/03/04
-17b Wessex Operations Centre, SCI, 11/03/04
EEBIS-18 Labein presentation WP1, 11/03/04
EEBIS-19 RWTH presentation WP1, 11/03/04
EEBIS-20 RDCS presentation WP2, 11/03/04
EEBIS-21 RAUTARUUKKI presentation, 11/03/04
EEBIS-22 Solar thermal collectors, state of the art and further development, RDCS, 11/03/04
EEBIS-23 PROFILARBED presentation WP1, WP2, WP3, 12/03/04
EEBIS-24 Labein presentation Spanish thermal regulations, 12/03/04
EEBIS 25 Finnish thermal regulations, RAU, 12/03/04, updated 17/03/04
EEBIS-26 Corus presentation Dutch thermal regulations & Benchmarks results, 12/03/04
EEBIS-27a Notes on UK Implementation of Regulations for Conservation of Energy in Buildings,
SCI, 12/03/04
-27b A Review of recent and proposed UK and EU Legislation on Energy Efficiency in the
Built Environment, SCI, 12/03/04
EEBIS-28a RDCS presentation: Thermal and energy regulations in FR and BE

145
 -28b Kyoto targets
-28c Belgian and French thermal regulations
-28d Belgian climate data
-28e Benchmark tests for numerical calculations
-28f case study
RDCS, meeting 12/03/04, updates: email 13/04/04
EEBIS-29 European Standard, RWTH, 12/03/04
EEBIS 30 WP3 - Energy performance of buildings, German regulations & results of benchmarks,
RWTH, 12/03/04
EEBIS-31 WP3 Assessment Tools for Whole Building Energy Performance Benchmarks
results, Labein, 12/03/04
EEBIS-32 Minutes of the 2d meeting (Bilbao), PARE, email 22/03/04, correction 19/10/04
EEBIS-33 Deck profiles in composite construction, SCI, 16/09/04
EEBIS-34 ARCELOR database for composite slabs, PARE, 16/09/04
EEBIS-35a Benchmark test for standardised calculations, RWTH, email 23/06/04
-35b U-values for benchmark tests, RWTH, email 01/07/04
-35c Dimensions of exterior elements, RWTH, email 01/07/04
-35d Benchmark test for standardised calculations, Requirements and calculations according
to procedure applied in Germany, RWTH, draft 17/09/04
EEBIS-36 Table for national thermal regulations, RWTH, draft, hard copy 17/09/04
EEBIS-37 Annex X Guidelines for technical reporting, PARE, email 09/09/04
EEBIS-38 PARE presentation, 17/09/04
EEBIS-39 WP1 Numerical investigation of Thermo-active slabs, RWTH presentation, 17/09/04
EEBIS-40 Classification of double skin systems, RDCS, 17/09/04
EEBIS-41 Inventory of solar energy systems, RDCS, 17/09/04
EEBIS-42 WP2 Solar energy systems, RWTH presentation, 17/09/04
EEBIS-43 WP3 Energy performance of buildings, RWTH presentation, 17/09/04
EEBIS-44 PARE report for FEM Benchmark tests, 24/08/04
EEBIS-45 Semestrial report RUUKKI, 14/09/04
EEBIS-46 CORUS presentation, 16&17/09/04
EEBIS-47a WP1 Semestrial report LABEIN contribution (DOC file), 23/09/04
-47b WP3 Semestrial report LABEIN contribution (DOC file), 23/09/04
EEBIS-48 Semestrial report (01/01/2004 30/06/2004), PARE, 24/09/04
EEBIS-49 Solar and thermal properties of double envelope facades, RUUKKI, 25/10/04
EEBIS-50 Minutes of the 3d co-ordination meeting (Helsinki), PARE, email 26/10/04
EEBIS-51 The Ionoca Building, Cambridge, UK, SCI, QuickPlace 13/02/2004
EEBIS-52 PARE presentation, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-53 SCI presentation, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-54 Description of a new AIR-COOLED slab system based on Slimdek, SCI, 03/03/05
EEBIS-55 New tests on AIR-COOLED slabs, SCI, 03/03/05
EEBIS-56 UK and European legislation - Energy efficient buildings Case examples (Detailed
information), SCI, 03/03/05
EEBIS-57 Corus presentation, WP1, WP2, WP3 contributions, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-58 RWTH presentation, Contributions WP1&2, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-59 Effect of the thermal inertia of structures on energy performance in Finnish apartment
buildings (PDF format), RUUKKI, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-60 RDCS presentation, VISP concept, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-61 RUUKKI presentation, Energy saving opportunities of integrated ventilation wall
system, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-62 Calculating the overall performance of a building using a reference cell (hard copy),
Cepezed, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05

146
EEBIS-63 RWTH presentation, Results of benchmark test Thermal building simulation ,
meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-64 RWTH presentation, Energy performance of buildings, meeting Lige 3&4/03/05
EEBIS-65 Mid-term report (1/9/03 - *+/12/04), PARE, QuickPlace 22/04/05
EEBIS-66 TGS8 presentation May 2005, PARE, QuickPlace, 16/06/05
EEBIS-66bis Minutes of the 4th co-ordination meeting (Lige), PARE, QuickPlace 13/06/05
EEBIS-67a Cepezed Office description, CEPEZED, QuickPlace, 27/07/05
-67b Cepezed Office Energy Use, CEPEZED, QuickPlace, 27/07/05
EEBIS-68a Remarks PARE concerning prEN 15203, PARE, e-mail, 11/08/05 + EEBIS-68b, c,
-68d Draft prEN 15203, PARE, e-mail, 29/07/05
EEBIS-69 PARE presentation Administrative Matters, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-70 Program Bar Chart - June 2005, PARE, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-71 Tasks and Work Progress June 2005, PARE, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
-71b Work Progress Table February 2006, PARE, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06
EEBIS-72 SCI presentation WP1 & WP2, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-73 Corus presentation WP1 & WP2, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-74 RWTH presentation WP1.2 - Water cooled floors, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-75 RUUKKI presentation (PDF format) Effect of the thermal inertia of structures on
energy performance in Finnish apartment buildings, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-76 Effect of the thermal inertia and other building and HVAC factors on energy
performance and thermal comfort in Finnish apartment buildings Report of Helsinki
University of Technology, RUUKKI, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-77 Comments on Draft ISO 13790, RUUKKI, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-78 WP2 Ventilated and anti-radiative double skinned roof (DOC format), RDCS, meeting
Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-79 WP2 Thermal characteristics of envelope components (DOC format), RDCS, meeting
Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-80 Monitoring MP - Rapport 19-05-2005 - RDCS (PDF format), meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-81 RUUKKI presentation WP2.3 Energy saving opportunities of integrated ventilation
wall system behind steel plate cladding, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-82 WP2.3 Energy saving opportunities of integrated ventilation wall system behind steel
plate cladding Literature research, report of Tampere University of Technology (PDF
format), RUUKKI, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-83 RWTH presentation WP2.3 Solarwall - References and Calculations, meeting Aachen
1&2/09/05
EEBIS-84 Table of elements for the various types of buildings, ALL PARTNERS, meeting Aachen
1&2/09/05
EEBIS-85 RWTH presentation WP2.4 Super Insulated Cladding Systems, meeting Aachen
1&2/09/05
EEBIS-86 RWTH presentation WP2.5 Thermal Bridging, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-87 Technical information on Schck Isokorb system for steel connections (WP2.5 Thermal
Bridging), PARE, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-88 Cepezed presentation WP3.1 Assessment Tools for Building Performance, meeting
Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-89 RWTH presentation Development of a Reference Cell, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-90 RWTH presentation WP3.2 Tools for Overall Building Energy Performance, meeting
Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-91 RWTH presentation WP3.3 Overall Energy Performance, meeting Aachen 1&2/09/05
EEBIS-92a Six-monthly report (01/01/05 30/06/05), PARE
EEBIS-92b Minutes of the 5th coordination meeting (Aachen), PARE, email, 25/11/05
EEBIS-93 WP1.2 : Concept study : Water-Cooling using tubular structure, SCI, meeting Ascot
16&17/02/06.

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EEBIS-94 WP1.3 - Thermal analysis of typical composite slabs over a daily heating and cooling
cycle, SCI, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-95 WP3 Draft of Conference paper: The effect of thermal inertia and building type on
heat demand in a cold climate - Comparison to monthly method EN ISO 13790,
Helsinki University of Technology, J. Jokisalo, J. Kurnitski, RUUKKI, meeting Ascot
16&17/02/06.
95b WP3 - Implementation of EN13790 calculation method for utilization factor of internal
heat gains in Finland, RUUKKI presentation, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-96 PARE presentation, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-97 SCI presentation: SCI/Corus building, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-98 WP1.1 - Overview of the methodology of the work carried on the ACS prototype,
CORUS presentation, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-99 WP2.3 - Study of solar walls - numerical simulations, RUUKKI presentation, meeting
Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-100 WP2.3 - Feasibility study of the integrated ventilation wall system behind steel plate
cladding, CORUS presentation, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-101 WP2.3 - SolarWall - References and calculations, RWTH presentation, meeting Ascot
16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-102 WP3 - Energy performance of buildings according to DIN V 18599, RWTH presentation,
meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-103b WP3 - Reference Cell - Results of thermal calculations, RWTH presentation, meeting
Ascot 16&17/02/06, updated meeting Brussels 1&2/06/06.
EEBIS-104 WP3 - Reference cell properties and boundaries, CEPEZED paper, meeting Ascot
16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-105 WP3 - Assessment tools for whole building energy performance, LABEIN
presentation, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-106 WP4.1 - Design guide : Design strategies and design guidance for steel structures,
CEPEZED presentation, meeting Ascot 16&17/02/06.
EEBIS-107 Minutes of the 6th coordination meeting (16&17 February in Ascot), PARE, email,
23/02/06
EEBIS-108 Six-monthly report (01/07/05 31/12/05), PARE, sent to the Commission for 31/03/06
EEBIS-109 A Guide to Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery (MVHR), CORUS, QuickPlace
31/03/2006
EEBIS-110 U and values for Arcelor envelope solutions, Arcelor Lige, QuickPlace 6/07/06
EEBIS-111 Simulation of Air deck Building 1st draft, RWTH, QuickPlace 6/07/06
EEBIS-112 Not for EEBIS
EEBIS-113 Not for EEBIS
EEBIS-114 Not for EEBIS
EEBIS-115 PARE presentation: administrative matters, meeting Brussels 1&2/06/06
EEBIS-116 Proposal for preparation of the Design Guide, CEPEZED, email 24/05/06
EEBIS-117 CEPEZED presentation: WP4, hard copy, meeting Brussels 1&2/06/06
EEBIS-118 RWTH presentation: WP1: I-core system, meeting Brussels 1&2/06/06
EEBIS-119 SCI presentation: WP1: SCI/Corus building, meeting Brussels 1&2/06/06
EEBIS-120 RWTH presentation: WP1: Results-SCI building, meeting Brussels 1&2/06/06
EEBIS-121 Product data sheet template for the Design Guide, Cepezed, e-mail 14/06/06
EEBIS-122 Data sheet for Floor/deck system, Cepezed, e-mail 14/06/06
EEBIS-123 EEBIS-123a, b, c: Flow diagrams for residential and office buildings, Cepezed, email
14/06/06
EEBIS-124 Data sheet for Faade solar air collectors, RUUKKI, email 30/06/06
EEBIS-125 Data sheet for Light-weight external wall panel with thermal studs, RUUKKI, email
30/06/06
EEBIS-126 Data sheet for Roof solar air collectors, RUUKKI, email 30/06/06

148
EEBIS-127 Computational analysis of steel cladding as an air heating solar collector, RUUKKI,
email 30/06/06
EEBIS-128 Minutes of the 7th coordination meeting (1&2 June 2006 in Brussels), PARE, email,
7/07/06
EEBIS-129 Draft final report on Labein contribution 7/08/06
EEBIS-130 Data sheet for Ventilated Double Skin Roof, RDCS e-mail 24/08/06
EEBIS-131 Data sheet for VISP as curtain wall, RDCS e-mail 24/08/06
EEBIS-132 Data sheet for Floor/deck system, Cepezed, e-mail 14/06/06
EEBIS-133 WP1.1 Air-cooled floors Final reduced report, Corus, QuickPlace10/09/06
EEBIS-134 WP1.1 Air-cooled floors Final report full version, Corus, QuickPlace10/09/06
EEBIS-135 WP1 Draft Final report, SCI, email 9/10/06
EEBIS-136 Solar Energy Application ,VTT Research Project PROSSUS,RUUKKI email 2/11/06
EEBIS-137 Draft Final Report, Arcelor Profil Luxembourg, Final meeting 16&17 janv 2007
EEBIS-138 Draft Design Guide, Arcelor Profil Luxembourg, Final meeting 16&17 janv 2007
EEBIS-139 Contributions for WP1, RWTH, Final meeting 16&17 janv 2007
EEBIS-140 WP2 Draft Final Report, Arcelor Research Lige, Final meeting 16&17 janv 2007
EEBIS-141 WP2 Ventilation concepts for solar faades, RUUKKI, Final meeting 16&17 janv 2007
EEBIS-142 Publication : Articel in journal Energy and Building, RUUKKI, e-mail 25/01/2007
EEBIS-143 Publication : Conference paper Healthy Buildings, RUUKKI, e-mail 25/01/2007
EEBIS-144 WP2.3 Solar energy systems, RUUKKI, e-mail 31/01/2007
EEBIS-145 Final Report, Coordinator and Partners 12/04/2007

149
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FINAL SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 3
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULTS ............................................................ 15
Objectives of the project ................................................................................................................... 15
Comparison of initially planned activities and work accomplished .................................................. 16
Description of activities and discussion ............................................................................................ 17
1. WP 1 : Systems for Energy Balance through the Building Fabric and Structure .................... 17
1.1. WP 1.1: Air-cooled floors ................................................................................................ 17
1.2. WP 1.2: Water-cooled floors............................................................................................ 30
1.3. WP 1.3: Steel-composite structures.................................................................................. 39
2. WP 2: Improved Energy Performance of the Building Envelope............................................ 43
2.1. WP 2.1: Double-skin roofs............................................................................................... 43
2.2. WP 2.2: Double-skin facades ........................................................................................... 47
2.3. WP 2.3: Solar Energy Collection System ........................................................................ 53
2.4. WP 2.4: Super-insulated Cladding Systems..................................................................... 58
2.5. WP 2.5: Thermal Bridging between Envelope and Structure .......................................... 66
2.6. WP 2.6: Steel-glass facades ............................................................................................. 73
3. WP 3 : Assessment Tools for Whole Building Energy Performance ...................................... 76
3.1. WP 3.1: Identify Building Types for Assessment ............................................................ 76
3.2. WP 3.2: Tools for Overall Building Energy Performance............................................. 81
3.3. WP 3.3: Overall Energy Performance of Typical Steel Buildings................................... 84
3.4. WP 3.4: Cost-Effectiveness of Solutions ....................................................................... 109
4. WP 4 : Design Strategies and Design Guidance for Steel Structures .................................... 111
4.1. Strategies for Energy Efficiency .................................................................................... 111
4.2. Develop design guidance for the new products and systems ......................................... 115
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 135
Exploitation and impact of the research results ............................................................................... 136
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ........................................................................................................... 137
LIST OF REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 143
APPENDICE - DISTRIBUTED DOCUMENTS DURING THE RESEARCH EEBIS ...................................... 145

151
European Commission

EUR 23180 E
 nergy efficient buildings through innovative systems in steel

F. Labory, L. G. Cajot, C. Mees, F. Delcuve, B. Dring, M. Kuhnhenne, J. Kesti, M. Lawson,

N. Baddoo, R. Ogden, A. Griffin, Y. Spasov, A. Bonilla, E. Cagigal

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2008 151 pp. 21 29.7 cm

Research Fund for Coal and Steel series

ISBN 978-92-79-07681-7

ISSN 1018-5593

Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: EUR 20