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Garrido
Barcelona, 2015
Author:
Llus Garrido (garrido@ub.edu)
Departament dEstructura i Constituents de la Materia &
Institut del Ciencies del Cosmos
Facultat de Fsiques
Universitat de Barcelona
Contents
7 Interacting Fields 73
7.1 Photon-electron interaction term in the Lagrangian density . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.2 Representation of interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.3 The S matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.4 0 e+ e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.5 Decay rates a 1 + 2 + ...n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8 QED 83
8.1 e+ e 2: the electron propagator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.1.1 Amplitude of the process e+ e 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.1.2 The e+ e 2 cross section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.2 The gamma propagator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.3 The scattering cross section a + b 1 + 2 + ...n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.4 QED Feynman rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Apendix 106
F Renormalization 131
iv CONTENTS
Chapter 1
In this chapter a wave equation is developed for particles of spin-0 compatible with the postulates
of special relativity. Schrodinger first attempted this in 1920, but eventually gave up because
of the problems of negative probability and negative energy. He ended up dealing with a non-
relativistic version which is none other than the Schrodinger equation. When he realized that
the relativistic equation was still of value, Oscar Klein and Walter Gordon, but also a few others,
had independently published it.
1.1 Introduction
Electrons and photons behave in a very similar fashion: both exhibit diraction eects, as in
the double slit experiment; and both have particle-like or quantum behavior. Photon behavior
is described by Maxwells equations and the probability that a photon is in a given small volume
of space dxdydz, is proportional to |E|2 dxdydz, the energy density. Similarly, electron behavior
x, t), such that ||2 dxdydz gives the
must be described by a wave function (x, t) analogous to E(
probability of finding the electron in a small volume dxdydz around the point x at time t. The
purpose of this introduction is to give a plausible derivation of such an equation by examining
how the Maxwell wave equation works for a single-particle (photon) wave, and constructing
parallel equations for particles which, unlike photons, have non-zero rest mass.
E(
r, t) = 0
r, t) + B(r, t)
E( = 0,
t
B(r, t)
= 0,
r, t) 1 E(x, t)
B( = 0 (1.1)
c2 t
2 Chapter 1. A relativistic wave for spin-0 particles: the Klein-Gordon equation
To derive the wave equation, the curl of the second equation is taken:
r, t) = B(r, t) = 1 E(x, t)
2
E(
2
(1.2)
t c t2
as
. = (
.) 2 . we obtain:
x, t)
1 2 E(
2 E
= (1.3)
c2 t2
For a plane wave moving in the x-direction, this reduces to:
2 E(x, t)
1 2 E(x, t)
2
2 2
=0 (1.4)
x c t
with a solution of the form:
E(x, 0 ei(kxt)
t) = E (1.5)
Applying the dierential wave equation operator to this plane wave solution gives:
( ) ( )
2 1 2 2
0e
E i(kxt)
= k 2 2 0 ei(kxt) = 0 = ck
E (1.6)
x2 c2 t2 c
0 ei(kxt) as
Taking into account that E = h = h and p = h/ = hk allows us to rewrite E
0 ei/h(pxEt) . Thus, the wave equation operator applied to the plane wave describing
E
the particle propagation yields the energy-momentum relationship for the particle:
( ) ( )
2 1 2 i 1 E2 0 e hi (pxEt) = 0 or E 2 = c2 p2
0e
E h
(pxEt)
= 2 p2 2 E (1.7)
x2 c2 t2 h c
We are looking for a wave equation operator that, when it operates on a plane wave, yields
E 2 = c2 p2 + m20 c4 (1.8)
This wave equation is called the Klein-Gordon equation and correctly describes the propagation
of relativistic particles of mass m0 . As we will see, this equation has two apparent problems: it
admits negative energy and negative density solutions. We will see in this course that neither
of these problems is insurmountable and that both can be reinterpreted within the framework
of QFT. Yet in the 1920s, these diculties were considered serious enough for an alternative
to the Klein-Gordon equation to be sought. Two dierent approaches were considered: trying
to find its non-relativistic version, as followed by Schrodinger; and trying to find a relativistic
wave equation operator that includes only first derivatives, as proposed by Dirac.
Continuing along the same lines, let us assume that a non-relativistic electron in free space (no
i
potentials) is described by a plane wave: (x, t) = Ae h (pxEt) . We need to construct a wave
equation operator which, applied to this wave function, just gives us the ordinary non-relativistic
energy-momentum relationship, E = p2 /2m.
We can see that this operator is:
( )
h2 2
ih + (x, t) = 0 (1.11)
t 2m x2
i
Writing the plane wave function (x, t) as Ae h (pxEt) , where A is a constant, the previous
operator acting over this wave gives:
( ) ( )
h2 2 i p2 i
ih + Ae h
(pxEt)
= E Ae h (pxEt) = 0 or E = p2 /2m (1.12)
t 2m x2 2m
This wave equation is the Schrodinger equation for a free particle. With a non-zero potential
present, the energy-momentum relationship for the particle becomes the energy equation E
p2 /2m V (x) = 0 and the appropriate wave equation is:
( )
h2 2
ih + V (x) (x, t) = 0 (1.13)
t 2m x2
Dirac argued that the source of negative solutions of the Klein-Gordon equation was related to
the E 2 term that comes from the second time derivative. For that reason, he proposed a wave
equation operator that included only first-order derivatives, so that its square still gives the
relation E 2 = p2 c2 + m20 c4 . From this approach, the problem of negative densities was solved
but the negative solutions remained. Interpreting these solutions as antiparticles, the Dirac
equation is the relativistic equation that describes particles and their antiparticles of spin 1/2.
Full details can be found in chapter 2.
4 Chapter 1. A relativistic wave for spin-0 particles: the Klein-Gordon equation
There is a quantum system that corresponds to this classical system whose dynamical state is
represented by a wave function (q1 , ...., qn ; t) defined in configuration space and whose wave
equation can be obtained by performing the following substitutions on both sides of equation
1.14:
E ih , pi ih (1.15)
t qi
For a classical system with H = p2 /2m + V (x) this leads to:
(x, t) h2 2
ih = ( + V (x))(x, t) (1.16)
t 2m
which is the well-known Schrodinger equation. This equation allows us to construct a non-
relativistic probability density and current such that a continuity equation is obeyed:
ih (||2 ) = ih + ih = (H) (H ) =
t t t
h2 2 h2 2 h2 2
( ) ( ) = 2)
( (1.17)
2m 2m 2m
which leads to:
ih ) = 0
(||2 ) (
t 2m
+j =0
t
ih
(x, t) = |(x, t)|2 0 , j = ( () ())
(1.18)
2m
For a free particle, the classical Hamiltonian is H = p2 /2m, and its wave equation is:
h2 2
iht (x, t) = (x, t) (1.19)
2m
whose solutions are of the form:
N exp(it + ikx) (1.20)
with the eigenvalue of energy E = h ( as (ih t ) = ih(i) = h ) and the eigenvalue of
momenta p = hk (as (ih) = ih(ik) = hk). Plugging this back into the Schrodinger
equation we obtain E = p2 /2m (notice that the eigenvalue of the operator iht is always posi-
tive).
From the definition of and j given in 1.18 we obtain:
= N2 , j = 1 N 2 ( p)) = N 2
p + (+
p
(1.21)
2m m
since in classical mechanics p = mv , this corresponds to j = v .
1.3 The Klein-Gordon equation 5
leading to:
ih = (ih)
2 c2 + m2 c4 = h2 c2
2 + m2 c4 (1.23)
t
The best we can attempt here is to expand the square root by its power series expansion:
(hc)
2 (hc)
4
h2 c2
2 + m2 c4 mc2 (1 ...) (1.24)
2(mc2 )2 8(mc2 )4
thus arriving at a non-local dierential equation (of arbitrarily high order in the space deriva-
tives) which violates causality, so clearly this possibility is not satisfactory. In addition, rela-
tivistic invariance is not clearly exhibited since there is lack of symmetry between the space and
time coordinates.
Alternatively, we can take another time derivative of the l.h.s. of the Schrodinger equation to
give us:
2
h2 2 = H 2 = (h2 2 c2 + m2 c4 ). (1.25)
t
Defining:
1 2
2 2 2 2 = , (1.26)
c t
we then get:
m2 c 2
(2 + 2 ) = 0. (1.27)
h
This equation, which is manifestly relativistic, is called the Klein-Gordon equation. Its form is
not surprising since the only two Lorentz invariants with dimensions of inverse length squared
available to us are and m2 . If the particle has no rest mass, m = 0, we obtain the classical
wave equation, which is also relativistically invariant.
The choice of a relative minus sign between the 2 terms in the exponential is arbitrary since the
Klein-Gordon equation is second order in the derivatives. Our convention is in accordance with
non-relativistic quantum theory. Plugging this back into the Klein-Gordon equation we indeed
obtain:
However, we can see that because of the square root we get negative as well as positive energy
solutions! The negative solutions cannot be discarded without good reason, since the Klein-
Gordon equation is meant to be a fundamental equation of nature and we have naturally to
accept all solutions.
The solutions can be written as:
ipx
()
p (x) = N e = N ei(Etpx) (1.31)
where now p is the four energy-momentum (E, p), with E = + p2 + m2 , and x is the four-
vector (t, x). According to this convention, the positive (negative) energy solution has momen-
tum p(p) as can be seen by applying the energy-momentum operator i = i(t , ):
i () = i(i)p () = p () (1.32)
i )) =
= ( () ( j, (1.33)
t 2m
1.3 The Klein-Gordon equation 7
with = . Let us try to derive a similar equation from the Klein-Gordon equation. First we
multiply the equation by the complex field:
(( ) + m2 ) = 0
( ) ( )( ) = m2 . (1.34)
Secondly, we multiply the complex conjugation of the Klein-Gordon equation by the field
itself:
(( ) + m2 ) = 0
(( )) ( )( ) = m2 . (1.35)
( ( ) ( )) = 0, (1.36)
j = i( ( ) ( )) (1.37)
j 0 (x) = i( (t ) (t )) (1.38)
but this would-be probability density is not positive definite. The dierence between this and
the non-relativistic case is the presence of an extra t which completely spoils positivity, as Dirac
pointed out. For the planar wave solution given in 1.31, we obtain:
j = iN 2 (ip (ip )) = 2N 2 p = 2N 2 (E, p) (1.39)
and its 0-th component is j 0 = 2N 2 E. Thus the problem of negative energy and that of
negative probability are related. Let us advance that the Dirac equation still proves impossible
to retain a positive definite probability density for a single particle, and at the same time
provide a physical interpretation of the negative energy solution. This means that the Klein-
Gordon equation is no worse than the Dirac equations which respect the physical interpretation
of probability for a single particle. The equation 1.39 suggests that we could interpret |q|j as
a current density four-vector. and have opposite charge, while the real solutions represent
uncharged particles.
The Klein-Gordon equation can be used to describe spin-0 particles such as pions (real
solutions for 0 and complex ones for , both pseudo-scalar). However, pions are not elemen-
tary: they are made of quarks. To date, the only elementary spin-0 particle is the Higgs boson
discovered at LHC in 2012.
potential becomes:
2
+ 2 m2 = 0, z < 0
t2
(i V0 )2 + 2 m2 = 0, z > 0 (1.40)
t
An incoming positive energy beam is a plane wave of the form ei(Etpz) . We look for solutions
of the form:
where R and T are reflected and transmitted amplitudes, p is the momentum in region II, and:
E 2 p2 m2 = 0 E = p2 + m2
E 2 + Vo2 2EV0 p2 m2 = 0 p = (E V0 )2 m2 (1.42)
In region II, there are three distinct cases, depending on the strength of the potential:
2p p p
T = , R= (1.43)
p + p p + p
1.3 The Klein-Gordon equation 9
Calling ji = 2p, j< , j> the incident, left and right currents, the transmission and reflection
coecients are:
ji j< p p 2 j>
= = |R|2 = |
| , = =1 (1.44)
ji p+p ji
For the case of the strong potential, these coecients are:
p + |p | 2 4p|p |
=( ) >1 , = <0 , +=1 (1.45)
p |p | (p |p |)2
The probability is still conserved but at the cost of having a negative transmission coecient
and a reflexion greater than 1. We are stuck in a many-body problem. This apparent paradox
can be explained if we consider the potential strong enough to create a particle-antiparticle pair.
Antiparticles are create a negative current on the right; while an excess of particles is moving
to the left.
Ze2 2
(E + ) + (h2 c2 2 m2 c4 ) = 0 (1.46)
r
For a solution of definite angular momentum l, (r, , ) = R(r)Yl m, l(, ), and writing the
Laplacian in spherical coordinates, the equation for R(r)becomes:
[ ] [ ]
(E + Ze2 /r)2 m2 c4 1 d d l(l + 1)
2 2 R = 2 (r2 ) + R (1.47)
h c r dr dr r2
Solving this equation for R and E, the eigenvalues for the energy are: E = mc2 (1 + 2 /2n2
4 /2n4 (n/(l + 1/2) 3/4)), with Ze2 /hc. At the lowest order, they are the same as those
we can obtain with the Schrodinger equation, by altering the classical kinetic energy as follows:
p2 1 p4
p2 /2m p2 + m2 m2 (1.48)
2m 8 m3 c2
10 Chapter 1. A relativistic wave for spin-0 particles: the Klein-Gordon equation
Chapter 2
In the course of what follows, we will see that neither of the two problems mentioned in the
previous chapter (negative energy and negative density) are insurmountable and that they can be
re-interpreted in the framework of QFT. Yet in the 1920s they were considered serious enough
for an alternative to the Klein-Gordon equation to be sought. Dirac proposed an equation
including only first-order derivatives:
ih = ihc
+ mc2 H. (2.1)
t
This could be seen in some way as taking the square root of the Klein-Gordon equation.
Obviously Klein-Gordon, which in practice implies the relativistic dispersion relation E =
p2 c2 + m2 c4 must still be satisfied. The condition H 2 = (ihc)
2 + m2 c4 then becomes:
i j + j i = 0, (i = j)
i + i = 0
2 = i2 = 1 (2.3)
Similarly, if we start from i i = , we get T r() = 0. Since the trace does not change
under the transformations A S 1 AS , and 0 should be obtained as the sum of eigenvalues
1, the rank of these matrices should be even. The simplest solution involves 4 4 matrices. A
possible solution is: ( ) ( )
0 i I 0
i = , = (2.5)
i 0 0 I
where I is the 2x2 unit matrix and i are the usual Pauli matrices:
( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 0 i 1 0
1 = , 2 = , 3 = (2.6)
1 0 i 0 0 1
which allows us to write = 3 I, and i = 1 i .
It is desirable to write equation 2.1 in a way that time and space are treated on an equal
footing. To do this, let us define:
( ) ( )
I 0 0 i
=
0
, i =
i
(2.7)
0 I i 0
The gamma matrices are called Dirac matrices and they satisfy the anti-commutation relations:
{ , } = 2g . (2.8)
Note that 0 is Hermitian ( 0 = 0 ), but i is not ( i = (i ) = i = i = i = i )
, but the following is always true: = 0 0 .
Multiplying the original Dirac equation ih
t + ihc
mc2 = 0 by 0 we get:
ih mc = 0. (2.9)
x
Defining the symbol:
, (2.10)
the Dirac equation now reads:
(ih mc) = 0, (2.11)
and the fully expanded Dirac equation in the standard representation is:
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
( i h 1 + ih
0
1 0 c t 0 1 0 0
0 x
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 i 0 0 1 0 a (t, x)
0 0 i 0 0
+ ih
0 0 1 (t,
mc) b
x)
+ i h 0
= 0 (2.12)
i 0 0 y 1 0 0 0 z
(t,
c x)
i 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 d (t, x)
2.1 The Dirac equation 13
+ ( ) = 0 (2.15)
0 = (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) (2.16)
and multiply the Hermitian conjugate of the Dirac equation by 0 from the right:
( ) + ( ) = ( ) = 0 (2.18)
Thus the conserved current for the Dirac field is , which looks Lorentz invariant, but to
be sure we have to find out how the 4-component spinor transforms under Lorentz transfor-
mations. That will be tackled in the following sections, where we show that the Dirac equation
is Lorentz invariant. For now, however, let us look at the 0-th component of j :
j 0 = 0 = = |1 |2 + |2 |2 + |3 |2 + |4 |2 0 (2.19)
which is positive and so solves the problem we had with the Klein-Gordon equation.
Dirac representation:
( ) ( ) ( )
0 I 0 k 0 k 5 0 I
= , = , = . (2.21)
0 I k 0 I 0
Chiral representation:
( ) ( )
0 0 I k 0 k
= , = . (2.22)
I 0 k 0
Majorana representation:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 2 1 i3 0 2 0 2 3 i1 0
= , = , = , = . (2.23)
2 0 0 i3 2 0 0 i1
I,
0 , i 1 , i 2 , i 3 ,
0 1 , 0 2 , 0 3 , i 1 2 , i 1 3 , i 2 3 ,
i 0 5 , 1 5 , 2 5 , 3 5 ,
5.
(A )2 = I
T rA = 0
A B = C
1
X, X = T r(XA )A
4 A
A = 1, B; {A , B } = 0.
Other important properties following directly from the definition of 5 and the anti-commutation
relation defining Cliord algebra are:
{ , 5 } = 0, (2.24)
( 0 )2 = I, ( i )2 = I, ( 5 )2 = I, (2.25)
( 0 ) = 0 , ( i ) = i , ( 5 ) = 5 , 0 ( ) 0 = , (2.26)
A A = A2 , A B = 2A B B A (2.27)
2.2 Lorentz invariance (or covariance) of the Dirac equation 15
T r( A) = 0
T r( A1 A2 A2n+1 ) = 0
T r( A B) = 4AB
T r( A B C D) = 4(A B C D A C B D + A D B C)
T r( ) = 4(g g g g + g g )
T r( 5 ) = 0
T r( 5 ) = T r( 5 ) = T r( 5 ) = 0
T r( 5 ) = 4i .
with
0123 = 1, 0123 = 1. (2.28)
Spinors, i.e. solutions of the Dirac equation, are 4-dimensional objects, but how do they
transform under the Lorentz group in order to preserve covariance?
where S represents the action of the Lorentz group in the space of spinors. Obviously S(1 ) =
S 1 ().
(i m)(x) = 0, (2.31)
(i m)S 1 () (x ) = 0 (2.32)
multiplying by S():
( )
iS() S 1 () m (x ) = 0 (2.33)
S() S 1 () = . (2.34)
or:
S 1 () S() = . (2.35)
This equation tells us that the transformation of matrix under S is like the transformation
of a 4-vector: x . One can say that transforms as a 4-vector in the spinor representation
16
Chapter 2. Relativistic wave equations, for spin-1/2 particles. The Dirac equation
of Lorentz transformation. This should be expected to make the in the Dirac equation
unchanged under Lorentz transformations.
Another property required for S() is that it should have the same multiplication rule as
the Lorentz transformation: S(1 2 ) = S(1 )S(2 ). In other words S is a representation of
the Lorentz group.
Any proper Lorentz transformation can be expressed as = ei Ki +i Li (see Appendix A).
It is convenient to write it in a compact form defining:
{ {
Ki M 0i Li M jk
(2.36)
i a0i i ajk
where i,j,k are cyclic and we take M = M and a = a . Note that the matrix elements
of M can now be written as:
(M ) = g g g g (2.37)
and
1
= ei Ki +i Li = e 2 a M (2.38)
As S and have the same group structure, let us try the mapping:
1 1
= e 2 a M S = e 2 a B (2.39)
where B is a set of 6 independent generators (4x4) which should satisfy the same commutation
relations as M , and in addition verify that S 1 S = .
Let us now consider infinitesimal transformations (a small):
S 1 () S() = e 2 a B e 2 a B
1 1
1 1
= (1 a B ) (1 + a B ) + ....
2 2
1
= + ( a B a B ) + ...
2
1 [ ]
= + ,B a + .... (2.40)
2
However:
1 1
= (e 2 a M ) = (1 + a M ) + ...
2
1 1
= (g + a (M ) ) + ... = + a (M ) + .. (2.41)
2 2
equating the 2 expressions above, we obtain the requirement for B :
[ ]
, B = (M ) (2.42)
[ ]
It is left as an exercise to prove that B = 14 , is a solution of the previous expression,
which has been obtained for infinitesimal transformations of 2.35. Prove also, that it is the
solution for finite Lorentz transformations.
2.2 Lorentz invariance (or covariance) of the Dirac equation 17
( ij ) = ij , ( 0i ) = 0i . (2.44)
One advantage of this definition is that ij becomes very much like k (i,j,k cyclic) acting in
the spinor space:
( )( ) ( ) ( )
i [ i j] 0 i 0 j i j
k 0 0
(i = j), =
ij
, = i i j = i =i =
2 i 0 j 0 0 k
0 i j
(2.45)
we can define k (i,j,k cyclic), and observe that k /2i satisfy the same commutations as
ij
Li of equation 2.38. More will be said regarding k when the spin of the electron is discussed.
The boost are generated by B 0i = 41 [ 0 , i ] = 12 0 i = 12 0 0 i = 12 i that satisfy the same
commutations as Ki in equation 2.38. This fact and the previous one show that we have found
the generators of the Lorentz group in the spinor representation.
A Lorentz transformation acting on a spinor is given by the expression (2.30), with S() given
by:
S() = e 4 a .
i
(2.46)
i
where = 2 [ , ]. In the case of rotations:
as k is diagonal with regard to the Pauli matrices k , the general rotation matrix eis/2 will
be: ( )
is/2
eis/2 0
e = (2.48)
0 eis/2
showing that a rotation in the spinor space acts as a double rotation over two spin-1/2 states.
A boost in the Dirac representation is given by:
in addition E = m, p = m, then:
E+m p
cosh = , tanh = (2.52)
2 2m 2 E+m
We have defined the conjugate spinor as = 0 . Similarly, let us define the conjugate of a
4x4 matrix in spinor space M by:
M 0M 0 (2.54)
O = I scalar(R)
O = vector(V)
O = tensor(T)
O = 5 axialvector (A)
O = 5 pseudoscalar(P)
2.3.2 = r p
Conservation of the angular momentum L
We want to compute [Li , H] with Li = ijk rj pk and H being the Dirac Hamiltonian. It is left as
an exercise to prove that:
[Li , H] = i 0 ijk j pk (2.59)
using the facts that ri ( ) commutes with all but pi ( , = ). This shows that the angular
momentum is not a conserved quantity.
2.3.3 Conservation of J
We have seen that the ordinary angular momentum in not conserved. Now let us calculate the
and H. It is left as an exercise to prove that:
commutation relation of
[i , H] = 2i 0 ijk j pk . (2.60)
/2 is very much like /2 except that it operates in the 4-component spinor space. i /2, i =
1, 2, 3 have the same commutation relations as Li , from their definition it is clear that their
eigenvalues are 1/2 (both double) and furthermore, we have:
1 2 1 2 3 1
| | = (1 + 22 + 23 ) = = j(j + 1), with j = (2.61)
2 4 4 2
This suggests that any fermion that satisfies the Dirac equation carries an intrinsic angular
momentum of 1/2 unit. This was an entirely unexpected result for Dirac himself. It also turned
out it had the correct magnetic moment, as we will see next.
In the equation above, B is the magnetic field induced by the vector potential A, S is the
spin operator ( /2), and B = eh/2mc is the Bohr magneton. is a 2-component vector
representing the two spinorial degrees of freedom of the particle. The gyromagnetic factor of
the spin has to be determined experimentally; it is known to be very close to 2 for electrons.
In order to make contact with (2.62), we have to couple electromagnetism to the Dirac equation.
This is done via the so-called minimal coupling:
e
p p A , (2.63)
c
At this point this is just a prescription; it will be justified later in the
where A = (c, A).
course.
After this, the Dirac equation reads:
e
( p A mc) = 0, (2.64)
c
or:
+ e A)
ih = c
(ih + (mc2 + e). (2.65)
t c
We now make the change ( )
imc2 t/h
=e (2.66)
and we obtain:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
e 0
ih p A) I
= c ( + e 2mc 2
. (2.67)
t c
The non-relativistic limit is obtained by taking c . Then, keeping the leading terms in the
previous equations, from the lower components we get:
p ec A)
(
= . (2.68)
2mc
Note that we can also conclude (from the upper components) that 0 (to leading order in
a 1/c expansion), which of course is implied by the previous equation too. Plugging back in,
we get: [ ]
p ec A)][
[ ( (p ec A)]
ih = + e . (2.69)
t 2m
i j = ij + iijk k (2.70)
are a base of the spinor space, and each one is part of a solution of the Dirac equation:
1 0
0 imt 1 imt
1 = N
0e
, 2 = N
0e
0 0
0 0
0 +imt 0 +imt
3 = N
1e
, 4 = N
0e
(2.74)
0 1
We can see at once that, just as for the Klein-Gordon equation, the Dirac equation has negative
energy solutions (3 , 4 ) that will be interpreted later. Let us see how these solutions respond
to the spin operator /2. We have seen that L + /2
is a constant of motion and at rest L = 0.
Taking the expression 3 /2 in the Dirac representation we can see that 1 and 3 represent
spin up in the z-direction, while 2 and 4 represent spin down.
Using N = 2m as the normalization constant for these 4 at-rest solutions, for each i-solution
we obtain (j = ) :
j 0 = i 0 i = i i = 2m, i = 1, 2, 3, 4
j k = i k i = i 0 k i = i k i = 2m(k )ii = 0 (2.75)
since the diagonal elements of k are null. Thus, for all the at-rest solutions, we have obtained:
j = (2m, 0) (2.76)
Since it is known that j transforms as a vector, for the boosted solutions we should obtain:
j = (2E, 2
p) = 2p (2.77)
Recall that j 0 is interpreted as the probability density: the number of particles per unit volume.
This is 2m at rest and 2E for the boosted solutions, as we must expect due to the Lorentz
contraction (the number of particles per unit volume is 2m = 2E).
22
Chapter 2. Relativistic wave equations, for spin-1/2 particles. The Dirac equation
where w( p, s) denotes the energy/momentum and the spin in the s-direction. This set
of 4 spinors constitutes a base of the spinor space.
The positive and negative energy is defined by the eigenstate of the energy operator it . For
positive energy:
p)weipx and (
+ ( p)weipx (2.88)
are both solution of the Dirac equation; the first for positive energy and the second for the
negative energy. For example, for any spinor w (which can be expressed as a combination of the
spinor base w( p, s) with p2 = m2 ), + (p)w selects the positive energy spinor part, since it
satisfies:
( p m)+ (p)w = ( p m)( p + m)w/2m = (p2 m)w/2m = 0 (2.89)
As expected, 2 (
p) = (
p), + (
p) (
p) = (
p)+ (
p) = 0, + (
p) + (
p) = 1
We have to face the problem of interpreting negative energy solutions. Dirac proposed that the
vacuum state is such that all negative energy states are filled up. Since we are dealing with
fermions, it is impossible for any such state to be further occupied. This is called the Dirac sea.
24
Chapter 2. Relativistic wave equations, for spin-1/2 particles. The Dirac equation
If we add fermions, they can only occupy a positive energy state. Furthermore, there is a 2m
gap between the highest negative energy state and the lowest possible positive energy state.
If we inject energy into the system (for instance, via a virtual photon or a couple of real photons)
it is possible to promote one of the negative energy states to positive energy. We have thus
produced a particle with positive energy and a hole in the sea of negative energy, i.e., also
positive energy (and opposite momentum too). This is an antiparticle.
Thus the correspondence between the missing negative emerged electron and existing positron
means that, when missing a e of spin s, momentum p and energy E (E > 0) it corresponds
+
to a e of spin s, momentum p and energy E(E > 0). Note also that a negative energy electron
in the initial state corresponds to a positive energy positron in the final state in the transition
process.
The solutions of positive energy are usually denoted by u, while those corresponding to negative
energy are denoted by v. In order to work with positive energy solutions always (electron and
positron) it is convenient to relabel the spinors w:
p, s) w(
u( p, s)
p, s) w(
u( p, s)
p, s) w(
v( p, s)
p, s) w(
v( p, s)
(2.90)
using the antiparticle interpretation (the absence of a state with energy E, momentum p
and spin in the s-direction is equivalent to the presence of an antiparticle state with energy
E, momentum p and spin in the s-direction) we can conclude that v( p, s) corresponds to
antiparticles of 3-momentum p, energy E = ( p) + m and spin in the s-direction.
2 2
As i i = 2m (the sign denotes a positive or negative energy solutions), the following property
must hold for the spinors:
u( p, s) = v(
p, s)u( p, s) = 2m, ,
p, s)v( (2.91)
also:
1 5 s 1 5 s
p, s)u(
u( p, s) = ( p + m) , p, s)v(
v( p, s) = ( p m)
2 2
u(
p, s)u(
p, s) = p + m, v( p, s) = p m.
p, s)v( (2.92)
= =
2.4 Solutions of the Dirac equation. Particles and antiparticles 25
We want to construct a spin operator which gives the correct, or physical, spin for electrons and
positrons in the rest frame. In the rest frame u and v are certainly eigenstates of s/2 but as
we have defined v, this will have the sign inverted from the one we want. This can be solved
easily by adding a 0 , since its eigenvalues are 1 for energy solutions. Thus, the operator
we are looking for is written in the rest frame as (s ) 0 /2. It is easy to show (which is left as
an exercise) that:
1 0 = 1 5 s = 1 5 s where s (0, s)
(s ) (2.93)
2 2 2
Now, if we assume that the 4-vector defined at rest s = (0, s) transforms as a 4-vector under
Lorentz transformations, then 12 5 s represents the spin component along s in the rest frame
even if it is applied to a boosted spinor. This means that having a state at rest which is an
eigenstate of 5 s, 5 s = at rest, this equation remains invariant if we transform it by a
Lorentz transformation:
5 sat
rest
at rest
= at rest
5 s S 1 = S 1
5 S s S 1 = 5 s =
5 s = (2.94)
The two spin projection operators that filter out the two eigenstates of 1
2 5 s (or the
component of physical spin along s) are:
1 5 s
(s) = (2.95)
2
where in the expression s is a 4-vector such that at rest it is (0, s).
The helicity is defined as the spin operator in the direction s = p . In the rest frame:
1 0 = 1 5 s where s (0, p)
h = (p ) (2.96)
2 2
As has been seen before, the helicity along p in the rest frame can also be obtained by applying
the operator 12 5 s over a boosted solution if s is the boost of the polarization vector at rest
s = (0, p). The boost considered must be such that it goes from the rest frame to the frame
where the particle has: p = (E, p); or by (, ) = (E, |p|)/m
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
s0 0 |
p|/m
= = = (2.97)
s 1 E/m
p|/m, pE/m).
and s = 0, thus s = (|
The two helicity projection operators that filter out the two eigenstates of the the component
of physical spin along p will be:
1 5 s
(p) = p|/m, pE/m)
with s = (| (2.98)
2
26
Chapter 2. Relativistic wave equations, for spin-1/2 particles. The Dirac equation
5 p/m 5 m/m 5
u= u= u (2.99)
2 2 2
applied similarly to negative energy it gives:
5 p/m 5 m/m 5
v= v= v (2.100)
2 2 2
We have thus found that the helicity operator, at the high energy limit (or when m=0), acts as
5 /2 for u(v):
1 1 1 1
p, p) = u(
hu( p, p) 5 su(
p, p) 5 u(
p, p) = u( p, p)
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
p, p) = v(
hv( p, p) 5 sv(
p, p) 5 v(
p, p) = v(p, p) (2.101)
2 2 2 2
The two helicity projection operators at the high energy limit (or when m=0) that filter out
the two eigenstates of the the component of physical spin along p will be:
1 5
(p) = (2.102)
2
where = 1 for energy solutions.
Let us now consider the following chirality operators:
1
PR (1 5 ) (2.103)
L 2
and define the chirally projected fermions R,L :
R = PR , L = PL (2.104)
so R = PL and L = PR . From what we have seen, at high energy (or m = 0), chirality PR
L
acts as helicity projectors for the +ve energy solutions, u; and it acts as helicity projectors
for the -ve energy solutions, v. Namely PR filters out right-handed helicity (+) when applied to
a fermion, and it filters out left-handed helicity (-) when applied to an anti-fermion. PL filters
out left-handed fermions and right-handed anti-fermions.
Chirality is not a conserved quantum number for massive particles.
2.5 P , T , C and CP T
2.5.1 Parity
We need to look for a S() when is the space inversion operation. In this case, the relation
S 1 S = is:
S 1 0 S = 0
S 1 i S = i (2.105)
2.5 P , T , C and CP T 27
with p =
p. As expected, parity inverts the momentum and maintains the spin.
The price we have to pay with this definition is the loss of linearity; T is an anti-lineal operator
that does not belong to the Lorentz group spinor representation.
Next we turn to charge conjugation C. Its meaning is best seen by considering the coupling
of fermions to an external gauge field. According to the minimal coupling principle, the Dirac
equation reads:
i e A m = 0 (2.110)
28
Chapter 2. Relativistic wave equations, for spin-1/2 particles. The Dirac equation
(We will often use the covariant derivative D = + ieA .) It is clear that the equation
describing the coupling to antiparticles should be:
i c + e Ac mc = 0 (2.111)
Let us find the relation between and c . We complex conjugate the first equation:
i e A m = 0 (2.112)
C C = (2.113)
iC C C eC CA C mC = 0 (2.114)
so, clearly,
c = C (2.115)
2.5.4 CPT
Let us try to combine CPT together:
(i 1 3 ) 0 (i 1 3 ) i 2 ( 0 (i 1 3 ))
(x0 , x) (x0 , x) (x0 , x) (x0 , x) (2.116)
The potential energy of the rubber band (w.r.t. rest) is i T di , where di is the variation
of the length of the rubber band between consecutive masses (i 1 and i).
( )2
1
d = 2 + x2 x x (3.5)
2 x
The Lagrangian of this discrete wave is:
( ( )2 )
. 1 . 2 1 1 i i1
L(i , i ) = m i k2i T x (3.6)
i
2 2 2 x
In terms of a mass per unit length ( = m/x) and of the spring constant per unit length
( = k/x), we can rewrite the Lagrangian as:
( ( )2 )
. .2 2 T i i1
L(i , i ) = x i i (3.7)
i
2 2 2 x
The same equation of motion can be obtained more elegantly. The Lagrangian can be written
in its integral form: . .
L(, , /x) = dxL((, , /x) (3.9)
. ( )
2
where L is the Lagrangian density: 2 2 2 2 T
2 x
When we vary the function
but keeping (t1 , x) = (t2 , x) = 0, x and (t, ) = (t, ) = 0, t, the variation of the
action should be zero for the real motion.
3.2 Lagrangian formulation of classical waves 31
since is arbitrary, the equation of motion that minimizes S(S = 0) should satisfy:
( ) ( )
L L L
= . + (3.13)
t x (/x)
. ( )
2
Now, if we take as the Lagrangian density L = 2 2 2 2 T
2 x the equation of motion
will be:
2 ..
= T (3.14)
x2
as expected. Setting T / = 1 and / = m2 this is just the Klein-Gordon equation in one
dimension:
.. 2
2 + m2 = 0 (3.15)
x
Extending the case we have just studied to 3 dimensions, we must just obtain the well-known
Klein-Gordon equation. In this case, the equation of motion will be:
..
3
2
0 = + m2 = (2 + m2 ) (3.16)
i=1
x2i
L .
i = . = (3.23)
is called a symmetry if it leaves the equation of motion invariant (the equation of motion for qi
is identical to the one obtained from the equation of motion of qi by changing qi qi ). This
means that qi (t) is also a solution of our problem which allows us to give another definition of
a symmetry: a transformation is a symmetry if it transforms solutions into solutions.
Under a general transformation, from the definition of the Lagrangian as L = T V , it is
clear that it transforms as a scalar:
.
.
L (qi , qi ) = L(qi , qi ) (3.26)
(from now on, for simplicity we will drop the sub-indices and the velocities, and write the previous
expression as just L (q ) = L(q)). If the transformation is a symmetry, both Lagrangians should
give rise to the same equation of motion. This is guaranteed if:
L (q ) = L(q ) (3.27)
3.3 Noethers theorem 33
(they are equal from the functional point of view). In fact, adding a total time derivative of a
function of the coordinates to the Lagrangian:
. d f .
f= f (q) = q (3.28)
dt q
Thus, the requirement given in 3.27 for a transformation of the coordinates to be a symmetry
must contemplate this last possibility and finally it should be expressed by:
d
T is a symmetry L (q) = L(q) + f (q) (3.30)
dt
Noethers theorem proves that any transformation of a symmetry has a conservation law asso-
ciated with it.
Defining L L(q) L (q) and taking into account that for any transformation L (q ) =
L (q + q) = L(q), in general we have:
thus:
L L .
L = L(q ) L(q) = L(q + q) L(q) = q + . q
q q
( ) ( ) ( )
L d L d L d L
= q + . q . q = . q (3.32)
q dt q dt q dt q
d
L = L(q) L (q) = f (q) (3.33)
dt
which combined with the previous result, leads to the conserved quantity:
( )
d L L
. q + f (q) = 0 . q + f (q) = Constant (3.34)
dt q q
The Lagrangian, equation of motion and solution of the harmonic oscillator are:
.
L(x) = 21 mx2 12 kx2
..
mx + kx = 0
x(t) = A cos(t + )
34 Chapter 3. From classical to quantum field theory
the new Lagrangian, transformed equation of motion and transformed solution are:
. 2
L (x ) = L(x) = 12 x 12 k(x )2
..
mx + k(x ) = 0
x (t) = A cos(t + ) +
We observe that this is not a symmetry because: L (x ) = L(x ) 21 k 2 +kx = L(x )+df (x )/dt.
In fact, the equation of motion is not invariant and does not transform solutions into solutions.
The Lagrangian, equation of motion and a solution of the free fall are (taking y as vertical and
x as horizontal):
.2
L(x, y) = 21 mx mgy
.. ..
mx = 0 , my + mg = 0
the new Lagrangian, transformed equation of motion and transformed solution are:
. 2
L (x , y ) = L(x, y) = 21 mx mgy
.. ..
mx = 0 , my + mg = 0
This is a symmetry because L (x , y ) = L(x , y ) (which means, as we can see, that the equation
of motion is invariant and, as expected, transforms solutions into solutions).
The conserved quantity is:
L . .
Constant = . (x) = mx mx = C (3.37)
x
Following this example, let us now consider the transformation:
the new Lagrangian, transformed equation of motion and transformed solution are:
. 2
L (x , y ) = L(x, y) = 21 x mg(y )
.. ..
mx = 0 , my + mg = 0
3.3 Noethers theorem 35
is called a symmetry if it leaves the equation of motion invariant. This is ensured if the action
is invariant under such transformations. As S = d4 L, any transformation that leaves the
Lagrangian density invariant up to a total derivative:
T is a symmetry L ( ) = L( ) + J ( ) (3.41)
and will have a conserved associated current. Let us proceed to obtain this current.
Defining L L() L () and taking into account that for any transformation L ( ) =
L ( + ) = L(), we have in general:
thus
L L L L
L = L( ) L() = L( + ) L() = () + ( ) = () + ()
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
L L L L
= () + () () = () (3.43)
( ) ( ) ( )
where we have used the equation of motion to cancel out some of the terms.
If the transformation is a symmetry, from 3.41 we have:
L = L() L () = J () (3.44)
is a constant in time:
dQ d j i
= d xj (x, t) =
3 0
d x i (x, t) =
3
d x
3 j = ds j = 0 (3.48)
dt dt V V x V S
36 Chapter 3. From classical to quantum field theory
x x = T (x) = x + a, ( T 1 (x + a) = x T 1 (x) = x a )
= (x) (x) = (T 1 (x)) (x) = (x a) (x) = a (x) + ..... (3.49)
Under such a transformation, the Lagrangian density is not invariant, but rather changes as:
This is a total derivative which ensures that the transformation is a symmetry. The conserved
currents (from 3.46) is:
( )
L L L
j = + J = (a (x)) + a L = (x) g L a T a
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) (3.51)
where T = ( ) (x) g L is the energy-momentum tensor, which has 4 conserved
L
currents associated with it ( T = 0), each one with the corresponding conserved charges:
P
d3 xT 0 (3.52)
For = 0 we obtain: ( )
L .
0
P = 3
d xT 00
= 3
d x . L =H (3.53)
just the Hamiltonian; and for i = 1, 2, 3 we have:
L
Pi = d3 xT 0i = d3 x . i = d3 x i P = d3 x
(3.54)
Lorentz transformations are slightly more complicated to implement. In this case, the corre-
sponding transformations are:
1
x x = x = x + a (M ) x + ... = x + a x + ... (3.55)
2
where we have used the fact that 12 a (M ) = 21 a (g g g g ) = 12 (a a ) = a .
The corresponding inverse transformation is:
1
(1 ) x = x a (M ) x + ... = x a x + ... (3.56)
2
Taking as an example the Dirac spinor field, where we know that the spinors transform as
(x ) = S()(x), so for each of the four field components we have:
1
(x) (x) = S() (1 x) = ( + a (B ) + ...)( (x a x + ...) )
2
1
= ( + a (B ) + ...)( (x) a x + ...)
2
1
= (x) a x + a (B ) + .... (3.57)
2
3.3 Noethers theorem 37
where M and B are the matrices obtained in section 2.2. The corresponding conserved
Noether current can be expressed as:
M = 0 (3.58)
with
L
M = T x T x (B ) . (3.59)
( )
Note the anti-symmetry in , . The corresponding conserved charges are:
M = d3 xM 0 (3.60)
L = + m 2 (3.62)
ei , ei = +i, = i (3.63)
= eia T a
i = ia (T a )ij j (3.65)
The T a are a set of Hermitian matrices, that may be traceless or not, which are generators of
some symmetry group G. If the group of transformations is continuous:
[T a , T b ] = if abc T c . (3.66)
The constants f abc are the structure constants of the group. The parameters a are real.
Notice that j 0a = ii (T a )ij j . Taking the quantization rules introduced in the next section,
it is easy to prove:
[Qa , Qb ] = if abc Qc (3.68)
with Qa = d3 xj 0a
In field theory, at any instant t we have a continuous infinity of position variables (t, x),
labeled by x; and likewise a continuous infinity of momentum variables (t, x).
To obtain the canonical relations of the field theory, let us consider the 1-dimensional Klein-
Gordon field represented by the continuous Lagrangian:
1( )
L(, ) = dxL(, ) = dx (t )2 (x )2 m2 (3.70)
2
or its discrete version;
( ( )2 )
. 1 .2 i i1
L(i , i ) = x i m2 2i (3.71)
i
2 x
To quantize the discrete version we just have to follow the QM prescription, finding the canonical
momenta corresponding to i :
L .
i = . = x i , i = 1, .., n (3.72)
i
and then regard i and i as operators that satisfy the quantization condition:
Taking the continuous Lagrangian, the conjugate momenta is given by equation 3.23:
L .
= . = (3.76)
which, combined with equation 3.75, gives us the canonical commutation relations of field theory
(also called equal time commutators, E.T.C.):
Extending to 3 dimensions and several fields, the canonical commutation relations are:
where we have added the Hermitian conjugate to make it real. This is just the Fourier transform
of (x). Each normal mode is specified by the wavelength 2/p, and the system is equivalent
to a set of decoupled harmonic oscillators, each one corresponding to a specific normal mode,
with a frequency depending on p. To illustrate this, let us take the Klein-Gordon equation in
momentum space (1D):
( )
(t2 x2 + m2 ) = 0 t2 + (m2 + p2 ) (p, t) = 0 (3.80)
Comparing it with the equation for a harmonic oscillator, (d2 /dt2 + w2 )x = 0, shows that each
normal mode oscillates with w2 = m2 + p2 and independently of the others. The relative weight
of each normal node is given by ap .
Guided by this analogy, we can follow an alternative path to quantize the string: quantizing
the string is equivalent to quantizing each harmonic oscillator associated with each normal node
p.
As shown in Appendix B, the eigenstates of a harmonic oscillator can be labeled by a
quantum number n. These states that can be obtained by the action of the operator a , called
the creation operator, over the vacuum state:
1
|n >= (a )n |0 > (3.81)
n!
40 Chapter 3. From classical to quantum field theory
The idea now is to use the quantum number of the harmonic oscillator labeled by p, to
describe the number of particles with momentum p. This is implemented by considering the
field of equation 3.79 as an operator, as well as the coecients ap (t) and ap (t) that will be
interpreted as the creation and annihilation operators associated with momenta p, as suggested
by the fact in the classical interpretation they give the relative weight of each normal node. This
approach seems to define the operators a up to a constant; but if we take as a normal mode the
one that represents only one particle in the entire volume, in agreement with what we want to
interpret, the operators a are completely identified and their commutation rules will be:
This alternative procedure to quantize the fields is normally called second quantization
because the quantized object is the wave function of standard QM. Other authors call it field
quantization in the sense that there is only one quantization step.
The time dependence of the Fourier transform of (t, x) (equation 3.79), thus the time
dependence of a, a , depends on the type of particle. In general, a oscillates with a time de-
pendence exp iEt, where E is a function of p. For a Schrodinger field, E = p2 /m, while for a
Klein-Gordon field E 2 = p2 + m2 . The dependence of E(p) reflects dierent types of string.
From what we have said, for a scalar field (x) there is one set of operators ap , ap corre-
sponding to each possible momentum p. A state with one particle of momentum p will be:
and examples of other states with more that one particle are:
1
|p, q >= ap aq |0 >, |p, p >= ap ap |0 > (3.85)
2!
In the case of spin-1/2 particles, two particles cannot occupy an identical state, in accordance
with the Pauli exclusion principle. This means that for a fixed p we desire that (ap )2 = 0. This
suggests that the way to incorporate the exclusion principle into the framework of creation and
annihilation operators is to replace the commutators with anti-commutators:
Now the number operator Np = ap ap that counts the number of particles of a given momentum
p, has only two eigenvalues, 0 and 1, as desired. This can be seen from the fact (we omit the
sub-index p):
N 2 = a aa a = a (1 a a)a = a a = N N (N 1) = 0 (3.87)
The two eigenstates are denoted by |1 >, |0 >, and the actuation of the creation and annihilation
operators over them is as expected:
a|1 >= a(a |0 >) = (1 a a)|0 >= (1 N )|0 >= |0 > a|1 > = |0 >
a |1 > = a a |0 >= 0
a|0 > = aa|1 >= 0 (3.88)
42 Chapter 3. From classical to quantum field theory
Chapter 4
In this chapter we will proceed to quantize the scalar Klein-Gordon field. First, we will do it
following the second quantization method explained in section 3.4.2 with the introduction of
creation and annihilation operators. Then, we will use the standard canonical procedure and
prove that the methods are two dierent alternatives to quantize such fields.
requiring that it represents only ONE particle in the entire space. From equation ??, we know
that the density associated with this solution is:
= j 0 = 2EN 2 (4.2)
and the required condition, V d3 x = 1, implies that N = 1/ 2EV . Thus the normalized
normal mode of the Klein-Gordon field that represents one particle with momentum p is:
1
p (x) = eipx (4.3)
2EV
and the general field is a superposition of these modes with some coecients:
a(
p)
+ (x) = eipx (4.4)
p
2EV
where p is summed over all possible values with the periodic condition ( px = (2/L)nx , py =
(2/L)ny , pz = (2/L)nz , with ni Z).
Now we consider a(p) as operators. Thus (x) is also an operator and if we want it to be
Hermitian, we must add the Hermitian conjugate:
ap ap
(x) = + (x) + + (x) = eipx + eipx (4.5)
p
2EV 2EV
44 Chapter 4. Quantization of a scalar field
where, as said in section 3.4.2, we can identify ap , ap as the creation/annihilation operators with
the commutation rules:
These are space-time-independent operators and clearly their time dependence is:
Let us now follow another argument that will allow us to obtain an identical expression for
the (x) operator. At any given time, say t=0, a general classical real (Hermitian) field can be
expressed by:
( a( p) ipx p) ipx
a(
)
(0, x) = e + e (4.9)
p
2EV 2EV
Its time evolution is given by the Klein-Gordon equation and we know it can be eiEt . If we
want the field to be real, the only solution is:
( a(
p) p) +iEt ipx
a(
)
iEt i
(t, x) = e e p
x
+ e e (4.10)
p
2EV 2EV
The apparent second alternative that can be obtained by multiplying the first term by e+iEt and
the second by eiEt , represents the same solution, just re-labeling p p. Now, to quantize
1
the field, we have to identify the coecient of the mode 2EV e i
px as an creation/annihilation
operator of particles with momentum p .
To obtain the continuous version of equation 4.5, we take into account that the possible values
of p are on a cubic grid of V = L3 , each one occupying a volume dV = (2/L)3 = (2)3 /V .
This means that p dV (...) = d3 p(...) or:
V
d3 p(...) (4.11)
p
(2)3
Replacing the p
in equation 4.5 by its continuous limit, we obtain:
1 ( ipx ) d3 p V ( )
(x) = ap e + ap eipx = a p
e ipx
+ a ipx
p
e (4.12)
p
2EV (2)3 2EV
Very often, a new set of creation/annihilation operators are introduced which are those defined
above up to a constant:
ap 2EV ap , ap 2EV ap (4.13)
n
(x xi )
(f (x)) = (4.19)
i=1
|f (xi )|
To prove that (x)| > creates a state that is sharply localized at x, we will proceed by
similarity with QM, where the wave function of a sate | > is given by (x) =< x| >.
Following this, the wave function of (x)| >, at say, time t=0, is given by:
1 ( ipx ) eipx
< x |(0, x)| >=< x | ap e + ap eipx | >= < x |ap | > (4.21)
p
2EV p
2EV
46 Chapter 4. Quantization of a scalar field
which shows the normalization used for the normal modes when considering the operators a
instead of a.)
Using this we obtain:
eipx
1 d3 p 1 ip(x x)
< x |(0, x)| >= eipx = e (4.22)
p
2EV 2EV (2)3 2E
Except for the factor 1/2E, this is just 3 (x x); in fact, this extra factor is nearly constant for
small (non-relativistic) p. We can therefore say that < x |(0, x)| > 2E 1 3
(x x) represents
a state sharply localized at x; namely (x) creates a particle at x when acting over the vacuum.
Actually, we expect that this should be the case if x0 = x0 , as this is the canonical commutation
relation. Physically, this will mean that we can set our initial data for a constant time slice.
Let us now compute the above commutator for any time. Writing: (x) = + (x) + (x),
where + ( = + ) contains only annihilation (creation) operators, the commutator is:
[(x), (y)] = [+ (x) + (x), + (y) + (y)] = [+ (x), (y)] + [ (x), + (y)] (4.24)
where:
1 1 1 1
[+ (x), (y)] = [ ap eipx , ap eip y ] = ei(pxp y) [ap , ap ]
2EV
2E V
2EV 2E V
p
p p p
,
1 ip(xy) d3 p
= e = eip(xy) D(x y) (4.25)
p
2EV (2)3 2E
and:
1 1
[ (x), + (y)] = [ ap eipx , ap eip y ]
2EV
2E V
p
p
1 ip(yx) d3 p
= e = eip(yx) = D(y x) (4.26)
p
2EV (2)3 2E
4.1 Second quantization 47
Finally:
d3 p
[(x), (y)] = D(x y) D(y x) = (eip(xy) eip(yx) )
(2)3 2E
d4 p
= (p2 m2 )(p0 )(eip(xy) eip(xy) ) (x y) (4.27)
(2)3
where we have used the same procedure used in equation 4.17. From the last expression for
(x y), we can see that it is Lorentz invariant, as is D(x y). This means that (x y) =
((x y)), where is any Lorentz transformation.
We can see that indeed, if x0 = y 0 , and changing p p in the second integral (D(y x)),
the commutator [(t, x), (t, y )] = (0, x y ) = 0; as expected from the canonical commutators.
Knowing now that (z) = 0 for any vector with z 0 = 0, (z = (0, z)), let us prove that
(z) = 0 for any z such that z 2 < 0. As mentioned before, since (z) is Lorentz invariant, if
we are able to find a Lorentz transformation from any space-like 4-vector z 2 < 0, to a 4-vector
z with z 0 = 0, we are proving the results mentioned before, since (z) = (0, z ) = 0.
A general boost in the direction of z by speed applied to z is:
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
z 0 z0 z 0 |z| (z 0 |z|)
= = = (4.28)
|z | |z| z 0 + |z| (z 0 |z|)
where we can identify each term, one-to-one, since: 0|(x)(y)|0 = 0|+ (x) (y)|0 =
0|[(x)+ , (y) ]|0 = D(x y).
Let us assume that: x0 > y 0 ,
d3 p
(x y )0|[(x), (y)]|0 = (x y )
0 0 0
(eip(xy) eip(xy) )
0
(2)3 2Ep
( )
d3 p 1 ip(xy) 1 ip(xy)
= (x0 y 0 ) e |p0 =Ep + e |p0 =Ep (4.31)
(2)3 2p0 2p0
H
Using the fact that dzf (z) = +2i singularities ak Res(f, ak ) (counterclockwise loop), the
integral can also be expressed as:
d3 p dp0 1
(x y )
0 0
eip(xy) (4.32)
(2)3 C 2i p2 m2
where C is a circuit containing the two poles at p0 = Ep = p2 + m2 closed through the
lowest half of the complex plane (p0 = i) since x0 y 0 > 0. We have used:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 0 2 = 0 2 = 0 ( ), ( ).
p2 m2 (p ) (p2 + m2 ) (p ) Ep2 p Ep p0 + Ep 2Ep p0 Ep 2Ep p0 + Ep
(4.33)
Another way of obtain the integration circuit is to add a small and negative imaginary part and
declare that the poles lie at p0 = Ep i; and the integrating p0 over the real line.
Finally let us define the retarded propagator as:
where p0 is integrated over the real line with the poles at p0 = Ep i. If x0 y 0 > 0, we
close the circuit through the lowest half of the complex plane and both poles contribute to the
integral; while if x0 y 0 < 0, we close the circuit through the upper half of the complex plane
and the integral is 0.
Likewise, we can consider an advanced propagator as:
where p0 is integrated over the real line with the poles at p0 = Ep + i. If x0 y 0 > 0, we close
the circuit through the lower half of the complex plane and the integral is 0; while if x0 y 0 < 0,
we close the circuit through the upper half of the complex plane the two poles contribute to the
integral.
The Feynman propagator is defined as:
This means that DF (x y) = D(x y) if x0 > y 0 (only the pole at +E contributes), and
DF (x y) = D(y x) if x0 < y 0 (only the pole at -E contributes). This can be expressed by:
d4 p i
DF = eip(xy) . (4.37)
(2)4 p2 m2 + i
we pick only the contribution from the pole at p0 = +Ep , which is D(x y), as desired. The
opposite happens if y 0 > x0 ; in that case the non-zero contribution comes from the negative
energy solution.
The dierent prescriptions for the poles are summarized in Figure 4.1.
We can check that the retarded propagator verifies the following dierential equation:
In fact, all propagators are related to solutions of this partial dierential equation (Greens
equation) and they are therefore called Greens functions. If we denote a generic propagator by
D(x y) (retarded, Feynman...), then:
and:
d4 p i
D(x y) = eip(xy) (4.41)
(2) p m2
4 2
The dierence between the dierent Green functions (DA (x y), DR (x y), ...) lies in the
prescription of how to handle the poles appearing in the p0 integral. The retarded prescription,
as we have seen, includes both of them in the contour.
where (x) is the canonical momentum that can be derived from the Lagrangian density by:
L
(x) = . (4.43)
We have seen that the Lagrangian density for the Klein-Gordon field is:
1
L(, ) = ( m2 2 ) (4.44)
2
and the canonical momentum of is:
L .
(x) = . = (4.45)
As we are, for the moment, considering a real classical field that corresponds to a Hermitian
operator (x) which should satisfy the equation (2 + m2 ) = 0, we can expand it in terms of
the normal modes as:
(x) = (ap ep (x) + ap ep (x) (4.46)
p
1
where ep (x) = 2EV eipx , with p0 = E = + p2 + m2 , and ap , ap are operators which do not
depend on x. For the time being, we do not know the commutation rules between these opera-
tors, but we can deduce that they follow the same rules as the creation/annihilation operators
introduced in the previous section (which explains the names used for them) when we demand
the fulfillment of the canonical commutation rules.
As ep (x) = iEep (x), ep (x) = iEep (x), the conjugate field is:
. .
.
(x) = (x) = (iE)(ap ep (x) ap ep (x) (4.47)
p
These last two expressions allow us to compute the commutators between the operators a, a ,
as we know the commutators between and . Doing so, we obtain the same results as in 4.6,
thereby demonstrating that the system can be regarded as a set of harmonic oscillators labeled
by p and ap , ap as the creation/annihilation operators. We can also demonstrate the inverse:
show that the commutators between the operators , are those given in 3.78, just assuming
the commutators between a, a as those given in 4.6. This shows the equivalence of the two
methods, canonical and second quantization, to quantize the fields.
where Np is the number operator corresponding to the normal mode labeled by p. This means
that exciting a normal mode p by one quantum number, the energy of the system increases by
E = p2 + m2 .
Notice that in the expression for H, the term p 12 is infinite but constant. The solution to
this is to drop it, since adding or subtracting a constant to the Hamiltonian does not change
the dynamics. This can be implemented using the normal product symbol:
1
H= E : (ap ap + ap ap ) := Eap ap = ENp (4.55)
2 p p
p
where the normal product means moving the operator a in each term to the left. It is understood
that when the normal product is taken, the operators a, a are not reordered by commutation
(for example : a aa := a a a, and not : a aa :=: a a a a := a a a a).
Finally, let us compute the energy of the state |p >= ap | >:
< p|H|
p >=< p| ENp |
p >=< p| Ep p,p |
p >= Ep (4.56)
p
p
as expected.
52 Chapter 4. Quantization of a scalar field
In section 3.3.3 we have seen that the symmetry of the Lagrangian under displacements in
space-time allows us to define 4 conserved charges P :
( )
L .
P = 0 3
d xT 00
= d x 3
. L = d3 xH = H (4.57)
just the Hamiltonian, and for i = 1, 2, 3 we have:
L
Pi = d3 xT 0i = d3 x . i = d3 x i P = d3 x
(4.58)
1 1
P = p (ap ap + ap ap ) = p(Np + ) (4.59)
p
2 p
2
as in the case of the Hamiltonian, each quantum carries the momentum associated with its
normal mode p, and the additional infinite constant in the definition of P can be discarded
using the normal product:
1
P = p : (ap ap + ap ap ) := pap ap = pNp (4.60)
2 p p
p
both of which satisfy the Klein-Gordon equation, since 1 (x), 2 (x) do. The Lagrangian can be
written in terms of these new fields:
1( )
L = 1 1 + 2 2 m2 (21 + 22 )
2
1( )
= ( 1 i 2 )( 1 + i 2 ) m2 (1 i2 )(1 + i2 )
2
= m2 (4.63)
4.3 Quantization of charged scalar fields 53
Treating and as independent fields now, equation 3.20 applied to the last expression for L
allows us to deduce that both fields obey the Klein-Gordon equation:
( )
L L
= 0 ( + m2 ) = 0
( )
( )
L L
= 0 ( + m2 ) = 0
( )
(4.64)
allows us to write and in terms of a new set of creation and annihilation operators:
1 1 ( )
= (1 + i2 ) = (a1p + ia2p )ep + (a1p + ia2p )ep ) (4.66)
2 2 p
Defining: ap 1 (a1
2 p + ia2p ) and bp 1 (a
2 1 p + ia2p ), this allows us to write the fields as:
(x) = (ap ep + bp ep )
p
(x) = (ap ep + bp ep ) (4.67)
p
L . 1 . . 1
.= = (1 i 2 ) = (1 i2 )
2 2
L . 1 . . 1
. == (1 +i 2 ) = (1 + i2 ) = (4.68)
2 2
The equal-time commutators among the new fields and their conjugates are:
and all the rest are 0. This can be shown using the equal-time commutators of the original fields
( [i (t, x), i (t, x)] = i 3 (x x ), i = 1, 2 and 0 the rest). Similarly, the commutation relations
among the new creation and annihilation operators can be obtained using the commutators of
the original ones. This leads to:
ei , ei = +i, = i (4.71)
or its equivalent: ( ) ( )( )
1 cos sin 1
= (4.72)
2 sin cos 2
which is just a rotation in the 2-dimensional space spanned by the two Hermitian fields 1 , 2 .
In section 3.3.4, we saw that this symmetry leads to a conserved current:
( )
j = i ( ) ( ) (4.73)
Now, expressing each Hi in terms of the creation/annihilation operators, we have for the total
Hamiltonian:
H = d3 xH = d3 x(H1 + H2 ) = H1 + H2
1 1
= E(a1,p a1,p + ) + E(a2,p a2,p + )
p
2 p
2
= E(a1,p a1,p + a2,p a2,p + 1)
p
= E(ap ap + bp bp + 1) (4.76)
p
where we have used ap ap +bp bp = a1,p a1,p +a2,p a2,p . Notice the very important feature that both
particle types, charges (or particle/antiparticle), contribute positively to the total energy,
eliminating the problem of negative energy for antiparticles. As usual, the infinite constant term
In this chapter we quantize the Dirac field using the second quantization method. As in the case
of the Klein-Gordon field, we do so by writing the field as a function of the normal modes, but
with two main dierences. First, knowing that we will describe a charged particle/antiparticle
system, and guided by what we saw in section 4.3 above, we will not require that the field
operator be Hermitian. Secondly, as suggested in section 3.4.2, we will replace the commutator
rules for the creation/annihilation operator by anti-commutators.
Now, at a given p, its 4-component spinor can be expressed as a linear combination of a base
set. As a base we are going to take the spinors up,s , vp,s introduced in section 2.4.1. Notice
that we use a minus sign for the vs for a reason that will become clear soon. Any other base set
can be used, for instance with the positive sign for the vs, but this selection is more appropriate
for our purposes. With this base:
C1,p
C2,p
C =
(ap,s up,s + bp,s vp,s ) (5.2)
3,p s
C4,p
where ap,s , bp,s are just the 4 expansion coecients. Thus at t=0, we can express any (0, x)
as
(0, x) = (ap,s up,s + bp,s vp,s )eipx = (ap,s up,s eipx + bp,s vp,s eipx ) (5.3)
p
,s p
,s
56 Chapter 5. Quantization of the Dirac equation
Now we can proceed with the second quantization identifying the coecients a, b with cre-
ation/annihilation operators, except up to a possible constant. To fix it, we have to be sure that
the normal modes are normalized. In section 2.4 we normalized the spinors u and v such that:
= j 0 = u 0 u = u u = 2E, = j 0 = v 0 v = v v = 2E (5.5)
thus, the normalization of the normal modes p (t, x) = N up,s eipx implies:
1
1= 3
d x = 3
d x = N 2 up,s up,s d3 x = N 2 2EV N = (5.6)
2EV
and 0 for all the others (s, s can take the two values s once the quantization axis is fixed s)
The physical action of the operators a and b is as follows (also by comparison to the boson
case):
bp,s creates an antiparticle (of positive energy) with momentum p and polarization s (or
annihilates a negative energy state with momentum p and polarization s)
a(
p)|0 = 0, b(
p)|0 = 0. (5.10)
The first defines the vacuum as the state where there are no positive energy solutions (and hence
none can be destroyed). The second relation defines the vacuum as the state where there are no
antiparticles (and hence none can be destroyed), which is equivalent to saying that the vacuum
is the state where negative energy solutions are all filled up (and hence none can be created, due
to the Pauli exclusion principle). This makes it clear that we are indeed dealing with fermions.
5.2 Canonical commutation relations 57
which allows us to write the creation and annihilation operators in terms of the fields:
ap,s = d3 xfp,s (x)
bp,s = d3 xgp,s (x) (5.12)
and the principle of minimal action for the true equation of motion, which should be true for all
possible , implies that (i m) = 0 which is the Dirac equation. To obtain the equation
of motion for , first we can rewrite the action S by partial integration as
:S= d4 x(i m) (5.17)
where f f . Varying now , this leads to the equation of motion for :
(i m) = 0 (5.18)
In fact, the expression of the Lagrangian that appears in the action of equation 5.17 is just the
Hermitian of the one used in 5.15. Both of them give the same action because the dierence is
only a total derivative. To be proper, we can ensure the Lagrangian is Hermitian by adding the
two expressions obtained for L and dividing by 2:
(
)
1 1
L= (i m) + (i m) = (i m) (5.19)
2 2
58 Chapter 5. Quantization of the Dirac equation
where = ( ) and is the normal .
As all the Lagrangians shown in this section represent the same action, which gives the Dirac
equation, for simplicity we will use:
L = (i m) = i m = i( 0 ) m (5.20)
where runs over the 4-index spinor. The field conjugate to a will be:
L
= . = i( 0 0 ) = i , = i (5.21)
where runs over the 4 spinor components. This energy-momentum tensor has 4 associated
conserved currents ( T = 0), each one with the corresponding conserved charges:
P d3 xT 0 = d3 xi g 0 L = d3 x g 0 L (5.24)
which is the total energy, as expected. Let us work on the Hamiltonian density H some more.
. . .
H = L = i (i m) = i (5.26)
5.3 Noether currents 59
where we have used the fact that when satisfies the Dirac equation the second term vanishes.
Another way to confirm this result is:
. .
H = i (i m) = i i 0 ( 0 0 + i i ) + m 0
= i 0 i i + m 0 = (i
+ m) (5.27)
where HDirac = i
+ m is the time evolution operator (i = HDirac ) introduced in
t
equation 2.1. Once more we recover:
.
H = i (5.28)
Now, using the relations given at 5.11 and the expressions:
(x) = (ap,s fp,s + bp,s gp,s )
p
,s
.
(x) = (iE)(ap,s fp,s bp,s gp,s ) (5.29)
p
,s
which, as expected, is just the sum of energy of all particles since: Npa,s = ap,s ap,s and Npb,s =
bp,s bp,s are the number operators for particle and antiparticle in state p, s. As in the charged
Klein-Gordon field, both particles contribute positively to the total energy and the infinite
constant term can be discarded using normal ordering:
.
H =: d3 xi :=: E(ap,s ap,s bp,s bp,s ) := E(ap,s ap,s + bp,s bp,s ) (5.31)
p
s p
s
Note that in this case a - sign appears when bp,s bp,s is replaced by its normal-ordered prod-
uct bp,s bp,s . In general, for FERMIONS, normal ordering acquires a -(+) sign if odd(even)
permutations are needed.
since i is the momentum operator, this result can interpreted as the expectation value of
i for a given field . The same interpretation can be used for the total energy:
H= d3 x (i ) (5.33)
t
Substituting and in the expression for P given in equation 5.32, we obtain:
P = p(ap,s ap,s bp,s bp,s ) = p(ap,s ap,s + bp,s bp,s 1) (5.34)
p
s p
s
as expected. Again, we could remove the constant divergence term by normal ordering:
P = d3 x : (i)
:= p(ap,s ap,s + bp,s bp,s ) (5.35)
p
s
60 Chapter 5. Quantization of the Dirac equation
j = (5.38)
which we have identified as a probability at 2.1.1, which is always positive. When we move to
quantum fields, making use of the expressions for and as functions of the creation and
annihilation operators, we obtain:
Q= d3 x = (ap,s ap,s + bp,s bp,s ) = (ap,s ap,s bp,s bp,s + 1) (5.40)
p
s p
s
Thus, the total number of particles minus the total number of antiparticles is a conserved
quantity. The physical interpretation of this symmetry depends on the assignment of particles.
It may correspond to electric charge, lepton number, baryon number, etc. As we can see,
particles and antiparticles have opposite values of this conserved charge.
As before, the additive infinite constant can be done away with through the use of normal
ordering:
Q= d3 x : := : (ap,s ap,s + bp,s bp,s ) := (ap,s ap,s bp,s bp,s ) (5.41)
p
s p
s
5.4 Locality
When discussing the Klein-Gordon field we found that locality, or microscopic causality, is guar-
anteed by the fact that [(x), (y)] = 0, if (xy)2 < 0. In the case of the Dirac field, the relevant
relations for causality are still commutators, but commutators between bilinear covariants be-
cause the physically relevant quantities are not the fields themselves, but the combinations which
are the sources of interaction: the bilinear covariants. Thus, we would like to prove that:
Using these last relations, and assuming (x y)2 < 0, we can deduce:
The first two anti-commutators of 5.43 are easy to prove since they do not contain any term like
{a, a } or {b, b }. The third one requires some care:
( ) ( )
{ (x), (x )} = { ap,s fp,s (x) + bp,s gp,s (x) , ap ,s fp ,s (x ) + bp ,s gp ,s (x ) }
p
,s ,s
p
( )
= (fp,s (x)) (fp,s (x )) + (gp,s (x)) (gp,s (x ))
p
,s
1 (
)
= (up,s ) (up,s ) eip(xx ) + (vp,s ) (vp,s ) eip(xx )
p
,s
2EV
1 (
)
= ( p + m) eip(xx ) ( p + m) eip(xx )
p
2EV
1 (
)
= (i + m) eip(xx ) (i + m) eip(xx )
p
2EV
1 ( ip(xx )
)
= (i + m) e eip(xx )
p
2EV
( )
d3 p ip(xx ) ip(xx )
= (i + m) e e
(2E)(2)3
= (i + m) (x x ) (5.45)
which proves the locality of the Dirac equation as (x x ) has this property.
Notice that we have proved the microscopic causality of the Dirac equation using the anti-
commutators for the creation/annihilation operators, while we used the commutator relations
for the Klein-Gordon equation. This is general: microscopic causality requires quantization
using anti-commutators for fermions and commutators for bosons.
SF (x y) = (x0 y 0 )0| (x) (y)|0 (y 0 x0 )0| (y) (x)|0 0|T (x)(y) |0,
(5.46)
where the minus sign appears on account of the anti-commuting character of the variables and
will become clear when we discuss interacting fields. Note that SF is a matrix.
The two contributions to this propagator come from:
S+ (x y) 0|(x) (y) |0
= 0| (ap,s fp,s (x) + bp,s gp,s (x) ) (ap ,s fp ,s (y) + bp ,s gp ,s (y) ) |0
p
,s ,s
p
62 Chapter 5. Quantization of the Dirac equation
= 0| (ap,s fp,s (x) ) (ap ,s fp ,s (y) ) |0 = fp,s (x) fp,s (y)
p
,s ,s
p p
,s
(up,s ) (up,s ) +ipy 1
= eipx e = ( p + m) eip(xy)
p
,s 2EV 2EV p
2EV
d3 p
= ( p + m) eip(xy) . (5.47)
(2)3 2Ep
and
(vp,s )
ipy (v ) d3 p
S (yx) 0|(y) (x) |0 = e p,s e+ipx = ( pm) eip(xy) .
p
,s 2EV 2EV (2)3 2Ep
(5.48)
We can now see that: 0|(x)(y)|0 propagates particles (positive energy solutions) from y to
x while 0|(y)(x)|0 propagates antiparticles from x to y.
but not simultaneously! If x0 > y 0 , we have particle propagation; while for y 0 > x0 , we have
antiparticle propagation.
As in the case discussed above for the Klein-Gordon field, all propagators are related to
solutions of the partial dierential equations:
( p m)S(p) = i (5.52)
lies in how we deal with the poles appearing in the p0 integral. The Feynman propagator is
obtained by considering:
p + m
i 2 (5.56)
p m2 + i
and the requirement over S() is only verified in the Majorana representation. Now, there are
only two independent spinors that can be obtained by solving the Dirac equation ( p m)u = 0
in this representation, or boosting the normalized rest frame solutions:
( )
s
s = m eimt + h.c. (5.59)
2 s
64 Chapter 5. Quantization of the Dirac equation
Thus, the most general real field solution can be expressed as a combination of the previous
ones: ( )
up,s ipx up,s ipx
(x) = ap,s e + ap,s e (5.61)
p
,s 2EV 2EV
Following the second quantization prescription for this field, we must now interpret a, a as
creation/annihilation operator satisfying the usual anti-commutator rules for fermions:
A massive spin-1 field at rest has 3 degrees of freedom corresponding to the 3 eigenvalues of the
spin in the direction of quantization. In the case of a massless particle, such as the photon, the
number of degrees of freedom is reduced to two and they correspond to the two helicity states
(the spin component along the p-direction.
E
=0 ,
B
= 0,
+ B = 0 ,
E E = 0.
B (6.1)
t t
These electric and magnetic fields are expressed using the 4-vector potential A = (A0 , A),
is the vector potential. The expressions are:
where A0 is the scalar potential and A
= A
E 0 0 A,
=
B A,
(6.2)
The equation that this 4-vector A should obey to guarantee that the electric and magnetic
fields defined by 6.2 obey equations 6.1, will be made explicit soon.
Maxwells equations 6.1 can be expressed in a more covariant notation by introducing the
anti-symmetric field-strength tensor:
0 Ex Ey Ez
Ex 0 Bz By
F
E
(6.3)
y Bz 0 Bx
Ez By Bx 0
F 0i = i A0 0 Ai = i A0 0 Ai = E i
F ij = j Ai i Aj = i Aj j Ai = ijk B k . (6.4)
66 Chapter 6. Quantization of the photon field
F 0 = i F i0 = i F 0i =
E
=0
. .
F j = 0 F 0j + i F ij =E j i jik B k =E j (
B)j = 0 (6.5)
F = 2A A = 0. (6.6)
Physics is not altered by the gauge transformation and one can define A uniquely by im-
posing an extra condition on A , called choosing the gauge or fixing the gauge. Commonly used
choices are:
6.1 Maxwells equations 67
Lorentz gauge: A = 0
Coulomb gauge:
A
=0
The Lorentz gauge is manifestly covariant while the Coulomb field gives A0 = 0 as deduced from
equation 6.11. In both cases equation 6.6 is reduced to:
2A = 0 (6.14)
thus each of the components of A satisfies the Klein-Gordon equation with m = 0 and the
solutions are:
A (x) = A0 eikx (6.15)
with k 2 = 0 and A00 = 0 for the Coulomb gauge.
From here on, we stay in the Coulomb gauge.
Coulomb Gauge
A(x)
= 0, (6.16)
A0 = 0 (6.17)
with k 2 = 0 and k A
= 0 (from
k
A(x)
= 0 ). Then:
.
= A=
E ik 0 A(x)
=
B = ik A(x)
A (6.19)
k,i k,j = ij
k,1 k,2 = k (6.21)
This fixes these vectors except for a rotation around k. We will leave it at that, except for k,
where the vectors are defined relative to k,i as shown in Figure 6.2.
where ek (x) = eikx / 2V w, (w k 0 = |k|). Note that for a given k, we have only two degrees
of freedom, as expected for the photon. Thus, the quantization is obtained by considering ak,i
and a as operators with the standard commutators:
k,i
[ak,i , a ] = ij kk (6.25)
k ,j
and 0 for all the rest. a is the creation operator that corresponds to a photon with momentum
k,i
k and polarized linearly in the direction .
k,i
Very often it is more convenient to use circular polarized bases. This can be done by defining:
1
a (a ia )
k, 2 k,1 k,2
1
k, (k,1 ik,2 ) (6.26)
2
It is easy to prove that these new operators obey the rules:
Now, taking into account that ak,+ k,+ + ak, k, = ak,1 k,1 + ak,2 k,2 , the field operator can be
rewritten as
( )
A(x) = ak,s k,s ek (x) + a k,s ek (x) (6.28)
k,s
k s=
where a is the creation operator that corresponds to a photon with momentum k and right-
k,+
handedly polarized with respect to k. This can be seen by looking at the time dependence of
the associated wave function:
( )
Re(k,s ek (x)) Re(k,1 ik,2 )eiwt ) k,1 cos(wt) + k,2 sin(wt) (6.29)
2
(k, )i (k, )j + ki kj = ij (6.30)
=1
2
2
(k,s )i (k,s )j = (k, )i (k, )j = ij ki kj (6.31)
s= =1
70 Chapter 6. Quantization of the photon field
where, as usual, the infinite constant term can be discarded using normal ordering.
The space components of P are given by:
.
k
Pi = d3 x k i Ak = d3 x(E k )(
i Ak ) = d3 x A i Ak (6.36)
Whereas:
B)
(E i = ijk E j B k = ijk E j (
A)
k = ijk klm E j
l Am
= (il jm im jl )E j
l Am = E j
i Aj E j
j Ai (6.37)
thus,
B)
d3 x(E i = d3 x(E j
i Aj E j
j Ai )
.j
.j
= d x( A
3 i Aj
j (E j Ai ) + (
j E j )Ai = d3 x A i Aj = P i
P = B
d3 xE (6.38)
L
M = T x T x (B ) . (6.41)
( )
In our case:
A (x) A (x) = A (1 x) (6.42)
L L
M = T x T x
(M ) A = T x T x (g g g g )A
( A ) ( A )
L L
= T x T x A + A (6.43)
( A ) ( A )
and
L L
M 0jk = T 0j xk T 0k xj
A + A
(0 A ) (0 A )
= ()
j A xk ()
k A xj + E k Aj E j Ak (6.44)
( ) ( )
Mjk = d3 x ()
j A xk ()
k A xj + E k Aj E j Ak = B)
d3 x (E j xk (E
B)
k xj
( ) (6.45)
and as ijk
xj (E B)
k = x (E
B)
, we finally obtain
i
( )
J = d3 x x (E
B)
(6.46)
This is the total angular momentum operator and it is a conserved charge. It is easy to show
that it has two parts: ( )
Ji = d 3 x E (x )
iA A)
+ (E i (6.47)
the first one can be identified with the total orbital angular momentum. By comparison with
the total momentum, P i = d3 xE we see that the momentum operator
i A, has been
substituted by the orbital momentum operator x .
Thus, the second term should be identified with the spin:
=
S A)
d3 x : ( E := ... = +i k(a ak,1 a ak,2 ) = k(a ak,+ a ak, ) (6.48)
k,2 k,1 k,+ k,
k k
which shows what was stated above: a (a ) is the creation operator that corresponds to a
k,+ k,
photon of helicity +1 (-1).
72 Chapter 6. Quantization of the photon field
Chapter 7
Interacting Fields
In a e+ e collision at S 3GeV the J/ particle can be produced. We can describe this
interaction as 2 initial plane waves, one for e+ and other for e , that overlap in some region. If
there is no interaction, nothing will happen; but if there is an interaction, the overlap can be
the source of a new wave, the J/ wave. The strength and the overlap itself, depend on the
kind of physics we are dealing with. Normally the strength is given by a constant called the
coupling constant and the overlap at x which is relevant to generate some other wave could
be:
e+ e , e+ e , e+ 5 e , .... (7.1)
c A (7.2)
where c is the coupling constant and A is the J/ field. This is the additional term that will
appear in the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian.
1
L0 = Le + L = (i m) F F (7.3)
4
but if there is interaction, since L = T V , the obvious move would be to subtract the additional
potential energy caused by the interaction. To obtain the expression for the photon-electron
potential, let us move to the rest frame where the potential energy at x is:
1
Ltot = L0 + Lint = (i m) F F + e A (7.5)
4
74 Chapter 7. Interacting Fields
Notice that the interaction term is Hermitian, since A and are Hermitian. Since Lint does
not contain any time derivatives, the conjugate fields stay as before:
Ltot L0
r = = , r = , A (7.6)
r r
Ltot L0
Htot = r Ltot = r L0 Lint = H0 Lint H0 + Hint (7.7)
r r
The new equations of motion for the fields can be obtained using the principle of minimal action.
Varying A :
1
S = d4 xLtot = d4 x(Le + L + Lint ) = d4 x F F + d4 xe A
4
= d4 x( F )A + d4 xe A = d4 x( F + e )A (7.8)
where we have used 6.8. As A is arbitrary, the principle of minimal action implies:
F = ej (j = ) (7.9)
Now, varying :
S = d4 xLtot = d4 x(Le + Lint ) = d4 x( (i m) + e A )
= d4 x ((i m) + e A ) = 0
(i m) = e A (7.10)
these two equations indicate that the overlap between the electron and positron, given by j =
, acts as a source of the photon field with a coupling constant e; and the overlap of the
photon field and the electron (or positron) given by A acts as a source of the Dirac field with
the same coupling constant. Both sources come from Lint = e A
as before, the subscript H indicates the we are now in the Heisenberg representation. In the
very usual case that HS do not depend on t, we obtain HH = HS H
Up to now, even though we have not mentioned it explicitly, we have been working in the
Heisenberg representation, since the field operators (x) do depend on time and its commutator
with the Hamiltonian obey equation 7.12. Taking as as example the Klein-Gordon field operator:
(x) = (ap ep (x) + ap ep (x) (7.13)
p
it is very easy to prove that the fields obey the equation of motion (in the Heisenberg represen-
tation):
.
i = [, H] (7.15)
as before, the subscript I indicates the we are now in the interaction representation. In the very
usual case that HS0 do not depend on t, we obtain HI0 = HS0 H 0 and hI = hS h.
Thus, if we consider operators and Hamiltonians (H 0 ) that do not have explicit time depen-
dence in the Schrodinger representation, the equations of motion can be summarized as:
Schrodinger:
i | >S = H| >S ,
i AS = 0 (7.17)
Heisenberg:
i | >H = 0,
i AH = [AH , H] (7.18)
76 Chapter 7. Interacting Fields
Dirac:
i | >I = h| >I
i AI = [AI , H 0 ] (7.19)
The important feature of the Dirac representation is that all the field operators satisfy the
same equation of motion of the free fields and thus their time dependence is the same. This
means that, for the Dirac field for example, its time dependence is still given by:
I (x) = (ap,s fp,s + bp,s gp,s ) (7.20)
p
,s
with
up,s ipx vp,s ipx
fp,s e , gp,s e (7.21)
2EV 2EV
and HI0
HI0 = E(ap,s ap,s + bp,s bp,s ) (7.22)
p
s
From now on we will stay in the interaction representation and we will omit the subscript
I.
The advantage of this form is that the interaction Hamiltonian h is often proportional to
some dimensionless constant and the contribution from higher-order terms becomes progressively
smaller. Taking Htot = H0 + h = H0 Lint , the first order in S is:
S 1i dtT (h(t)) = 1i dth(t) = 1i dt 3
d x(Lint ) = 1+i d4 xLint (7.29)
Once the S-matrix is given, the transition amplitude from an initial state |i > to a final state
|f >, is given by
Sf i =< f |S|i > (7.30)
7.4 0 e+ e
First we have to find out the possible expression for the interaction term between 0 , a particle
that happens to be a pseudo-scalar (a spin-0 field that changes sign under parity), and the
electron/positron field. As this is not an example of a weak interaction, the total Lagrangian
should be invariant under parity operations. In particular, the interaction Lagrangian should
contain the pion field, that changes sign under parity, and a bilinear term that must also change
sign under parity. So the interaction is:
Lint = ig 5 (7.32)
Notice that the coupling constant g is dimensionless. This is easy to see taking into account
that the action S is dimensionless, which implies that dim(L) = E 4 , and the massive terms of
the free scalar and Dirac Lagrangian tell us:
dim(m2 2 ) = E 4 dim() = E
3
dim(m) = 4 dim() = E 2 (7.34)
Notice that there cannot be any confusion between the creation operators for the pion and the
electron because the latter also contains the spin subscript.
We will compute the transition amplitude to first order in the coupling constant, where the
S matrix is given by equation 7.29:
S = 1 + i 4
d xLint = 1 + i d4 x(ig 5 ) (7.37)
the only term in 5 that survives is the term that annihilates a 0 with momentum P and
creates e+ (e ) with p2 , s2 (
p1 , s1 ) . Thus:
Sf i = g < 0|bp2s2 ap1s1 d4 x aP eP ap1 ,s1 fp1 ,s1 5 bp2 ,s2 gp2 ,s2 a |0 >
P
= g d4 x < 0|(bp2s2 ap1s1 aP )(ap1 ,s1 bp2 ,s2 a )|0 > eP fp1 ,s1 5 gp2 ,s2
P
7.4 0 e+ e 79
0 ,s 5 gp ,s
= g d4 x < ep+ 1 ,s1 P |P ep
2 ,s2 ep
0 +
1 ,s1 ep
2 ,s2 > eP
fp1 1 2 2
eiP x up1 ,s1 eip1 x 5 vp2 ,s2 eip2 x
= g d4 x eP fp1 ,s1 5 gp2 ,s2 = g d4 x
2P 0 V 2p01 V 2p02 V
g up1 ,s1 5 vp2 ,s2
= d4 xei(p1 +p2 P )x
(2P 0 V )(2p01 V )(2p02 V )
g up1 ,s1 5 vp2 ,s2 (2)4 4 (p1 + p2 P )
= (2)4 4 (p1 + p2 P ) M(7.40)
(2P 0 V )(2p01 V )(2p02 V ) (2P 0 V )(2p01 V )(2p02 V )
where M = g up1 ,s1 5 vp2 ,s2 is the so-called Lorentz-invariant matrix element.
Now, |Sf i |2 will be the probability of finding the final state |f > after an infinite time T
from the initial state |i >. Notice that this involves the square of a function. To deal with
this, we will use the trick introduced in section 4.1:
( )2
(2) (p1 + p2 P )
4 4
= (2) (p1 +p2 P )
4 4
dt d3 xei(p1 +p2 P )x = (2)4 4 (p1 +p2 P )T V
T V
(7.41)
To be more realistic, we want to compute the probability of finding the final state in a particular
range of momenta, [ p1 d
p1 /2, p1 + d p2 d
p1 /2] for the electron and [ p2 /2, p2 + d
p2 /2] for the
3
positron. Remember that we are considering discrete momenta, but these d p will still contain
many discrete ps, which allows us to use equation 4.11 to obtain:
V
= d3 p (7.42)
d
p p/2
(2)3
which should be equal to the dierential decay rate d (the probability of decaying into the
momentum ranges p1 d p1 /2 and p2 d
p2 /2 per unit time) times the entire time, T, we are
considering from initial to final state. Thus:
(2)4 4 d3 p1 d3 p2 (2)4
d = 0
(p1 + p2 P ) 0 0 |M|2 d2 |M|2 (7.44)
2P 3 3
(2) 2p1 (2) 2p2 2P 0
d p1 d p2 3 3
where d2 4 (p1 + p2 P ) (2)3 2p0 (2)3 2p0 is called the 2-body Lorentz-invariant phase space.
1 2
Let us now compute the Lorentz-invariant matrix element (M) and this 2-body Lorentz-
invariant phase space. Assuming that we do not measure the spins of the final state, we simply
have to add the decay rate of these distinctive final spin states. Thus, the matrix element is:
( ) ( )
|M|2 = g up1 s1 5 vp2 s2 gup1 s1 5 vp2 s2
s1 ,s2 s1 ,s2
80 Chapter 7. Interacting Fields
( )
= g2 vp2 s2 5 up1 s1 up1 s1 5 vp2 s2 = g 2 vp2 s2 ( 5 ) up1 s1 up1 s1 5 vp2 s2
s1 ,s2 s2 s1
( )
= g 2 vp2 s2 5 ( p1 + m1 ) 5 vp2 s2 = g 2 (vp s ) 5 ( p1 + m1 ) 5 (vp2 s2 )
2 2
s2 s2
( )
( ) ( )
= g 2 (vp2 s2 ) (vp2 s2 ) 5 ( p1 + m1 ) 5 = g 2 ( p2 m2 ) 5 ( p1 + m1 ) 5
s2
( ) ( )
= g 2 ( p2 m2 ) 5 ( p1 + m1 ) 5 = g 2 T r ( p2 m2 ) 5 ( p1 + m1 ) 5 (7.45)
Since the pion mass is much greater than that of the electron (M = 135M eV, me = 0.5M eV ),
then:
( ) ( )
|M|2 g 2 T r p2 5 p1 5 = g 2 T r p2 5 5 p1 = g 2 T r ( p2 p1 ) = g 2 4p2 p1 (7.46)
s1 ,s2
We can compute p2 p1 in the center of mass (C.M.) where P = (M, 0), p1 = (p, +
p) and
p2 = (p,
p), with p = M/2. Thus:
M2
|M|2 = g 2 4p2 p1 = g 2 4(2p2 ) = g 2 4 = 2g 2 M 2 (7.47)
s1 ,s2 2
(2)4
d = d2 2g 2 M 2 (7.48)
2P 0
If we are interested in the total decay rate, we need to integrate over the whole of p1 , p2 . Since
in this case M is constant, we only need to compute the integral of the 2-body Lorentz-invariant
phase space, which gives:
|
p2 |
d2 = (7.49)
(2)5 2M
Finally, the total decay rate is:
( )
(2)4 (2)4 M/2 g2
+
( e e ) =
0
d2 |M| 2
= 2g 2
M 2
= M (7.50)
2P 0 s1 ,s2 2M (2)5 2M 8
M depends on the type of particle and the interaction and can be computed as in the previous
section, or systematically following the Feynmam rules that are given in the next chapter.
Thus, the probability we are looking for is:
p1 d3 p1 , p2 d3 p2 , ....) =
P rob( ....|Sf i |2
1 d3 p1 p
p 2 d3 p2
( V )
(2)4 4 ( i pi Pa )V T
= 3
d pi |M|2 (7.52)
i
(2)3 (2P 0 V ) i (2p0i V )
(2)4 d3 pi
d = dn |M|2
, d n = 4
( p i Pa ) (7.53)
2Pa0 i i
(2)3 2p0i
dN/dt
aall = N (t) = N0 et N0 et/ (7.54)
N
where we have naturally defined the mean lifetime as = 1 .
A particle can have dierent decay channels. A useful concept is the branching ratio for a
given process:
aX
BraX = . (7.55)
aall
The activity is defined as the number of decays per unit time:
dN (t)
A(t) = = N0 et/ = A0 et/ (7.56)
dt
and for a specific decay, it is clear that:
Thus, measuring the number of decays for a specific channel as a function of time is enough to
obtain the lifetime or total width.
As an example, taking the measured value of the 0 = 1 tot and the measured value of
Br( 0 e+ e ) , we can obtain a value for ( 0 e+ e ) = tot Br( 0 e+ e ) and from this
determine the value of the coupling constant, g, in expression 7.50.
The reason for calling a total (or partial) width is clear. If we consider an unstable state, in
a state of well defined momentum, we can describe it with a wave function:
It is an easy exercise to show that if we actually measure the energy of such a state, we will find
a Lorentzian distribution whose mean is E0 and its width .
82 Chapter 7. Interacting Fields
Chapter 8
QED
In this chapter we will proceed to compute some processes involving electrons and photons in
the framework known as QED. We will use the interaction or Dirac representation, where the
fields evolve like the free quantized fields introduced in the previous chapters for electrons and
photons, but considering now the interaction term between them given in section 7.1.
We will see that the procedure used to obtain such expressions can be systematized in what
are called Feynman rules.
knowing that the interaction density Hamiltonian between electrons and photons is e A .
First we will determine the amplitude of such a process and later its probability, which will be
expressed in terms of an area: the cross section.
where i denotes the polarization state of the final photons. Notice that we use the same letter
a to design the creation/annihilation operators for electrons and photons, but there cannot
be any confusion because the subscripts are dierent.
The amplitude is:
(i)n
Sif = < f |S|i >=< f |1 + dt1 ... dtn T (h(t1 )....h(tn ))|i >
n=1
n!
1
= < f |1 i dth(t) dt1 dt2 T (h(t1 )h(t2 )) + ...|i > (8.3)
2
84 Chapter 8. QED
where h(t) = d3 x(Lint ) = d3 xe : A := d3 xe : j : A (from now on we will
not explicitly write the normal ordering, but it will be taken into account in due course). The
process we are considering involves destroying two electrons and creating 2 gamma particles,
thus S should contain at least:
ap1s1 bp2s2 a a (8.4)
k a a k b b
but h only has products of 3 creation/annihilation operators. This implies that we must go to at
least second order to compute this amplitude. Thus, keeping only the first non-zero contribution:
1
Sif < f| dx0 dy 0 T (h(x0 )h(y 0 ))|i >
2
( )
e2
= < f| dx0 dy 0 T d3 xj (x)A (x) d3 yj (y)A (y) |i > (8.5)
2
but this approximation for S contains 6 creation/annihilation operators. The two extra oper-
ators, in addition to the four needed, account for the creation and annihilation of internal e
particles, as Figure attempts to indicate 8.1. The contribution to the calculation of this internal
line is called the Feynman propagator.
The aim of this section is to derive the rules associated with external e , and internal e
lines, to compute Sif systematically from Figure 8.1. The same rules apply to other diagrams
that contribute to high orders on the coupling constant e.
As the time ordering is linear and j and A operate in orthogonal subspaces:
e2
Sif = < 2| d4 x d4 yT (j (x)A (x)j (y)A (y)) |e e+ >
2
e2
= d4 x d4 y < 2|T (A (x)A (y))T (j (x)j (y))|e e+ >
2
e2
= d4 x d4 y < 2|T (A (x)A (y))|0 >< 0|T (j (x)j (y))|e e+ > (8.6)
2
where in the last step we have used the fact that |e e+ > |0 > |e e+ >e and similarly for
|2 >.
8.1 e+ e 2: the electron propagator 85
Let us first evaluate the part. Defining (0, k,i ), we can rewrite equation 6.24 as:
k,i
2 ( )
A (x) = ak,i ek (x) + a ek (x) (8.7)
k,i k,i
k i=1
thus
< 2|T (A (x)A (y))|0 > = < 2|A (x)A (y)|0 > (x0 y 0 )+ < 2|A (y)A (x)|0 > (y 0 x0 )
= < 2|A (x)A (y)|0 > ((x0 y 0 ) + (y 0 x0 ))
= ka a eka (x)kb b ekb (y) + kb b ekb (x)ka a eka (y) (8.9)
< 0|T (j (x)j (y))|e e+ >=< 0|j (x)j (y)|e e+ > (x0 y 0 )+ < 0|j (y)j (x)|e e+ > (y 0 x0 )
= < 0| : (x) (x) : : (y) (y) : |e e+ > (x0 y 0 )
+ < 0| : (y) (y) : : (x) (x) : |e e+ > (y 0 x0 ) (8.10)
Notice that the second term is obtained from the first by changing , x y. As the photon
part is invariant under these changes, eectively we can write:
< 0|T (j (x)j (y))|e e+ >= 2 < 0| : (x) (x) : : (y) (y) : |e e+ > (x0 y 0 ) (8.11)
The superscript 0 indicates that it contains creation operations only. Thus, the term in
equation 8.11 can be given as:
but this term must be sandwiched by < 0| and |e+ e >, which implies that only the terms in the
first bracket with annihilation operators on the left survives (only the second term i (x)(x)j ).
In addition, the total eect must be to annihilate 1e and 1e+ , which is already done by this
surviving term in the first bracket. Thus, only terms in the second bracket that create and
annihilate the same particle will survive. Finally:
< 0|T (j (x)j (y))|e e+ >= 2 < 0| : (x) (x) : : (y) (y) : |e+ e > (x0 y 0 )
[ ]
= 2ij kl < 0|i (x)(x)j k0 (y)l (y) l0 (y)k (y) |e+ e > (x0 y 0 ) (8.14)
Let us work some more on this last expression, taking into account that it must be multiplied
by the photon term that is invariant under the change , x y:
has a very remarkable interpretation. When studying the Klein-Gordon field, we have seen that
(0, x) applied to |0 > creates a spin-0 particle at x at t = 0. Similarly, i (x)|0 >= i0 (x)|0 >
(i (x)|0 >= i0 (x)|0 >) can be interpreted as creating a positron (electron), the i component
of which is at x = (x0 , x). Also, (x) ((x)) can be interpreted as the annihilation of a positron
(electron) at x = (x0 , x).
So:
< 0|i (x)(y)l |e+ e > is the amplitude to kill the e+ at x and the e at y.
< 0|(x)j k0 (y)|0 > is the amplitude to create an e at y and kill it at x. The (x0 y 0 )
that multiplies this term indicates that the time ordering this happens is such that x is
later that y.
8.1 e+ e 2: the electron propagator 87
< 0|k (y)j0 (x)|0 > is the amplitude to create a e+ at x and kill it at y. The (y 0 x0 )
that multiplies this term indicates y happens later that x.
< 2|T (A (x)A (y))|0 > is the amplitude to create one at x and other at y.
Notice that:
[ ]
< 0| (x)j k0 (y)(x0 y 0 ) k (y)j0 (x)(y 0 x0 ) |0 >
[ ]
= < 0| (x)j k (y)(x0 y 0 ) k (y)j (x)(y 0 x0 ) |0 >= SFjk (x y) (8.17)
is just the Dirac propagator discussed in section 5.4.1. This, together with the use of the relation:
< 0|i (x)(y)l |e+ e >=< 0| bps (gps (x))i ap s (fp s (y))l ap1 s1 bp2 s2 |0 >= (gp2 s2 (x))i (fp1 s1 (y))l
ps p s
(8.18)
allows us to express equation 8.16 as:
e2
Sif = d x 4
d4 y < 2|T (A (x)A (y))|0 > 2ij kl SF (x y)jk (gp2 s2 (x))i (fp1 s1 (y))l
2
( )
e2
= d4 x d4 y ka a eka (x)kb b ekb (y) + kb b ekb (x)ka a eka (y) 2gp2 s2 (x) SF (x y) fp1 s1 (y)
2
= e 2
d x d4 ygp2 s2 (x) ka a SF (x y) kb b fp1 s1 (y)eka (x)ekb (y) + (a b)
4
vp2 s2 eip2 x d4 p ieip(xy) up1 s1 eip1 y eika x eikb y
= e2 d4 x d4 y ka a k + (a b)
2p02 V (2)4 p m + i b b 2p01 V 2ka0 V 2k 0 V
b
d4 p ei(p2 +pka )x ei(p1 pkb )y i
= e 2
d x4
d4 y vp2 s2 ka a k up s + (a b)
(2)4 (2p02 V )(2p01 V )(2ka0 V )(2kb0 V ) p m + i b b 1 1
d4 p (2)4 4 (p2 + p ka )(2)4 4 (p1 p kb ) i
= e2 vp2 s2 ka a k up s
(2) 4
(2p0 V )(2p0 V )(2k 0 V )(2k 0 V ) p m + i b b 1 1
2 1 a b
+(a b) (8.19)
88 Chapter 8. QED
(2)4 4 (p2 + p1 kb ka )
M (8.20)
(2p02 V )(2p01 V )(2ka0 V )(2kb0 V )
where we have defined the invariant matrix element M as:
i
M = e2 vp2 s2 ka a k up s + (a b) (8.21)
p1 kb m + i b b 1 1
Draw the diagrams connecting e+ e to 2, using the only possible vertex ee up to the
desired order in the coupling constant.
These are called the Feynman rules for QED. But one important rule is still missing: which
is the term we should apply for an internal photon line: that is, the photon propagator. We
will deduce it in the following sections and it turns to be ig /k 2 , but before doing so, let
us compute the probability of the process we are studying from the amplitude we have just
obtained.
In the process we are studying, we are interested in the dierential cross section to find the
final state in a particular range of momenta, k1 dk1 /2 and k2 dk2 /2 for the two photons. As:
V
= d3 k (8.27)
kdk/2
(2)3
90 Chapter 8. QED
They are many useful variants of the previous formula. If the cross section does not depend
on the azimuthal angle, the scattering cross section can be written in a Lorentz-invariant form:
d |M|2
= (8.32)
dt 16(s, m21 , m22 )
8.1 e+ e 2: the electron propagator 91
p 1 kb + m
M = ie2 vp2 s2 ka a k up s + (a b) (8.33)
(p1 kb )2 m2 b b 1 1
as it is Lorentz invariant, we will calculate it in the lab frame where the electron momentum is
p1 = (m, 0). The polarization vectors are perpendicular to k and of the type = (0, ). Thus,
in the lab frame, p1 = 0 and taking into account that a b = 2a b b a, this implies that p1
and anti-commute. So:
kb
M = ie2 vp2 s2 ka a k up s + (a b)
2p1 kb b b 1 1
( )
e2 k b b k a k a a k a a k b k b b
= i vp2 s2 + up1 s1
2 p 1 ka p1 kb
e2
i vp2 s2 (A)up1 s1 (8.35)
2
We assume that the initial particles are not polarized. Thus, in the calculation of the square of
M we will average over the 4 possible spin configurations of the electron and positron:
1 e4 e4
|M|2 = up1 s1 Avp2 s2 vp2 s2 Aup1 s1 = up s A( p2 m)Aup1 s1
4 s1 ,s2 16 s1 s2 16 s1 1 1
e4 ( ) e4 ( )
= (up1 s1 ) A( p2 m)A (up1 s1 ) = ( p1 + m) A( p2 m)A
16 s1 16
e4 ( )
= T r ( p1 + m)A( p2 m)A
16
( ( )
e4 k a a k a k b b k b b k b k a a
= T r ( p1 + m) +
16 p 1 ka p 1 kb
( ))
k b b k a k a a ka a kb kb b
( p2 m) + (8.36)
p 1 ka p 1 kb
since a b c = c b a = c b a, ( = ).
From the expression of equation 8.36 we can see that there are 4 terms similar to this one:
e4 1
T1 = T r (( p1 + m) ka a ka kb b ( p2 m) kb b ka ka a ) (8.37)
16 (p1 ka )2
that we are going to consider in detail. The other 3 can be manipulated in the same way. To
proceed, we will use, among others, the following rules:
a a = a2
a b = 2a b b a
T r( a b) = 4a b
92 Chapter 8. QED
T r( a b c d) = 4(a b c d a c b d + a d b c)
e4 1 ( )
T1 = T r p 1 k k a k p 2 k k a k m 2
T r k k a k k k a k
16 (p1 ka )2 a a b b b b a a a a b b b b a a
e4 1 ( )
= T r ka a p1 ka kb b p2 kb b ka ka a + m2 T r ka a ka ka ka a
16 (p1 ka )2
e4 1
= (+T r p1 ka kb b p2 kb b ka + 0)
16 (p1 ka )2
e4 1 e4 1
= T r ((2p 1 k a k a p 1 ) k p 2 k k a ) = T r ( kb b p2 kb b ka ) + 0
16 (p1 ka )2 b b b b
8 p 1 ka
e4 1
= (kb b p2 kb b ka kb b kb b p2 ka + kb b ka p2 kb b ) (8.38)
2 p 1 ka
Now, using the relations:
p1 + p2 = ka + kb (p1 kb )2 = (p2 ka )2 p1 kb = p2 ka
kb b (p1 + p2 ) = kb b (ka + kb ) kb b p2 = kb b ka (8.39)
allows us to write:
e4 1 e4 1 ( )
T1 = (2p2 kb b kb b ka + p2 ka ) = 2(ka kb b )2 + p1 kb (8.40)
2 p1 ka 2 p1 ka
Proceeding with the other 3 terms in equation 8.36 in the same manner, we finally obtain:
( )
1 e4 p 1 kb p 1 ka
|M|2 = + 4(ka a kb b )2 + 2 (8.41)
4 s1 ,s2 2 p 1 ka p 1 kb
which does not depend on the azimuthal angle. This allows us to use equation 8.32 to express
the cross section in the lab frame where p1 = (m, 0) and p1 ka = mwa . Finally,
( )
d 2 a wb wa e2 1
= + 4(ka a kb b )2 + 2 , = (8.42)
d lab 8mp2 (m + E2 p2 cos a ) wa wb 4 137
In the low energy limit, where both electron and positron are almost at rest (wa = wb = m, p2
m2 , so
d 2 ( )
= 1 ( )2
(8.43)
d lab 4m2 2
k
a a k
b b
which shows that the two photons are favorably produced with perpendicular polarization. This
occurs because QED conserves parity, and the final state should have negative parity since the
initial parity of e+ e at rest is negative.
In case we do not measure the polarization of the final photons, the dierential cross section
should be the sum of all 4 of the contributions:
2 ( )
d 2 2
= 1 ( )2
= (4 1 (k k ) 2
) = (8.44)
d lab 4m2 2
k
a a k a b
b b
4m2 2 2m2 2
a b
8.2 The gamma propagator 93
and
1 d r2
labT OT = d = e , re (8.45)
2 d lab 2 m
The factor 1/2 is introduced to avoid double counting, as we have computed the dierential
cross section that one photon goes to d no matter which one of the two.
F + m2 A = 0 (8.47)
0 = ( A A ) + m2 A = (2 + m2 )A (8.48)
which is the Klein-Gordon equation as expected. Now the reason for choosing the above La-
grangian density becomes clear.
Again, as in the massless photon field, the conjugate field of the first component is zero,
meaning that A0 is not independent. In fact:
1
A0 = (8.49)
m2
With a massive spin-1 particle there are 3 degrees of freedom. In this case, it is equivalent
to removing the extra degree from the 4fields A by eliminating 0 A0 from the Lagrangian or
just requiring the transverse condition A = 0. Thus, the plane-wave solutions at rest are of
the type:
eipx
A (x) = p (8.50)
2wV
94 Chapter 8. QED
with p = (m, 0) and the time component of the polarization vectors has to be zero to satisfy the
transverse condition: (0 = A = ip A p p = 0). This allows us to use as polarization
vectors at rest the two orthonormal vectors used for the massless photon field, plus the unit
vector in the momentum direction. When p = (m, 0) is boosted to become p = (p0 , p), these 3
polarization vectors transform thus:
( ) ( )( )
0 0
= , with = p0 /m, = |
p|/m
= (8.51)
showing that the transverse polarization vectors stay the same, while the longitudinal one (0 =
p|/m, p0 p/m). Finally, we can write the 3 polarization
0, = 1, = 0) is transformed to: (|
vectors corresponding to p:
DF (x y) =< 0|A (x)A (y)|0 > (x0 y 0 )+ < 0|A (y)A (x)|0 > (y 0 x0 ) (8.55)
Using the expression for the A field given above it is straightforward to prove:
( )
d4 p eipz
3
DF (z) =i p, p, (8.56)
(2)4 p2 m2 + i =1
( )
3
The sum =1 p
, p
, is a Lorentz tensor that obeys the relation:
3
p p
= g (8.57)
=1
mm
8.3 The scattering cross section a + b 1 + 2 + ...n 95
Draw the diagrams connecting the initial state with the final state using the only possible
vertex ee up to the desired order in the coupling constant.
i
SF (p) = . (8.65)
p m + i
(9) For any internal photon line with momentum k and free indices write:
g
DF, (k) = i . (8.66)
k2 + i
In general more than one Feynman diagram contributes to a process and sometimes identical
particles appear in the initial and final states.
(10) The overall sign of a given diagram is not observable, but diagrams that dier in the
exchange of two identical particles in the initial or final state, or a particle-antiparticle in the
initial or final state, respectively, should come with opposite signs on account of Fermi statistics.
(11) To compute the cross section, divide by n! if there are n identical particles in the final
state.
At higher orders in perturbation theory loops appear.
(12) For any internal fermionic loop include a (1) sign and take the Dirac trace.
(13) Fermionic loops with an odd number of photon insertions need not be included (Furrys
theorem).
d4 p
(14) For any closed loop: (2) 4.
Chapter 9
In this chapter we will compute some elementary QED processes of the type a + b c + d. First,
we will compute the scattering of electrons by a central potential and study the kinematics of
that type of process.
( [ ] )
= ie < 0|a s
p
4
d
xij i0 (x)j (x) + i (x)(x)j + i0 (x)j0 (x) j0 (x)i (x) A (x) aps |0 >
(9.2)
where we have used the notation introduced in 8.12. As the last expression is sandwiched
within the vacuum, and there is one creation and one annihilation electron operator outside
the brackets, this implies that only the first term inside the brackets will survive (creates and
annihilates an electron). Thus
( )
Sf i ie < 0|aps d x (x) (x)A (x) aps |0 >
4 0
( )
= ie < 0|aps d 4
xaps fp s (x) aps fps (x)A (x) aps |0 >
up s ups
= ie d4 xei(pp )x A (x) (9.3)
2E V 2EV
Defining k = p p , for this particular potential we have:
4 ikx 0 ik0 x0 3 ik
x 0 Ze
d xe A0 (x) = dx e d xe A0 (x) = 2(k ) d3 xeikx . (9.4)
4r
98 Chapter 9. Elementary processes in QED
Since the external potential is time independent, the process conserves energy (notice the (E
E ) on equation 9.6 ), E = E, thus | p | and pp = E 2 |
p| = | p|2 cos , where is the deflection
angle. The modulus of the change in 3-momentum k = p p will be:
p|2 sin2 .
k 2 = 4| (9.12)
2
All we have to do is to compute the phase space integral. Elementary considerations lead to:
1 1 1 E
d = p |2 d|
d(cos )| p | (|
p | |
p|) |M |2 . (9.13)
p| 2
2| 2E |
p| i f
d Z 2 2
= 2 4 (2|p|2 (1 + cos ) + 4m2 ). (9.14)
d(cos ) k
This is the Mott cross section. In the non-relativistic limit it reduces to the well-known Ruther-
ford cross-section.
can be always written as a combination of two of them. As particles (antiparticles) going in/out
with momentum p and spin s can be interpreted as antiparticles(particles) going out/in with
100 Chapter 9. Elementary processes in QED
momentum p and spin s, this will allow to related the process a + b 1 + 2 with others like
a + 1 b + 2, just finding out the relation between their Mandelstam variables.
In the CM if m = ma = mb = m1 = m2 , we have:
(a,1)
t = (pa p1 )2 = 2m2 2pa p1 = 2m2 2(Ea,CM
2
|
pa,CM |2 cos CM ) = (9.16)
(a,1)
= 2|
pa,CM |2 (1 cos CM )) (9.17)
(a,2) (a,1)
u = (pa p2 )2 = 2|
pa,CM |2 (1 cos CM )) = 2|
pa,CM |2 (1 + cos CM )) (9.18)
We state that the cross section for a process a+b something can be written as (eq. 8.64):
(2)4
d = |M|2 dn (9.19)
4p0b p0a v
It is easy to see that in the C.M. system and in the lab frame: p0b p0a (va +vb ) = (pa pb )2 m2a m2b .
Defining (x, y, z) x2 + y 2 + z 2 2xy 2yz 2zx we can write:
(2)4 (2)4
d = |M|2 dn = 1/2 2 , m2 )
|M|2 dn (9.20)
4 (pa pb ) ma mb
2 2 2 2 (s, m a b
If we want to study a + b 1 + 2 to obtain the dependence of the cross section as, for
example, a function of the Mandelstam variable t, we must perform:
d (2)4
(s, t) = 1/2 2 2
(t (pa p1 )2 )d2 |M|2 (9.21)
dt 2 (s, ma , mb ) i f all
This expression is general when going to n particles instead of two, but in that case the expression
will depend on more than the two invariants t and s (or u). As i f M is only a function of
two variables, s and t, we can perform the integral over the phase space at fixed s and t:
1 1
I (t (pa p1 )2 )d2 = ... = = (9.22)
all 4(2) |
6 pa |(E1 + E2 ) 2(2) (s, m2a , m2b )
6 1/2
As variable t is related to the scattering angle between particles a and 1 in the C.M.
frame, this allows us to obtain the cross section in the C.M. frame as a function of that scattering
angle in a simple manner:
Notice that if we do not sum over the spin of the particles, M will have additional d.o.f. (for
example 2 for each spin-1/2 particle) and some of the simplified expressions given above do not
apply.
9.3 e (p1 )e+ (p2 ) (q1 )+ (q2 ) 101
Figure 9.2: Lowest-order Feynman diagrams for e (p1 )e+ (p2 ) (q1 )+ (q2 )
g
M = ie2 v(p2 ) u(p1 ) u (q1 ) v (q2 ) (9.25)
(p1 + p2 )2 + i
where is used for muons. If we are not interested in the spin states:
1 e4 1
|M |2 = |M |2 = |v(p2 ) u(p1 ) u (q1 ) v (q2 )|2
i f
4 spins 4 spins (p1 + p2 )2
e4
= (v(p2 ) u(p1 ))(v(p2 ) u(p1 )) (u (q1 ) v (q2 ))(u (q1 ) v (q2 ))
4(p1 + p2 )4 spins
e4
= T r(( p2 me ) ( p1 + me ) )T r(( q1 + m ) ( q2 m ) )
4(p1 + p2 )4
e4 ( )
= 32 2m 2 2
m
e + m 2
e (q 1 q 2 ) + m 2
(p1 p2 ) + (p 1 q 1 )(p 2 q 2 ) + (p 1 q 2 )(p 2 q 1 )
4(p1 + p2 )4
(9.26)
To keep the discussion simple, we will neglect masses (this is usually justified for electrons, not
so much so for muons, except at very high energies). In this case:
We can now consider the cross section when a left-handed electron collides with a left-handed
positron. In this case, the matrix element can be written as:
1
|M |2 = e4 |PR v(p2 ) PL u(p1 ) u (q1 ) v (q2 )|2 (9.37)
(p1 + p2 )2
Thus e+ (lef t) + e (lef t) + at least to first order of perturbation theory. Similarly for
e+ (right) + e (right) + . Therefore, at high energies this process can only occur via
e+ (lef t) + e (right) or e+ (right) + e (lef t) where the total angular momentum is 1 (states
|1, 1 >).
Figure 9.3: Lowest-order Feynman diagram for e (p1 )+ (p2 ) e (q1 )+ (q2 ) scattering
Taking the masses as equal to zero and summing over the spins we obtain:
1 s2 + u2
|M |2 = |M |2 = 2e4 (9.40)
i f
4 spins t2
as expected by comparison with the the related process e (p1 )e+ (p2 ) (q1 )+ (q2 ), inter-
changing particles and antiparticles in/out and
p2 q1
p2
q1
104 Chapter 9. Elementary processes in QED
Thus
t = (p1 q1 )2 (p1 + p2 )2 = s
s = (p1 + p2 )2 (p1 q1 )2 = t
u = (p1 q2 )2 (p1 q2 )2 = u
and we obtain 9.40 from 9.30 just interchanging t s.
Finally, the cross section is:
( ) ( )
d 2 s2 + u2 2 1 + cos4 (/2)
|CM = = (9.41)
d cos s t2 s sin4 (/2)
where is the angle between the incoming e and the outgoing e in the C.M. frame.
The first term, corresponding to the annihilation diagram, gives the same as in the e e+ +
case (9.30):
1 t2 + u 2
|M1 |2 = 2e4 1 + cos2 (9.44)
4 spins s2
The second term, corresponding to the T channel, gives the same as in the e + e +
case (9.40):
1 s2 + u2 1 + cos4 (/2)
|M2 |2 = 2e4 (9.45)
4 spins t2 sin4 (/2)
where is the angle between the incoming e and the outgoing e in the C.M.frame.
Finally:
( )
d 2 1 1/2 (s, m21 , m22 ) 2 1 4 t2 + u2 s2 + u2 2u2
|CM = 2 2
|M|2 = 2e + +
d cos 1/2 2
64 s (s, ma , mb ) i f 64 2 s s2 t2 st
( )
2 1 1 t s
= u2 ( + )2 + ( )2 + ( )2 (9.47)
s s t s t
In the process e (p1 )e (p2 ) e (q1 )e (q2 ), called Moller scattering, we have two Feynmam
diagrams (Figure 9.5) contributing to the lowest order in perturbation theory. Comparing with
the process e e (Figure 9.3) the new additional diagram is called the U channel.
The second term, corresponding to the so called U channel, is very easy to obtain since it is
the same as the T channel but interchanging q1 q2 , which is equivalent to interchange t u.
Thus:
1 s 2 + t2
|M2 |2 = 2e4 (9.51)
4 spins u2
1 2s2
(M1 M2 + M1 M2 ) = 2e4 (9.52)
4 spins ut
Finally:
( )
d 2 1 1/2 (s, m21 , m22 ) 2 s2 + u2 s2 + t2 2s2
|CM = |M|2
= + + (9.53)
d cos 64 2 s 1/2 (s, m2a , m2b ) i f s t2 u2 ut
Appendix A
Lorentz invariance
g = g (A.2)
A B = A B = g A B = g A B = g A B = A B (A.3)
(1 ) = (A.4)
This means that starting from the original , the inverse can be obtained by first up-down
interchanging the two indices ( ) and then transposing it .
A 4-vector x transforms as x = x and the inverse transformation is
x = (1 ) x = x (A.5)
Examples of physical 4-vectors that transform under the Lorentz group are:
X = (X 0 , X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) = (ct, x, y, z) = (ct, x)
P = (P 0 , P 1 , P 2 , P 3 ) = (E/c, px , py , pz ) = (E/c, p) (A.6)
108 Apendix A. Lorentz invariance
If the frame K is moving with velocity in the frame K in the x-direction, the above vectors
transform by the Lorentz boost transformation:
E 0 0 E
px 0 0 p
x
p = 0 0
(A.7)
y 0 1 py
pz 0 0 0 1 pz
where = 1/ 1 2 and = . Notice that 2 2 = 1. As P P = P 0 P 0 P 1 P 1 P 2 P 2
P 3 P 3 = E 2 p2 does not change its value under a Lorentz transformation, since: P P = P P
Two consecutive Lorentz boosts do not commute in general and are not another Lorentz
boost. In order to form a group, a rotation and a boost have to be combined. Actually, the
Lorentz group defined by LT GL = G is even larger than rotation + boost. It contains also T
(time reversal) and P (parity transformations)
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
T =
0
, P = (A.8)
0 1 0
0
0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Suppose f (x) is a scalar field, then how does f /x = (f /t, f /x, f /y, f /z) trans-
form?. To find out, take the relation f (x1 ) f (x2 ) = f (x1 ) f (x2 ) when x1 and x2 are very
close:
f f
dx = dx (A.9)
x x
f is Lorentz invariant, and since dx is clearly a superscript 4-vector
this tells us that x dx
f
(contra-variant), x should transform as a subscript 4-vector (covariant). To make this point
= ei Ki +i Li , i = 1, 2, 3 (A.12)
where i and i are real numbers and Ki , Li are 4x4 matrices called the generators of the group.
Let us review the rotations and the boost. A small rotation around the z-axis by a infinites-
imal angle will transform (x, y) to:
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( )
x x y 1 x 0 1 x x
= = = 1 + = (1 + Lz )
y y + x 1 y 1 0 y y
(A.13)
109
where Lz is the generator of the rotations around the z-axes. Any finite rotation through angle
can be obtained by n consecutive rotations of angle /n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
x n x Lz x cos sin x
= limn (1 + /nLz ) =e = (A.14)
y y y sin cos y
Suppose we apply n such boosts consecutively, the resulting transformation, when n is taken to
infinity while = n is fixed:
( )
cosh sinh
= limn (1 + /nKx )n = eKx = .... = (A.18)
sinh cosh
and comparing with the previous results = cosh, = sinh or = / = tanh. Notice
that the n-consecutive boosts by velocity did not result in a boost by velocity = n rather
in a boost by = tanh(n). This is a consequence of the addition of velocities rule. Similarly,
we can obtain the boost in y or z and finally we obtain the generators:
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
K1 Kx =
0
, K2 Ky =
1
, K3 Kz =
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
(A.19)
Now ei Ki represents a boost in the -direction by a velocity = tanh
Given the explicit forms of Ki , Li we can verify the following commutation relations:
this shows that rotations can never generate a boost, but a boost followed by another boost will
in general contain some rotation.
110 Apendix A. Lorentz invariance
= ei Ki +i Li (A.21)
This, however, due to the commutation relations, does not have an interpretation as simple
as ei Ki or ei Li . Every proper orthochronous Lorentz transformation can be decomposed as:
= (R1 )(K1 )(R2 ), where (Ri ) are two spatial rotations and (K1 ) a boost in the x-
direction. It is clear that P and T cannot be generated by this transformation an they do not
belong to this subgroup.
Notice that the structure of the group is uniquely defined when the commutators among
all the generators are specified. In general, commutators of generators Gi , i = 1, ...n can be
expressed as linear combinations of Gi s: [Gi , Gj ] = cijk Gk ,, where cijk are constants called the
structure of the group. It is clear that if we have two sets of matrices in dierent dimensions, but
both sets satisfy the same commutation rules, their exponentiations are dierent representations
of the same group.
Appendix B
1 1
a (X + iP ) , a (X iP ) , (B.3)
2 2
1 1
H = h(a a + ) = h(N + ), N a a , (B.4)
2 2
which satisfies:
Taking the base of the H eigenvalues (we will soon see that the energy eigenvalues can be labeled
with an index n, n = 0, 1, 2, ...; up to now n being any label)
H|En = En |En
Ha|En = (aH h a)|En = (En h)a|En
Ha |En = (a H + h a )|En = (En + h)a |En . (B.6)
a|E0 = 0 ,
1 1 h
0 = h a a|E0 = (H h)|E0 = (E0 h)|E0 E0 = . (B.7)
2 2 2
Now we can construct all the eigenvalues of H repeatedly using a a :
h
|E0 E0 =
2
h
|E1 a |E0 E1 = + h
2
h
|E2 a2 |E0 E2 = + 2 h
2
................
h 1
|En an |E0 En = + nh = (n + )h, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (B.8)
2 2
The spectrum has been completely determined, En = h 2 + nh, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . An
energy such as E0,5 or any other positive non-integer numberis impossible because the state
a|E0,5 (which would have a non-zero norm, a|E0,5 2 = E0,5 |a a|E0,5 = E0,5 | h
H
12 |E0,5 =
2 E0,5 |E0,5 = 0) would have a lower energy than the ground state. In addition, again applying
1
a, we would have negative energies. At the end of this section we will see that the spectrum is
not degenerate.
The corresponding states should be normalized:
Equivalent descriptions
Notice that we allow the observable A to depend on time, so that both the eigenvalues, i , and
the projectors, i , can depend on time.
These results do not change if instead of these states and operators we use the transformed
ones under a unitary operator O(t)that can also depend on time t. The transformed states
|(t) and operators A(t) will be denoted as | (t), A (t). Clearly for states we have:
while for the operators we request that the transformation is so, in order to complete the following
diagram at the same time
O(t)-
|1 (t) |1 (t)
A(t) A (t)
? ?
O(t)-
|2 (t) |2 (t)
To check that the results do not change, notice that if |(t) was an eigenvector A(t)|(t) =
a(t)|(t), then | (t) would also be a eigenvector of A with the same eigenvalue
P|(t) (A(t) :i (t)) = i (t)|(t)2 = (t)|i (t)|(t) = (t)|O (t)O(t)i (t)O (t)O(t)|(t)
= (t)|i (t)| (t) = P| (t) (A (t) :i (t)) , (C.3)
where we have used the fact that the transformed operator will be: A (t) = i i (t) i (t),
with i (t) = O(t)i (t)O (t). As the probabilities are the same, the calculation of expectation
values and dispersions will give identical results independent of whether we use the original
states/operators or the transformed ones.
Therefore, both the eigenvaluesthe possible outcomes of the measurementsand the pre-
dicted probabilities of observing themas a result of a measurementare invariant under any
unitary transformation defined by (C.2). In addition, as we will discuss in the next section, we
know the equations that determine the evolution of both the transformed states and the trans-
formed operators, so we can say conclusively that unitary operators provide us with description
changes that are physically equivalent: we can study the evolution of the system and make pre-
dictions using the initial states and operators and the usual dynamics or the transformed states
and operators and the new dynamics that we will deduce in the next section.
is split:
H (t) = Hest
(t) + Hop (t)
to provide a dynamic time evolution for states, Hest (t) and another for operators H (t).
op
First we will determine Hest (t). The criterion to determine it is obviously that the states
| (t) also satisfy an equation of Schrodinger type ih t
(t)| (t):
| (t) = Hest
O(t)
ih | (t) = ih (O(t)|(t)) = ihO(t) |(t) + ih |(t)
t (
t t )
t
O(t)
= O(t)H(t)O (t) + ih O (t) | (t) Hest
| (t) . (C.4)
t
We have then found that:
O(t)
Hest = ih O (t) + O(t)H(t)O (t) (C.5)
t
115
Thus it is clear that we have a complete description of the same physical system with new
states and new operators. Not only can we calculate probabilities of results with the transformed
states/operators but, as we see in (C.5) and (C.7), we can also follow the time evolution of the
system without the need to know the time evolution of the original state (before the change of
description) which was the only one we knew until now.
Notice that O(t0 ) = I, so the two pictures of Schrodinger and Heisenberg match at t0 . States
and operators in the Heisenberg picture are labeled as |H and AH (t). Notice that |(t)H =
U (t, t0 )|(t)S = |(t0 )S , which shows that |(t)H is independent of t.
From (D.3) it can also be deduced that:
ih U (t, t0 ) = U (t, t0 )H(t) ,
t
and
O(t) U (t, t0 )
ih O (t) = ih U (t, t0 ) = U (t, t0 )H(t)U (t, t0 ) ,
t t
so that, recalling (C.5) i (C.7), we see again that while the states do not evolve in time, Hest = 0,
the operators evolve according to HH Hop = H (t) H = H (t) = U (t, t )H(t)U (t, t ),
est 0 0
AH (t) A(t)
ih = [AH (t), HH (t)] + ihU (t, t0 ) U (t, t0 ),
t t
(Heisenberg equation).
Notice in particular that for the position and moment operators we have:
dXH 1
= [XH , HH ]
dt ih
dPH 1
= [PH , HH ] (C.8)
dt ih
equations analogous to the classical ones under the correspondence of the Poisson parentheses
to commutators, {, } ih1
[, ].
Also note that if neither H nor A depend on time, HH (t) = H and the Heisenberg equation
is
AH (t)
ih = [AH (t), H] .
t
In the Dirac picture, also called interaction picture, we consider a Hamiltonian of the type
H = H0 + H1 , where H0 dictates the free evolution of the system and H1 the interaction (for
P2 P2
example, in the case of two particles interacting with a potential we have: H0 = 2m11 + 2m22
and H1 = V (|x2 x2 |)). The states in the Dirac picture |I (I for interaction) only evolve
temporarily because of the presence of H1 . If there was no H1 , it would be the same case as the
Heisenberg picture, so in this case we take:
O(t) = U0 (t, t0 )
where U0 (t, t0 ) is the unitary time evolution operator generated by H0 . Proceeding in the same
manner as above, it is now
O(t)
ih O (t) = U0 (t, t0 )H0 (t)U0 (t, t0 ) ,
t
117
, (C.5) is now
obtaining that Hest
O(t)
HI (t) Hest (t) = ih O (t) + O(t)H(t)O (t)
t
= U0 (t, t0 )H0 (t)U0 (t, t0 ) + U0 (t, t0 )H(t)U0 (t, t0 )
= U0 (t, t0 )H1 (t)U0 (t, t0 ) (C.9)
AI (t) AS (t)
ih
= [AI (t), Hop (t)] + ihU0 (t, t0 ) U0 (t, t0 ) .
t t
(t) = H , and the last equation is:
If H0 does not depend on time, we can simplify: Hop 0
AI (t) AS (t)
ih = [AI (t), H0 ] + ihU0 (t, t0 ) U0 (t, t0 ) .
t t
In addition, if AS does not depend on t, the equation is even simpler:
AI (t)
ih = [AI (t), H0 ] .
t
118 Apendix C. Equivalent descriptions
Appendix D
For a general quantum system, we define the time evolution operator as one that satisfies the
following relationship:
|(t) = U (t, t0 )|(t0 ) (D.1)
U (t, t0 )
ih = H U (t, t0 ) . (D.3)
t
If H does not depend on time, U can be written as:
or, equivalently:
[ ( t )]
i
U (t, t0 ) = T exp dt H(t ) , t > t0 (D.6)
h t0
Indeed, as:
deO() 1 dO O
= de(1)O e (D.8)
d 0 d
120 Apendix D. The Time evolution operator
(which we can see by the expansions of the exponential on both sides) we have:
[ ( )]
U (t, t0 ) i t
ih = ih T exp dt H(t )
t t h t0
[ ( )]
i t
= ihT exp dt H(t )
t h t0
1 t t
(1) hi dt H(t ) hi dt H(t )
= T de t0 H(t)e t0
0
t 1
hi dt H(t )
= H(t)T e t0 d
0
= HU (t, t0 ) (D.9)
145
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