Lecture Notes

on

Electromagnetic Waves & Transmission Lines

(II B.Tech II SEM JNTUH R15)
Prepared By

Ms. A.Usha Rani, Mr.G.Nagendra Prasad

Associate professor, Associate professor,
ECE department, ECE department,
IARE. IARE.

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043

1
SYLLABUS
INTRODUCTION:
Vector algebra, Coordinate systems and transformations-Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical
coordinates. Constant coordinate surfaces. Vector calculus-Differential length, area and
volume. Line, surface and volume integrals. Del operator. Gradient of a scalar, Divergence of a
vector, Divergence theorem, Curl of a vector. Stocks theorem, Laplacian of a
scalar.Classification of vector fields.

UNIT-I
ELECTROSTATICS:
Electrostatic fields Coulombs law and field intensity. Electric fields due to continuous
charge distributions, Electric flux density, Gausss law, Applications of Gausss law, Electric
potential, Relationship between E and V, Electric dipole, Energy density in electrostatic fields.
Electric fields in material space Properties of materials, Convection and conduction currents,
conductors, Polarization in dielectrics, Dielectric constant and strength, Linear, isotropic and
homogeneous dielectrics, Continuity equation, Relaxation time, Boundary conditions.
Electrostatic boundary value problems Poissons and Laplaces Equations, Uniqueness theorem,
Resistance and capacitance Parallel plate, coaxial, spherical capacitors.

UNIT-II
MAGNOSTATICS:
Magnostatic fields - Biot Savart law - Amperes circuital law - Applications of Amperes
circuital law - Magnetic flux density -Magnetic scalar and vector potentials. Magnetic forces,
materialsand devices - Forces due to magnetic fields - Magnetic torque andmoment -
Magnetic dipole - Magnetization in materials -Classification of magnetic materials - Magnetic
boundary conditions- Inductors and inductances - Magnetic energy - Magnetic circuits
Faradays law - displacement current. Time harmonic fields -Maxwells equations for static
fields and time varying fields word statement.

UNIT-III
EMWAVE CHARACTERISTICS-I:
Electromagnetic waves- wave propagation in lossy dielectrics - wave equations from Maxwells
equations - propagation constant intrinsic impedance of the medium - complex permittivity
loss tangent - plane waves in lossless dielectrics - plane wavesin free space - uniform plane wave
- TEM wave - planewaves in good conductors - skin effect - Poynting vector -Poyntings

2
theorem. Reflection of a plane wave at normal incidence - standing waves - Reflection of
plane waves at oblique incidence - parallel and perpendicular polarization -Brewster angle.
angle of incidence

UNIT-IV
TRANSMISSIONLINES-I
The transmission Line general solution, The distortion less Line, The telephone cable,
Reflection on a Line not terminated in Z0, Open and short circuited Lines

UNIT-V
TRANSMISSIONLINES-II
standing wave ratio, Input impedance of open and short circuited Lines, The quarter wave
Line; impedance matching, single stub impedance matching on a Line, The smith circle
diagram, Application of the Smith chart, Double stub impedance, Open and Short circuit
impedances when considering dissipation, Quarter and Half wave Lines of small dissipation

3
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
VECTOR ALGEBRA:

- Scalars and Vectors.

- Unit Vectors.

- Position and Distance Vectors.

- Vector Multiplication.

- Components Of a Vector.

INTRODUCTION
COORDINATE SYSTEMS & TRANSFORMATION:

- Introduction To Coordinate System.

- Cartesian Coordinate System / Rectangular Coordinate System (x, y, z).

- Differential Analysis Of Cartesian Coordinate System.

- Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System (, , z).

- Differential Analysis Of Cylindrical Coordinate System.

- Spherical Coordinate System ( r, , ).

- Differential Analysis Of Spherical Coordinate System.

4
- Numericals / Solved Examples - Page 1.

- Numericals / Solved Examples - Page 2.

INTRODUCTION
VECTOR CALCULUS:

- Line , Surface and Volume Intergral.

- Del Operator - Definition and Significance.

- Gradient Of a Scalar ( V).

- Numericals / Solved Examples - Gradient Of a Scalar.

- Divergence Of a Vector ( . A ).

- Numericals / Solved Examples - Divergence Of a Vector.

- Curl Of a Vector ( x A).
- Laplacian Of a Scalar ( 2 V).

UNIT-I
ELECTROSTATICS-I

- Introduction To Electrostatics.

- Coulomb's law.

- Electric Field Intensity (E).

- Electric Lines Of Forces /Streamlines / Electric Flux () .

- Electric Flux Density (D).

- Electric Field Intensity Due To a Finite and Infinite Line Charge.

- Electric Field Intensity Due To a Infinite Sheet Charge.

- Electric Field Intensity Due To a Circular Ring Charge.

5
- Electric Field Intensity Due To a Circular Disk Charge.

- Gauss's Law - Theory.

- Gauss's Law - Application To a Point charge.

- Scalar Electric Potential / Electrostatic Potential (V).

- Relationship Between Electric Field Intensity (E) and Electrostatic Potential (V).

- Electric Potential Due To a Circular Disk.

- Electric Dipole.
- Energy Density In Electrostatic Field / Work Done To Assemble Charges.

ELECTROSTATICS-II
Electric fields in material space

Properties of materials,

-Convection and conduction currents

-Conductors

-Polarization in dielectrics

-Dielectrics

-constant and strength

- Linear, isotropic and homogeneous dielectrics,

-Continuity equation , Relaxation time,

- Boundary conditions.

-Poissons and Laplaces Equations

-Uniqueness theorem, Resistance

-capacitance
- Parallel plate -
coaxial -spherical
capacitors.

6
UNIT-II
MAGNETOSTATCS
-Magnostatic fields

- Biot Savart law

- Amperes circuital law

-Applications of Amperes circuital law

- Magnetic flux density -

-Magnetic scalar and vector potentials.

-Magnetic forces, materials and devices

- Forces due to magnetic fields

- Magnetic torque and moment

- Magnetic dipole

- Magnetization in materials

-Classification of magnetic materials

- Magnetic boundary conditions

- Inductors and inductances

-Magnetic energy

- Magnetic circuits
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
-Faradays law

displacement current.

-Time harmonic fields

-Maxwells equations for static fields

- time varying fields .

7
UNIT-III
EM WAVE CHARACTERISTICS-I

-Electromagnetic wave propagation:

-Electromagnetic waves

- wave propagation in lossy dielectrics

- wave equations from Maxwells equations

- propagation constant

- intrinsic impedance of the medium

- complex permittivity

- loss tangent

- plane waves in lossless dielectrics

- plane waves in free space

- uniform plane wave

- TEM wave

- plane waves in good conductors

- skin effect

- Poynting vector

-Poyntings theorem.
EM WAVE CHARACTERISTICS-II
- Reflection of plane waves at oblique incidence

- parallel polarization

-perpendicular polarization

-Brewster angle.

8
- Numerical methods in

electromagnetic -finite difference

- finite element and moment method

UNIT-IV
TRANSMISSION LINES-I
-The transmission Line general solution

- The distortion less Line

- The telephone cable

- Reflection on a Line not terminated in Z0

- Open and short circuited Lines

-Reflection loss, Insertion loss-

-T and PI sections equivalent to Lines

-Constant K LPF & HPF

UNIT-V

TRANSMISSION LINES-II
-Input impedance of open and short circuited Lines

-The quarter wave Line

- impedance matching
-single stub impedance matching on a Line
- The smith circle diagram
-Application of the Smith chart
- Double stub impedance
-Open and Short circuit impedances
-stub matching

9
INTRODUCTION
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Vector Algebra is a part of algebra that deals with the theory of vectors and vector spaces.
Most of the physical quantities are either scalar or vector quantities.

SCALAR QUANTITY:

- Scalar is a number that defines magnitude. Hence a scalar quantity is defined as a quantity
that has magnitude only.

- A scalar quantity does not point to any direction i.e. a scalar quantity has no
directional component.
For example when we say, the temperature of the room is 30o C, we dont specify the direction.

- Hence examples of scalar quantities are mass, temperature, volume, speed etc.

- A scalar quantity is represented simply by a letter A, B, T, V, S.

VECTOR QUANTITY:

- A Vector has both a magnitude and a direction. Hence a vector quantity is a quantity that
has both magnitude and direction.

- Examples of vector quantities are force, displacement, velocity, etc.

- A vector quantity is represented by a letter with an arrow over it.

UNIT VECTORS (aA):

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- When a simple vector is divided by its own magnitude, a new vector is created known as
the unit vector
Mathematically, aA = A / |A|

- A unit vector has a magnitude of one. Hence the name unit vector.

- A unit vector is always used to describe the direction of respective vector.

Rearranging the terms, we have

- Hence any vector can be written as the product of its magnitude and its unit vector.

- Unit Vectors along the co-ordinate directions are referred to as the base vectors.
For example unit vectors along X, Y and Z directions are ax, ay and az respectively.

Position Vector / Radius Vector ( r ):

- A Position Vector (rQ)/ Radius vector defines the position of a point in space relative to
the origin.
rQ = xax + yay +zaz

- If the coordinates of some point is given as x =1, y =2 and z =3, then the position vector
is defined as
r = ax + 2ay +3az.

- Hence Position vector is another way to denote a point in space.

- Position vector for Cartesian system in general is written as

r = xax + yay +zaz

But we cannot say the position vector for cylindrical and spherical coordinate system to be

r = a + a + zaz

r = rar +a + a
because and are not a unit of distance.

- Hence the correct position vector for cylindrical and spherical system is given as:

r = cosax + sinay + zaz

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r = rsincosax +rsinsinay + rcosaz

- A position vector should always be expressed using Cartesian base vectors (ax, ay, az).

- Displacement Vector is the displacement or the shortest distance from one point to
another. Vector Multiplication:

When two vectors are multiplied the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how they
are multiplied.

The two important types of vector multiplication are:

Dot Product/Scalar Product (A.B)

Cross product (A x B)

DOT PRODUCT (A . B):

- Dot product of two vectors A and B is given as:

A . B = |A| |B| cosAB

Where AB is the angle formed between A and B.

Also ranges from 0 to i.e. 0 AB

- The result of A.B is a scalar, hence dot product is also known as Scalar Product.

- If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

- If A.B = |A| |B|, then obviously cosAB =1 which means AB = 0o

This shows that A and B are in the same direction or we can also say that A and B are parallel
to each other.

- If A.B = - |A| |B|, then obviously cosAB = -1 which means AB = 180o.

This shows that A and B are in the opposite direction or we can also say that A and B are
antiparallel to each other.

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- Similarly if A.B = 0, then cosAB =0 which means AB =90o.
This shows that A and B are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other.

- Since we know the Cartesian base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other, we have

ax . ax = ay . ay = az . az = 1
ax . ay = ay . az = az . ax = 0

CROSS PRODUCT ( A x B):

- Cross Product of two vectors A and B is given as:

A x B = |A| |B| sinAB an

Where AB is the angle formed between A and B and an is a unit vector normal to both A and B.
Also ranges from 0 to i.e. 0 AB

- The cross product is an operation between two vectors and the output is also a
vector. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then,

- The resultant vector is always normal to both the vector A and B.

- If A x B = 0, then sin AB = 0 which means AB = 0o or 180o;

This shows that A and B are either parallel or antiparallel to each other.

- Since we know the Cartesian base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other, we
have ax x ax = ay x ay = az x az =0

13
ax x ay = az
ay x az = ax
az x ax = ay

SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT:

- A . (B x C) = B . (C x A) = C . (A x B)

- Volume of a parallelogram having A, B and C as edges is given by the Scalar Triple Product.

VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT:

- A x (B x C) = B (A . C) - C (A .B)

COMPONENT OF A VECTOR:

- Scalar Component AB of vector A along vector

B AB = AcosAB = A |aB|cosAB = A.aB

- Vector Component AB of vector A along vector B

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is the scalar product multiplied by the unit vector along
B i.e. AB = (A.aB) aB

To Prove : (A * B) . A = 0.

A * B = ax ( Ay Bz - Az By ) - ay ( Ax Bz - Az Bx ) + az ( Ax By - Ay Bx )

A = Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az

(A * B ) . A = Ax Ay Bz - Ax Az By - Ax Ay Bz + Ay Az Bx + Ax Az By - Ay Az Bx = 0.

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INTRODUCTION
CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS

Co-Ordinate system is a system of representing points in a space of given dimensions by

coordinates, such as the Cartesian coordinate system or the system of celestial longitude
and latitude.

In order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, appropriate coordinate system
is required.

- A point or vector can be represented in a curvilinear coordinate system that may be orthogonal
or non-orthogonal.

- An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates are mutually perpendicular to each other.

- The different co-ordinate system available are:

Cartesian or Rectangular.
Circular Cylindrical.
Spherical.
Elliptical Cylindrical.
Hyperbolic Cylindrical.

Parabolic Cylindrical .

The choice depends on the geometry of the application.

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- The frequently used and hence discussed herein are

Rectangular Co-ordinate system.(Example: Cube, Cuboid)

Cylindrical Co-ordinate system.(Example : Cylinder)
Spherical Co-ordinate system.(Example : Sphere)

- A set of 3 scalar values that define position and a set of unit vectors that define direction form
a co-ordinate system.

- The 3 scalar values used to define position are called co-ordinates. All coordinates are
defined with respect to an arbitrary point called the origin.

Cartesian Co-ordinate System / Rectangular Co-ordinate System (X, Y, Z)

A Vector in Cartesian system is represented as

(Ax, Ay, Az)Or
A = Axax+ Ayay+ Azaz
Where ax, ay and az are the unit vectors in x, y, z direction respectively.

Range of the variables:

17
It defines the minimum and the maximum value that x, y and z can have in Cartesian system.

- x,y,z
Differential Displacement / Differential Length (dl):

It is given as dl = dxax + dyay + dzaz

Differential length for a surface is given as:

dl = dxax + dyay --- ( For XY Plane or Z Constant Plane).

dl = dyay + dzaz, ---( For YZ Plane or X Constant Plane).
dl = dxax + dzaz ---( For XZ Plane or Y Constant Plane).

Differential length for a line parallel to x, y and z axis are respectively given as:

dl = dxax ---( For a line parallel to x-axis).

dl = dyay ---( For a line Parallel to y-axis).
dl = dzaz, ---( For a line parallel to z-axis).

If there is a wire of length L in z-axis, then the differential length is given as dl = dz az. Similarly
if the wire is in y-axis then the differential length is given as dl = dy ay.

Differential Normal Surface (ds):

The differential surface (area element) is defined as ds = ds an, where an is the unit

vector perpendicular to the surface.

For the 1st figure, ds = dydz ax

2nd figure, ds = dxdz ay
3rd figure, ds = dxdy az

Differential surface is basically a cross product between twoparameters of the surface. For
example, consider the first figure. The surface has two differential lengths, one is dy and dz. The
differential surface (ds) is hence given as:

18
 Where an is the unit vector normal to both dy and dz
i.e. an = ay * az = ax

In other words the differential surface element (ds) has an area equal to product dydz, and
a normal vector that points in ax direction.

Differential Volume element (dv)

The differential volume element (dv) can be expressed in terms of the triple product.

dv = dx . (dy * dz)

Consider a cubical surface having dimension x * y * z. The differential volume (dv) of the
cubical surface is given as the triple product of the dimensions.

dv = dx . (dy * dz)
= dx ax . (dy dz a xsin AB )
= dx ax . (dy dz a x)
= dx dy dz

Where dy and dz are mutually perpendicular to each other. Therefore the angle between them is
90o.

One thing to remember isthat, the three parameters of Cartesian coordinate system i.e. X, Y, Z
are all mutually perpendicular to each other.

Therefore ax, ay and az are all mutually perpendicular to each other.

Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System...

A Vector in Cylindrical system is represented as

(A, A, Az)
or
A = Aa+ Aa+ Azaz

19
Where a, aand az are the unit vectors in , and z direction respectively.

The physical significance of each parameter of cylindrical coordinates:

- The value indicates the distance of the point from the z-axis. It is the radius of
the cylinder.

- The value , also called the azimuthal angle, indicates the rotation angle around the z-axis.
It is basically measured from the x axis in the x-y plane. It is measured anti-clockwise.

- The value z indicates the distance of the point from z-axis. It is the same as in
the Cartesian system. In short, it is the height of the cylinder.

Range of the variables:

It defines the minimum and the maximum value that , and z can have in Cartesian system.

0
0 2
- z

Figure shows Point P and Unit vectors in Cylindrical Co-ordinate System.

Cylindrical System - Unit vectors:

Since the co-ordinate system is orthogonal, the unit vectors a, a and az are mutually
perpendicular to each other.

a points in the direction of increasing , i.e a points away from the z-axis.
a points in the direction of increasing (anticlockwise).

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az points in the direction of increasing z.

Relationship between Cylindrical and Cartesian Co-ordinate System Parameters:

Consider the parallelogram ABOC,

X = cos.
Y = sin.
Z = Z.

From the above equations we have,

Relationship between (ax, ay and az) and (a , aand az) :

Since az is common between the two coordinate system, our main focus is to find out the
relation betweenax, ay and a , a

We know is the angle from the x-axis on the x-y plane.

From the above figures two equations can be deduced,

21
Transformation of vector A from (Ax, Ay, Az) to (A, A, Az) i.e. transformation of Vector A
fromCartesian to Cylindrical can be obtained as

Transformation of vector A from (A, A, Az) to (Ax, Ay, Az) i.e. transformation of Vector A
fromCylindrical to Cartesian can be obtained as

Differential Analysis - Cylindrical Co-ordinate System...

Differential Length(dl):

In General the differential length is given as

dl = d a + d a+ dz az

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Differential Length for a surface is given as:

- dl = d a+ d a ---(For - Plane or Z constant Plane)

- dl = d a+ dz az ---(For -z Plane or Constant Plane)

- dl = d a+ dz az ---(For -z Plane or Constant Plane)

Differential length for a line parallel to , and z axis are respectively given as:

- dl = d a ---(For a line parallel to axis)

- dl = d a ---(For a line parallel to axis)

dl = o2 d = ( 2 - 1) = 2

This resembles the circumference of a circle. Hence if varies with and z constant, then the
length is the circumference of the circle.

dl = dzaz ---(For a line parallel to z axis)

Differential Surface (ds):

- ds = d d az

This surface describes a circular disc. Always remember- To define a circular disk we need
two parameter one distance measure and one angular measure. An angular parameter will
always give a curved line or an arc.

In this case d is measured in terms of change in arc.

Arc is given as:

Arc= radius * angle

Therefore, whenever there is a change in angle the radius always remains constant. Hence
always assist d.

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 ds = oo2 d d = (2/2) (2 -1) = 2

This answer describes the surface area of a circle. Hence the surface is a circular disc.
- ds = d dz a

This surface describes the curved surface of the cylinder. We can also say that this
surface defines a hollow cylinder.

Suppose the height of the cylinder varies from 0 to h.

ds = oho2 d dz = (h - 0) (2 - 0) = 2 h

This answer describes the surface area of a cylinder. Hence the surface is a hollow cylinder.

- ds = d dz a

This surface describes a simple -z plane which is along the direction of .

Differential Volume (dv):

dv = d d dz ---(Scalar Quantity)

dv = o o2 oh d d dz = (2/2) (2 -0) (h -0) = 2 h

This answer describes the volume of a cylinder.

Spherical Co-ordinate System - 3D Co-ordinate System.

Geographers specify a location on the Earths surface using three scalar values:
longitude, latitude, and altitude.

Both longitude and latitude are angular measures, while altitude is a measure of distance.

Latitude, longitude, and altitude are similar to Spherical Co-ordinates.

24
Spherical coordinates consist of one scalar value (r), with units of distance, while the
other two scalarvalues (, ) have angular units (degrees or radians).

A Vector in Spherical System is represented as

(Ar A, A)
or
A = Arar + Aa + Aa

Where ar, a and a are the unit vectors in r, and direction respectively.

The physical significance of each parameter of spherical coordinates:

- The value r expresses the distance of the point from origin (i.e. similar to altitude). It
is the radius of the sphere.

- The angle is the angle formed with the z- axis (i.e. similar to latitude). It is also called the
co-latitude angle. It is measured clockwise.

- The angle , also called the azimuthal angle, indicates the rotation angle around the z-axis (i.e.
similar to longitude). It is basically measured from the x axis in the x-y plane. It is measured
counter-clockwise.

Range of the variables:

It defines the minimum and the maximum value that r, and can have in spherical co-ordinate
system.

-0r

-0
- 0 2

Spherical System - Unit Vectors:

25
Since the co-ordinate system is orthogonal, the unit vectors
ar, a and a are mutually perpendicular to each other.

- ar points in the direction of increasing r

i.e. ar points away from the z-axis.
- a points in the direction of increasing .
- a points in the direction of increasing .

Consider the parallelogram ABOC,

- X = cos .
- Y = sin .

- Z = Z.

Consider the second parallelogram OCPQ, we have

- = r sin
- z = r cos

So from the above data available we can say,

- x = r sin cos .
- Y = r sin sin .
- Z = r cos .

Similarly relationship between spherical andcylindrical coordinates can be derived as:

26
Relationship between (ax, ay, az) and (ar, a, a)

From the cylindrical coordinate system we know that,

ax = cos a sin a
ay = sin a + cos a
az = az

From the above figure, we can write a in terms of ar and a as

a = cos (90o ) ar + cos a

az = cos ar - sin a

Hence the unit vectors of cartesian and spherical co-ordinate system are related as:

ax = sin cos ar + cos cos a - sin a

ay = sin sin ar + cos sin a + cos a
az = cos ar - sin a

Transformation of vector A from (Ar, A, A) to (Ax, Ay, Az) i.e. transformation of Vector
A from Spherical to Cartesian can be obtained as

27
Transformation of vector A from (Ax, Ay, Az) to (Ar, A, A) i.e. transformation of Vector A
fromCartesian to Spherical can be obtained as

Differential analysis - Spherical Co-ordinate System...

Always remember that for a small change in angle the radius remains constant.

Radius of a cylinder () is constant for a small change in . Similarly the radius of a

sphere(r) isconstant for a small change in .

Therefore always associates d , and r always associates d.

Differential Length (dl) :

- dl = drar + r da + d a

- dl = drar + r da ---( For r - plane or constant plane)

- dl = r da + r sinda---( For - plane or r constant plane)

- dl = drar + r sind a---( For r - plane or constant plane)

28
Differential length for a line parallel to r, and axis are respectively given as:

- dl = drar ---(For a line parallel to r axis)

- dl = r da ---( For a line parallel to

axis) dl = o rd = r ( - 0) = r

This answer describes the circumference of a semi circle. Hence when varies with r and
constant, the resultant length is the circumference of a semicircle.

- dl = r sinda ---( For a line parallel to axis)

Differential Surface (ds):

- ds = r dr da

ds = or o r drd

= (r2/2) ( - 0)

= r2/2

This answer describes the surface area of a semicircle. Hence the surface represents a
semicircle.

- ds = r2 sind d ar

This surface describes a hollow sphere or circumference or surface area of

a sphere whose direction is along r.

ds = o2 o r2sin dd

= - r2 (cos -cos 0) (2 -0)

= 4 r2

This answer describes the surface area of a sphere. Hence the surface is a sphere with its origin
at the origin.

29
- ds = rsin drd a

This describes a circular cone with z-axis as its axis and the origin at its vertex.

Differential Volume (dv):

dv = r2 sin dr d d ---(Scalar Quantity)

dv = or o o2 r2 sin drdd

= - (r3/3) (cos - cos 0o) (2 - 0)

= 4/3 ( r3)

30
INTRODUCTION
VECTOR CALCULUS
Vector calculus (or vector analysis) is a branch of mathematics concerned with differentiation
and integration of vector fields, primarily in 3 dimensional space. Vector calculus plays an
important role in differential geometry and in the study of partial differential equations. It is
used extensively in physics and engineering, especially in the description of electromagnetic
fields, gravitational fields and fluid flow.

Line, Surface and Volume Integral...

- The Line integral of Vector A along a path L is given as

L A .dl

- The line integral is the dot product of a vector with a specified curve C.

- We can also say that line integral is the integral of the tangential component of vector A
along the curve C.

- If the path of integration is a closed path, the line integral becomes a closed line integral and
is called the circulation of A around C.

- Line Integral is useful in finding the electric field intensity along a path L.

- The surface integral of a vector B across a surface S is defined as

s B .ds

- When the surface S is closed, the surface integral becomes the net outward flux of B across
S, i.e.

- Surface integral is useful in finding the magnetic flux through a surface S.

- The volume integral of a scalar T over a volume v is given as

v T . dv
Gradient of a Scalar T (grad T) - Defination and Significance....
- The gradient of a scalar field provides a vector field that states how the scalar value is
changing throughout space a change that has both a magnitude and direction.

31
- A gradient is applied to a scalar quantity that is a function of a 3D vector field: position.
Thegradient measures the direction in which the scalar quantity changes the most, as well
as the rate ofchange with respect to position.

- The physical meaning of the gradient of a scalar is that it represents the steepness of the slope
or line. For example, height is a scalar quantity; gradient of the height would be a vector
pointing upwards. The length of the vector is proportional to the steepness of the slope.

- A derivative is required that tells us how fast the function varies, if we move a little distance.

- Consider a scalar function T which is a function of space coordinates x, y and z.

- The projection or the component of T in the direction of a unit vector al is T . al and is called theDIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE of T
along unit vector. Hence dT/dl is the directional derivative of T.

- Hence we also say that, the gradient of a scalar field indicates the direction of greatest change
(that is largest derivative) as well as the magnitude of that change, at every point in space.

PROPERTIES OF GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD T:

- If A = T, T is said to be the scalar potential of A.
- The magnitude of T equals the maximum rate of change in T per unit distance.
- T points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
- T at any point is perpendicular to the constant T surface that passes through that point.

Gradient of a scalar T for Cartesian coordinate system is given as:

32
Gradient of a scalar T for Cylindrical coordinate system is given as:

Gradient of a scalar T in Spherical coordinate system is given as:

Divergence Of a Vector Field ( div A) - Defination and Significance...

Mathematically divergence of a vector A is defined as:

Where the surface S is a closed surface that completely surrounds a small volume v
and where ds points outward from the closed surface.

- A divergence is applied to a vector as a function of position, yielding a scalar. The

divergence actuallymeasures how much the vector function is spreading out.

- Divergence of a vector field A is a measure of how much a vector field converges to or diverges
from a given point. In simple terms it is a measure of the outgoingness of a vector field.

- Divergence of a vector field is positive if the vector diverges or spread out from a given
point. If you are at a location from which the vector field tends to point away in all directions,
you will definitely have a positive divergence. It means divergence is positive at a source
point in the field.

- Divergence of a vector field is negative if the vector field converges at that point. If
the field points inward toward a point, the divergence in and near that point is negative.
It means divergence is negative at sink point in the field.

- Hence a nonzero divergence at some point means there must be a source or sink at
that position.

- If just as much of the vector field points in as out, the divergence will be approximately zero.

33
- A vector field with constant zero divergence is called solenoidal or divergenceless or incompressible ( . A = 0). In such cases no net flow can occur across any closed surface.

- Divergence of a vector field results in a scalar field that represents the sources of the vector
field.

- Divergence of a vector field A in Cartesian coordinate system is given as:

- Divergence of a vector field A in Cylindrical coordinate system is given as:

- Divergence of a vector field A in Spherical coordinate system is given as:

DIVERGENCE THEOREM:

- It states that the net outward flux of a vector field A through a closed surface S is equal
to the volume integral of the divergence of the field A inside the surface.

- It also states that the sum of all sources minus the sum of all sinks gives the net flow out of
a region.

Curl Of a Vector Field ( curl A) - Defination, Significance and Solved Examples...

Circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L is defined as:

Mathematically Curl of a vector A is defined as:

34
Where the area S is bounded by the curve L and the unit vector an is the unit vector normal to
the surface.

- The direction of the curl is the axis of rotation, as determined by the right hand thumb rule
and the magnitude of the curl is the magnitude of rotation.

- From the above relation we can define Curl as the maximum circulation per unit area.

- The curl of a vector field provides another vector field that indicates rotational sources of
the originalvector field.

- Curl is a measurement of the circulation of vector field A around a particular point.

- If theres a paper boat in a whirlpool, the circulation would be the amount of force that
pushed it along as it went in a circle. The more circulation, the more pushing force you have.

- Consider a closed loop counter C. The circulation will be positive if a component of vector
field A is pointing in the direction dl at every point on counter C. Hence if the circulation is
positive then obviously the curl of a vector A will also be positive.

- Similarly if a component of vector field A points in the opposite direction (- dl) at every
point of the counter, then the circulation and thus the curl will be negative.

- If the curl of a vector field A is zero, then the vector field A is said to be irrotational or potential (if x A =0). In such cases,
the circulation of A around a closed path is zero; it implies that the line integral of A is independent of the chosen path. Hence
an irrotational field is also known as a conservative field.

Curl of a vector A in Cartesian Coordinate system is given as:

35
The above is the determinant form of the formula for curl. The first line is made up of
unit vectors, thesecond of scalar operators, and the third of scalar functions, so this is not
a determinant in the strict mathematical sense.

Curl of vector A in Cylindrical coordinate system is given as:

Curl of vector A in Spherical coordinate system is given as:

STOKES THEOREM:

It states that the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L is equal to the surface
integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L.

The divergence theorem relates a closed surface integral to an open volume integral, the Stokes
theorem relates a closed line integral to an open surface integral.

Laplacian of a Scalar - Defination, Significance and Solved Examples...

36
- The laplacian is a scalar operator. Hence when applied to scalar field, the result is
also a scalar field.

- Laplace operator is a second order differential equation defined as the divergence

of the gradient of scalar field.
- Laplacian of a scalar field V is written as 2 V.

- Laplacian of a scalar is:

- Used in electrostatics to represent the charge associated to a given potential

- Used in defining the Helmholtz equation of propagation of EM wave.
- Used in Laplaces and Poissons equation.
Laplacian of a scalar field V in Cartesian coordinate system is given as:

Laplacian of a scalar field V in Cylindrical coordinate system is given as:

Laplacian of a scalar field V in Spherical coordinate system is given as:

37
OBJECTIVE TYPE BITS FOR INTRODUCTION PART
1. In a Cartesian coordinate system, axes x, y and z are at __________ to each other.
a. 45
b. 90
c. 120
d. 180
2. Cartesian coordinates are represented in terms of ___________.
a. (r, , z)
b. (r, , )
c. (x, y, z)
d. all of these
3. Cylindrical coordinates are represented in terms of ____________.
a. (r, , z)
b. (r, , )
c. (x, y, z)
d. all of these
4. Spherical coordinates are represented in terms of ___________.
a. (r, , z)
b. (r, , )
c. (x, y, z)
d. all of these
5. In Cylindrical coordinate systems, unit vector is __________.
a. directed outwards radially
b. normal to cylindrical surface at a point
c. both (a) and (b)
d. none of these
6. Unit vector is at ________ to = constant plane.
a. 90

38
 b. 180
c. 270
d. 360
7. Cylindrical coordinate 'r' is related to the Cartesian coordinate as __________.
a. (x, y)
b. (x + y)

c. (x2/y2)
d. (x2 + y2)1/2
8. Cylindrical coordinate 'z' is related to the Cartesian coordinate as __________.

a. tan1(y/x)
b. z
c. xy/z
d. cot z

9. Dot multiplication is equal to __________.

a. sin
b. cos
c. sin
d. cos
10. In a Spherical coordinate system, is ____________.
a. angle of elevation
b. azimuthal angle
c. distant from the origin to the point
d. all of these
11. Spherical coordinate system is a _________.
a. right-handed syste.
b. left-handed system
c. both (a)and (b)
d. none of these

39
12. Cross product is equal to _____________.

a.
b.
c. 1
d. 0
13. In a Spherical coordinate system, is given as _________.
a. y/x
b. x/y

c. tan1(y/x)
d. tan1(x/y)
14. In a Spherical coordinate system, r is given as ___________.
a. (x + y + z)

b. (x2 + y2 + z2)
c. (x2 + y2 + z2)1/2

d.
15. Dot product is equal to ____________.

a.
b.
c. 1
d. 0
16. For transformation from the Cartesian coordinate system to Spherical coordinate
system, should be equal to ____________.
a. cos
b. cos
c. sin
d. sin
17. In terms of Spherical coordinate system variables, y of Cartesian coordinate system is
given as __________.
a. r sin cos

40
 b. r sin sin
c. r cos sin
d. r cos cos
18. In a Spherical coordinate system, unit vector is perpendicular to the shifted ________
plane.
a. xy
b. yz
c. xz
d. none of these
19. In the Cylindrical coordinate system, z ranges between ____________.
a. 0 and 1
b. and 0
c. 0 and
d. and
20. In the Cylindrical coordinate system, ranges from _____________.
a. 0 to less than
b. 0 to less than 2
c. 0 to less than 3
d. 0 to less than 4
21. Line integral involves _________ product.
a. scalar
b. vector
c. both (a) an (b)
d. none of these
22. Del operator is ______________.
a. same as the gradient operator
b. vector differential operator
c. both (a) an (b)
d. none of these

41
23. Gradient represents the __________ of maximum space rate of increase of a scalar field.
a. magnitude
b. direction
c. both (a) an (b)
d. none of these
24. (AB) is equal to ___________.
a. A. B
b. A+ B
2
c. AB
d. B A + A B

25. An is equal to _____________.

a. n A

b. nAn1 A
c. nAn A
n
d. A
26. Divergence of a vector at a point in a vector field is __________ quantity.
a. vector
b. scalar
c. both (a) an (b)
d. none of these
27. Divergence of vector field is net outward flux of a vector per unit ______.
a. surface area
b. volume
c. length
d. none of these
28. Divergence at a point is positive if field lines are _________
a. diverging
b. converging

42
 c. both (a) an (b)
d. none of these
29. If the rate at which field lines enter into a small volume and also leave, then divergence is
________.
a.
b. 1
c. 0
d. 1
30. Divergence Theorem is applicable for a ________ that is bounded by a _________.
a. volume, surface
b. surface, volume
c. surface, line
d. line, surface
31. Divergence Theorem relates ________ integral to __________ integral.
a. surface, volume
b. line, surface
c. volume, line
d. all of these
32. A vector is solenoidal, if ( . ) = ___________.
a. 1
b. 1
c. 0
d.
33. Curl measures _________.
a. rate of change of vector
b. circular rotation
c. both (a) and (b)
d. none of these
34. Stoke's Theorem relates, ______ integral to a _______ integral.

43
 a. volume, surface
b. volume, line
c. line, surface
d. all of these
35. Vector field is irrotational if = ________.
a.
b. 1
c. 1
d. 0
36. For a scalar field, as per vector's theorem, ( V)_________.
a. 1
b. 0
c. 1
d.
37. Laplacian operator ________.
a. is a scalar function
b. is a vector function
c. can be a scalar or vector function
d. none of these
38. Laplacian of a scalar is __________.
a. scalar
b. vector
c. both (a) and (b)
d. none of these
39. Laplacian of a vector is ___________ of gradient of its divergence and its curl of curl.
a. addition
b. difference
c. multiplication

44
 d. division
40. A scalar field is harmonic in a given region, if its Laplacian is __________.
a.
b. 1
c. 1
d. 0

45
 UNIT-I
ELECTROSTATICS-I

Introduction to Electrostatics and Coulomb's Law...

- Electrostatics is a branch of science that involves the study of various phenomena

caused by electric charges that are slow-moving or even stationary.

- Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter and charge exist in integral multiple
of electronic charge. Electrostatics as the study of electric charges at rest.

- The two important laws of electrostatics are

Coulombs Law.
Gausss Law.

- Both these laws are used to find the electric field due to charge configurations.

- Coulombs law is applicable in finding electric field due to any charge configurations where as
Gausss law is applicable only when the charge distribution is symmetrical.

COULOMBS LAW:

- Coulombs law is the Law of Action which describes the force between two point charges.

- A point charge is a charge that occupies a region of space which is negligibly small
compared to thedistance between the point charge and any other object.

- Coulombs law states that The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges
Q1 and Q2 is:
Proportional to the charges Q1 and Q2.
Varies inversely as the square of distance between them.
Acts along the line joining the two point charges.

46
- Mathematically, Coulombs law is expressed as:

Where k is the proportionality constant and is defined as

o is known as the permittivity of free space and r is called the relative permittivity of
any dielectricmaterial.

In Free Space, r = 1, hence

Hence equation of force in free space becomes:

47
- Here the diagram represents the coulomb
vector force on Point charges Q1 and Q2.

Force F12 on Q2 due to Q1 is given as:

- Similarly F21 on Q1 due to Q2 is given as:

F21 = |F12 | aR21 = |F12 | ( - aR12 )

F21 = - F12 since [aR21 = - aR12 ]

- The force on Q1 due to Q2 is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the force
on Q2 due to Q1.

- If there are more than two point charges, then the principle of Superposition can be used
to determine the force on a particular charge.

If there are N numbers of charges Q1, Q2, Q3..Qn located respectively at points with position
vectorsr1, r2, r3.rn, the force experienced by a charge Q located at position vector r is given
as:

48
Electric Field Strength / Electric field Intensity (E)...

- Electric field due to a charge is the space around the unit charge in which it experiences a
force.

- Electric field intensity or the electric field strength at a point is defined as the force per
unit charge.

Mathematically,
E=F/Q
OR

F=EQ

- The force on charge Q is the product of a charge (which is a scalar) and the value of the
electric field(which is a vector) at the point where the charge is located.

- Hence force will be either parallel or anti-parallel to the Electric field intensity.
(i.e. Q > 0) the force F points in the same direction as the electric field E.

- If the charge is negative (i.e. Q < 0) the force F points in the opposite direction as the
electric field E.

- Electric field intensity(E) at point r due to a point charge Q located at a point with
position vector r1 is given as:

Similarly for N point charges Q1, Q2 .Qn located at points with position vectors r1, r2,.rn,
the electric field intensity at point r is given as:

49
- Charges can occur as point charge, line charge, surface charge and volume charge.

The charge element dQ and the total charge due to different charge distribution is given as:

dQ =ldl Q = L ldl (Line Charge)

dQ = sds Q = S sds (Surface Charge)

dQ = vdv Q = V vdv (Volume Charge)

- Electric field intensity due to different charge distribution is hence given as:

ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCES:

- Electric line of force is a pictorial representation of the electric field.

- Electric line of force (also called Electric Flux lines or Streamlines) is an imaginary straight or
curved path along which a unit positive charge tends to move in an electric field.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE:

- Lines of force start from positive charge and terminate either at negative charge or
move to infinity.

- Similarly lines of force due to a negative charge are assumed to start at infinity and
terminate at the negative charge.

50
- Lines of force never intersect i.e. they do not cross each other.

Tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field E at that point.

- Lines are dense close to a source of the electric field and become sparse when one moves away.

-The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to the lines, is proportional to
the magnitude of E. This means that, where the lines of force are close together, E is large and
where they are far apart E is small.

IMPORTANT POINTS:

- If there is no charge in a volume, then each field line which enters it must also leave it.

- If there is a positive charge in a volume then more field lines leave it than enter it.

- If there is a negative charge in a volume then more field lines enter it than leave it.

- Hence we say
Positive charges are sources and Negative charges are sinks of the field.

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY(D = E):

- Line of Force may be termed as Electric Flux represented by and unit is coulomb (C).

- The density of electric flux is the electric (displacement) flux density, D.

- It is the measure of cluster of electric lines of force. It is the number of lines of force per
unit area of cross section.
D=/S = S (D . ds)

51
Electric Field Intensity Due To a Finite Line Charge...

- Consider a line charge with uniform charge density L extending from + a to a along the z-
axis.

- Charge element dQ associated with the element dl of the line is

dQ = L dl = L dz

- From the diagram its clear that the Electric field intensity has two components i.e. E and Ez.

- If we move around the line charge and if we vary , while keeping and z constant, it is
expected that the field would become weaker as increases.

- No element of charge produces a component i.e. E is equal to zero.

- Hence Electric field intensity at point P has only two component one along the and the
other along thez direction.

52
- However the contribution due to Ez component by the elements of charge will be
canceled because the same are at equal distances above and below the point at which the field is
to be determined.

(For Example: If a charge element is present at + 4az and another charge element at - 4az, then
the z component due to the two mentioned charge element at the point P will be canceled out
on resolving the field.)

- Hence the only field component that exist at point P due to a

symmetric line charge element is E.

- Differential electric field intensity(dE) due to a small line charge element is given as:

- In this case r is equivalent to l (small L). Therefore the equation can be written as:

- Consider the triangle OPQ, we have

(Small L) l = (z2 + 2)1/2

cos = / l ; sin = z / l

dE = |dE| cos = dE . ( / l)

53
Similarly we have,

dEz = |dE| sin = dE . (z / l)

Since the resultant z component Ez of the field at a point on the axis is zero i.e. dEz = 0

The axial component E of the field at a point P on axis can be obtained by integrating from
a to + a as

dE = -a+a dE . ( / l)

- For an infinite length of line charge a "

- Hence the electric field intensity due to an infinite line charge is given as:

54
Electric Field Intensity Due To a Infinite Sheet Charge....

(SYMMETRY ABOUT A PLANE)

- Consider an infinite sheet of charge in the y-z plane having a uniform charge density of
s C/m2.

- For easy analysis, divide the sheet into differential width strips (dy).

L = s dy

- The distance between the point P and the line

charge Z2 = X2 + Y2

- Since the sheet lies in y-z plane the field components due to y and z will be canceled out at
the pointat which the field is to be determined.
(As we have seen in electric field due to a line charge where the z component gets canceled out.)

- Only Ex component is present and hence the field is a function of x alone for an
infinite sheet of charge on y-z plane.

55
- Hence the electric field intensity due to an infinite line charge is given as:

- Magnitude Ex at point P due to an infinite differential width strip(dy):

from to + ,

- If the field intensity is obtained at point P on the negative axis, then E will be:

56
- In general, Electric field intensity for an infinite sheet of charge is given as:

Where an is a unit vector normal to the sheet.

- The electric field intensity (E) points away from the plane if s is positive and towards
the plane if sis negative.

- The magnitude of the electric field is a constant the magnitude is independent of

the distance fromthe infinite plane.

- This is because no matter how far the point is from the infinite sheet, the distance
becomes incomparable with the dimensions of the plane. Hence it seems the point is very
close to the infiniteplane.

- In a parallel plate capacitor the electric field intensity between the two plates having equal
and opposite charge is given by:

The first ve sign denotes ve charge on one plate and the second ve sign denotes opposite
direction.

Electric Field Intensity (E) Due To a Circular Disk Charge...

57
- Consider a circular disc of radius a which carries a uniform surface charge density s , C /m2.

- Say the disk lies on x-y plane (or z = 0 plane) with its axis along the z axis as shown in
the figure.

- We need to find out electric field (E) due to acircular disk at a point P (0, 0, h) on the z axis (z
> 0).

- Electric field intensity (E) at a point due to any surface charge (s) is given as:

- Consider the triangle shown in figure(Since its a disc, the varying terms are radius and
angle )

a + R = h az R = - a + h az

| R | = (2 + h2)1/2

aR = R / | R |

58
aR = - a + h az / (2 + h2)1/2

Substituting all these values in the above equations, the electric field intensity E becomes

- Contribution along a due to symmetry adds up to zero.

- Therefore the final electric field intensity at point (0, 0, h) has only z component.

- As a 0, the electric field intensity (E) also tends to zero i.e. E 0

59
- Hence electric field intensity (E) at point (0, 0, h) is given as:

Gauss Law (Theory) & Application To A Point Charge...

- Gauss law is one of the fundamental laws of Electrostatics.

- It states that

The net electric flux emanating or coming from a close surface S is equal to the total
charge contained within the volume V bounded by that surface.

We know,

Therefore

= Qenc

Hence Gauss law also states that

60
The total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the enclosed electric charge.

- Charge contained in a volume is given

as: dQ = v dv Q = V v dv

Hence we have,

Applying Divergence theorem we have,

Comparing the above two equations, we have

And hence
. D = v

This equation is called the 1st Maxwell's equation of electrostatics.

- Gauss law is an easy way of finding electric field for some symmetric problems
in electrostatics.

- Gauss law relates the electric field at points on a closed Gaussian surface to the net
charge enclosed by that surface.

- One thing to remember is Qenc contains charges which are enclosed within the
volume. Chargesoutside the volume, no matter how large or how close it may be, are not
included in the term Qenc.

Electric Potential / Electrostatic Potential (V)...

61
- If a charge is placed in the vicinity of another charge (or in the field of another charge),
it experiences a force.

- If a field being acted on by a force is moved from one point to another, then work is either
said to be done on the system or by the system.

- Say a point charge Q is moved from point A to point B in an electric field E, then the
work done in moving the point charge is given as:

WAB = - AB (F . dl) = - Q AB(E . dl)

where the ve sign indicates that the work is done on the system by an external agent.

- The work done per unit charge in moving a test charge from point A to point B
is the electrostatic potential differencebetween the two points(VAB).

VAB = WAB / Q

= - AB(E . dl)

= - InitialFinal (E . dl)

- If the potential difference is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in

the movement, external agent performs the work against the field.

62
- If the sign of the potential difference is negative, work is done by the field.

- The electrostatic field is conservative i.e. the value of the line integral depends only on
end points and is independent of the path taken.

- Since the electrostatic field is conservative, the electric potential can also be written as:

VAB = - AB (E . dl )

= - APo (E . dl) - PoB (E . dl)

= - PoB (E . dl) - (- APo(E . dl)

= VB VA

Thus the potential difference between two points in an electrostatic field is a scalar field that is
defined at every point in space and is independent of the path taken.

- The work done in moving a point charge from point A to point B can be written as:
WAB = - Q [VB VA] = - Q AB (E . dl)
- Consider a point charge Q at origin O.

63
- Now if a unit test charge is moved from point A to Point B, then the potential
difference between them is given as:

- Electrostatic potential or Scalar Electric potential (V) at any point P is given by:

V = - PoP (E . dl)

The reference point Po is where the potential is zero (analogues to ground in a circuit).

- The reference is often taken to be at infinity so that the potential of a point in space is
defined as

V = - P (E . dl)

- Basically potential is considered to be zero at infinity. Thus potential at any point ( rB = r) due
to a point charge Q can be written as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive
charge frominfinity to that point (i.e. rA )

64
- Electric potential (V) at point r due to a point charge Q located at a point with position vector
r1 is given as:

- Similarly for N point charges Q1, Q2 .Qn located at points with position vectors r1,
r2, r3..rn, theelectric potential (V) at point r is given as:

- The charge element dQ and the total charge due to different charge distribution is given as:

dQ = ldl Q = L (ldl) (Line Charge)

dQ = sds Q = S (sds) (Surface Charge)

dQ = vdv Q = V (vdv) (Volume Charge)

elationship Between Electric Field Intensity(E) and Electric Potential(V)...

65
- The work done per unit charge in moving a test charge from point A to point B
is the electrostatic potential difference between the two points(VAB).
VAB = VB - VA
Similarly,
VBA = VA VB

- Hence its clear that potential difference is independent of the path

taken. Therefore
VAB = - VBA

VAB + VBA = 0

- AB (E . dl) + [ - BA (E . dl) ] = 0

- The above equation shows that the line integral of Electric field intensity (E) along a
closed path is equal to zero.

- In simple words,

No work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic field.

- Applying Stokes Theorem to the above Equation, we have:

- If the Curl of any vector field is equal to zero, then such a vector field is called an
Irrotational or Conservative Field.

- Hence an electrostatic field is also called a conservative field.

66
- The above equation is called the second Maxwells Equation of Electrostatics.

- Since Electric potential is a scalar quantity, hence dV (as a function of x, y and z variables)
can be written as:

- Hence the Electric field intensity (E) is the negative gradient of Electric potential (V).

- The negative sign shows that E is directed from higher to lower values of V i.e. E is opposite
to the direction in which V increases.

Energy Density In Electrostatic Field / Work Done To Assemble Charges....

- In case, if we wish to assemble a number of charges in an empty system, work is required to
do so.
- Also electrostatic energy is said to be stored in such a collection.

- Let us build up a system in which we position three point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 at position
r1, r2 and r3 respectively in an initially empty system.

- Consider a point charge Q1 transferred from infinity to position r1 in the system. It takes no
work to bring the first charge from infinity since there is no electric field to fight against (as
the system is empty i.e. charge free).
Hence, W1 = 0 J

- Now bring in another point charge Q2 from infinity to position r2 in the system. In this case
we have to do work against the electric field generated by the first charge Q1.
Hence, W2 = Q2 V21

where V21 is the electrostatic potential at point r2 due to Q1.

- Work done W2 is also given as:

67
- Now bring in another point charge Q3 from infinity to position r3 in the system. In this case
we have to do work against the electric field generated by Q1 and Q2.

Hence, W3 = Q3 V31 + Q3 V32 = Q3 ( V31 + V32 )

where V31 and V32 are electrostatic potential at point r3 due to Q1 and Q2 respectively.

- The work done is simply the sum of the work done against the electric field generated by
point charge Q1 and Q2 taken in isolation:

- Thus the total work done in assembling the three charges is given as:

WE = W1 + W2 + W3
= 0 + Q2 V21 + Q3 ( V31 + V32 )

- Also total work done ( WE ) is given as:

- If the charges were positioned in reverse order, then the total work done in assembling them
is given as:

WE = W3 + W2+ W1

68
 = 0 + Q2V23 + Q3( V12+ V13)

where V23 is the electrostatic potential at point r2 due to Q3 and V12 and V13 are
electrostatic potential at point r1 due to Q2 and Q3 respectively.

- Adding the above two equations we have,

2WE = Q1 ( V12 + V13) + Q2 ( V21 + V23) + Q3 ( V31 + V32)

= Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3

Hence
WE =1 / 2 [Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3]

where V1, V2 and V3 are total potentials at position r1, r2 and r3 respectively.

- The result can be generalized for N point charges as:

- The above equation has three interpretation:

a) This equation represents the potential energy of the system.

b) This is the work done in bringing the static charges from infinity and assembling them
in the required system.

c) This is the kinetic energy which would be released if the system gets dissolved i.e.
the charges returns back to infinity.

- In place of point charge, if the system has continuous charge distribution ( line, surface
or volume charge), then the total work done in assembling them is given as:

69
- Since v = . D and E = - V,

Substituting the values in the above equation, work done in assembling a volume charge
distribution in terms of electric field and flux density is given as:

- The above equation tells us that the potential energy of a continuous charge distribution
is stored in an electric field.

- The electrostatic energy density wE is defined as:

EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1(a) Define potential at a point and obtain its expression.
(b) The potential at a point A is 10 volts and at B is 15 volts. If a charge, Q =10 ?C is
moved from A to B, what is the work required to be done.

2. (a) Explain the coefficient of coupling in an inductor coil.

(b) Two coils of L1 = 100 mH, L2 = 50 mH have a coefficient of coupling equal to 0.3.
Find mutual inductance

70
3 (a) Define and distinguish between the terms electric field, electric displacement
and electric flux density with necessary mathematical relations.

b) A charge of 8 nc is distributed uniformly along a line of length 8m. Find the field
intensity at radial distance of 2m from the centre of the line assuming air medium.

4 (a) Explain the equation of continuity for time varying fields.

(b) Find all the relations between E and H in a uniform plane wave. Hence find

the value of intrinsic independence of free space.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Metals have their conductivity "" _________.
a. >>1
b. <<1
c. 0
d. none of these
2. Insulators have their conductivity "" _________.
a. >>1
b. <<1
c. 0
d. none of these
3. Electrostatic field is _________ a perfect conductor.
a. same inside
b. infinite inside
c. zero inside
d. none of these
4. Potential is _________ a perfect conductor.
a. same inside
b. infinite inside
c. zero inside

71
 d. none of these
5. As per Gauss' Law, charge density inside a perfect conductor is zero if E is _________.
a. positive
b. negative
c. unity
d. zero
6. Conductivity of dielectric is _________.
a. low
b. high
c. both (a) and (b)
d. cannot say
7. Which of the following is not a non-polar dielectric?
a. water
b. oxygen
c. CO2

d. alcohol
8. The direction of electric dipole moment is _________ applied electric field.
a. orthogonal
b. contrary
c. same
d. none of these
9. Electric polarization of a material is electric dipole moment per unit _________.
a. length
b. area
c. volume
d. none of these
10. Capacitor stores energy in _________ field.
a. electric

72
 b. magnetic
c. gravity
d. none of these
11. Inductor stores energy in ________ field.
a. electric
b. magnetic
c. gravity
d. none of these
12. Which of the following is not an inductor?
a. toroid
b. transmission line
c. solenoid
d. none of these
13. Magnetic field at any point inside a long solenoid is _________.
a. zero
b. infinity
c. constant
d. none of these
14. A toroid is _________ solenoid.
a. a long
b. a small
c. not a
d. none of these
15. For a medium to be a quasi-conductor, the dissipation factor should be _________.
a. infinity
b. zero
c. unity
d. none of these

73
16. Loss tangent is the same as _________.
a. mutual inductance
b. resistivity
c. conductivity
d. dissipation factor
17. Loss tangent is given as _________.
a. /
b. /
c. /
d. /
18. Loss tangent approximates _________.
a. attenuation constant
b. phase constant
c. intrinsic impedance
d. all of these

74
ELECTROSTATICS-II

Properties Of Materials And Steady Electric Current...

- Electric field can not only exist in free space and vacuum but also in any material medium.

- When an electric field is applied to the material, the material will modify the electric
field either by strengthening it or weakening it, depending on what kind of material it is.

- Materials are classified into 3 groups based on conductivity / electrical property:

- Conductors (Metals like Copper, Aluminum, etc.) have high conductivity ( >> 1).
- Insulators / Dielectric (Vacuum, Glass, Rubber, etc.) have low conductivity ( << 1).
- Semiconductors (Silicon, Germanium, etc.) have intermediate conductivity.

- Conductivity () is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct electricity. It is

the reciprocal of resistivity ().

- Units of conductivity are Siemens/meter and mho.

- The basic difference between a conductor and an insulator lies in the amount of free
electrons available for conduction of current.

- Conductors have a large amount of free electrons where as insulators have only a few
number ofelectrons for conduction of current.

- Most of the conductors obey ohms law. Such conductors are also called ohmic conductors.

- Due to the movement of free charges, several types of electric current can be caused.
The differenttypes of electric current are:

- Conduction Current.
- Convection Current.
- Displacement Current.

75
- Electric current (I) defines the rate at which the net charge passes through a wire of
cross sectional surface area S.

Mathematically,

If a net charge Q moves across surface S in some small amount of time t, electric current(I)
is defined as:

- How fast or how speed the charges will move depends on the nature of the material medium.

- Current density (J) is defined as current I flowing through surface S.

- Imagine surface area S inside a conductor at right angles to the flow of current. As the
area approaches zero, the current density at a point is defined as:

The above equation is applicable only when current density (J) is normal to the surface.

- In case if current density(J) is not perpendicular to the surface, consider a small area ds of
the conductor at an angle to the flow of current as shown:

In this case current flowing through the area is given as:

dI = J dS cos = J . dS

76
I = S (J . dS)

where angle is the angle between the normal to the area and direction of the current.

From the above equation its clear that electric current is a scalar quantity.
Conduction And Convection Current Density....

CONVECTION CURRENT DENSITY:

- Convection current occurs in insulators or dielectrics such as liquid, vacuum and rarified gas.

- Convection current results from motion of electrons or ions in an insulating medium.

- Since convection current doesnt involve conductors, hence it does not satisfy ohms law.

- Consider a filament where there is a flow of charge v at a velocity u = uy ay.

- Hence the current is given as:

77
Where uy is the velocity of the moving electron or ion and v is the free volume charge density.

- Hence the convection current density in general is given as:

J = v u

CONDUCTION CURRENT DENSITY:

- Conduction current occurs in conductors where there are a large number of free electrons.

- Conduction current occurs due to the drift motion of electrons (charge carriers).

- Conduction current obeys ohms law.

- When an external electric field is applied to a metallic conductor, conduction current

occurs due to the drift of electrons.

- The chargea inside the conductor experiences a force due to the electric field and hence
should accelerate but due to continuous collision with atomic lattice, their velocity is reduced.

- The net effect is that the electrons moves or drifts with an average velocity called the drift

78
velocity (d) which is proportional to the applied electric field (E).

- Hence according to Newtons law, if an electron with a mass m is moving in an electric

field E with anaverage drift velocity d, the the average change in momentum of the free
electron must be equal to the applied force (F = - e E).

- The drift velocity per unit applied electric field is called the mobility of electrons (e).
d = - e E

where e is defined as:

- Consider a conducting wire in which charges subjected to an electric field are moving with
drift velocity d.

- Say there are Ne free electrons per cubic meter of conductor, then the free volume
charge density(v)within the wire is
v = - e Ne

- The charge Q is given as:

Q = v V = - e Ne S l = - e Ne S d t

79
- The incremental current is thus given as:

- The conduction current density is thus defined as:

where is the conductivity of the material.

- The above equation is known as the Ohms law in point form and is valid at every point
in space.

- In a semiconductor, current flow is due to the movement of both electrons and

holes, henceconductivity is given as:
= ( Ne e + Nh h )e
DIELECTRC CONSTANT:
It is also known as Relative permittivity.

If two charges q 1 and q 2 are separated from each other by a small distance r. Then by using
the coulombs law of forces the equation formed will be

In the above equation is the electrical permittivity or you can say it, Dielectric constant.

80
If we repeat the above case with only one change i.e. only change in the separation medium
between the charges. Here some material medium must be used. Then the equation formed
will be.

Now after division of above two equations

In the above figure

is the Relative Permittivity. Again one thing to notice is that the dielectric constant
is represented by the symbol(K) but permittivity by the symbol

Now after the division third equation is created. Its we describe this equation then the
new definition can be made from this. i.e.
It is the ratio of the force of communication between the two point charges separated from each
by a distance using air/Vacuum as a medium to the force of communication between the same
charges placed at the same distance and using some material medium.Faraday has done many
experiments on this topic. He found that When we insert some insulating material in the space
present between the plates of a capacitor , having its plates fully charged then the capacitance
of the capcitor will increase definitely.

CONTINUITY EQUATION:

The continuity equation is derived from two of Maxwell's equations. It states that the divergence
of the current density is equal to the negative rate of change of the charge density,

Derivation
One of Maxwell's equations, Ampre's law, states that

81
Taking the divergence of both sides results in

but the divergence of a curl is zero, so that

Another one of Maxwell's equations, Gauss's law, states that

Substitute this into equation (1) to obtain

which is the continuity equation.

LAPLACE'S AND POISSON'S EQUATIONS

A useful approach to the calculation of electric potentials is to relate that potential to the charge
density which gives rise to it. The electric field is related to the charge density by the
divergence relationship

and the electric field is related to the electric potential by a gradient relationship

Therefore the potential is related to the charge density by Poisson's equation

In a charge-free region of space, this becomes LaPlace's equation

82
This mathematical operation, the divergence of the gradient of a function, is called
the LaPlacian. Expressing the LaPlacian in different coordinate systems to take advantage of
the symmetry of a charge distribution helps in the solution for the electric potential V. For
example, if the charge distribution has spherical symmetry, you use the LaPlacian in spherical
polar coordinates.

Since the potential is a scalar function, this approach has advantages over trying to calculate the
electric field directly. Once the potential has been calculated, the electric field can be computed
by taking the gradient of the potential.

Polarization of Dielectric

If a material contains polar molecules, they will generally be in random orientations when no
electric field is applied. An applied electric field will polarize the material by orienting the
dipole moments of polar molecules.

This decreases theeffective electric

field between the plates and will
increase thecapacitance of the parallel
plate structure. The dielectric must be a
good electricinsulator so as to
minimize any DC leakage current
through a capacitor.

The presence of the dielectric decreases the electric field produced by a given charge density.

The factor k by which the effective field is decreased by the polarization of the dielectric
is called the dielectric constant of the material.
Parallel Plate with Dielectric

83
The capacitance of a set of charged parallel plates is increased by the insertion of
adielectric material. The capacitance is inversely proportional to the electric field between
the plates, and the presence of the dielectric reduces the effective electric field. The dielectric
is characterized by a dielectric constant k, and the capacitance is multiplied by that factor.

Parallel Plate Capacitor

Show

The capacitance of flat, parallel metallic plates of area A and separation d is given by the
expression above where:

= permittivity of space and

k = relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.

k=1 for free space, k>1 for all media, approximately =1 for air.

The Farad, F, is the SI unit for capacitance, and from the definition of capacitance is seen to
be equal to a Coulomb/Volt.

Any of the active parameters in the expression below can be calculated by clicking on it.
Default values will be provided for any parameters left unspecified, but all parameters can be
changed. After editing data, you must click on the desired parameter to calculate; values will
not automatically be forced to be consistent.

84
Capacitance of Parallel Plates

The electric field between two large parallel plates is

given by

The voltage difference between the two plates can be expressed in terms of the workdone on a
positive test charge q when it moves from the positive to the negative plate.

It then follows from the definition of capacitance that

Spherical Capacitor

85
The capacitance for spherical or cylindrical conductors can be obtained by evaluating the
voltage difference between the conductors for a given charge on each.

By applying Gauss' law to an charged conducting sphere, the electric field outside it is found to
be

The voltage between the spheres can be found by integrating the electric field along a radial line:

From the definition of capacitance, the capacitance is

solated Sphere Capacitor?

An isolated charged conducting sphere has capacitance. Applications for such a capacitor may
not be immediately evident, but it does illustrate that a charged sphere has stored some energy as
a result of being charged. Taking the concentric sphere capacitance expression:

and taking the limits gives

86
Further confirmation of this comes from examining the potential of a charged conducting sphere:

Cylindrical Capacitor

For a cylindrical geometry like a coaxial cable, the capacitance is usually stated as a
capacitance per unit length. The charge resides on the outer surface of the inner conductor and
the inner wall of the outer conductor. The capacitance expression is

The capacitance for cylindrical orspherical conductors can be obtained by evaluating the
voltage difference between the conductors for a given charge on each. By applying Gauss' law
to an infinite cylinder in a vacuum, the electric field outside a charged cylinder is found to be

The voltage between the cylinders can be found by integrating the electric field along a radial
line:

From the definition of capacitance and including the case where the volume is filled by
a dielectric of dielectric constant k, the capacitance per unit length is defined as

87
88
 EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1. (a) Derive Amperes circuit law in differential form.
(b) What is the magnetic field, H in Cartesian coordinates due to z-directed current element
and hence find out J if I = 2 A.

2. (a) Prove that the field given by E = x2ax + x ay can not arise from a static distribution
of charge.
(b) Show that the power density corresponding to the field E = ax cos (?z ? ?t) + ay sin (?z ?
?t) is constant everywhere.

3. (a) Explain the coefficient of coupling in an inductor coil.

(b) Two coils of L1 = 100 mH, L2 = 50 mH have a coefficient of coupling equal to 0.3.
Find mutual inductance.
4. a) State Amperes circuital law.Specify the conditions to be met for
determining magnetic field strength H, based on Amperes circuital law.

b) Derive an expression for magnetic field intensity at a radial distance R due to

an infinite conductor carrying a current I

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. The combined effect of electric dipoles is seen in _________.
a. polarization
b. magnetization
c. both (a) and (b)
d. none of these
2. The combined effect of magnetic dipoles is seen in _________.
a. polarization
b. magnetization
c. both (a) and (b)
d. none of these
3. Permeability of vacuum is given as _________.

a. 4 107 H/m
b. 14 107 H/m
89
 c. 4 109 H/m
d. 14 109 H/m
4. Magnetic susceptibility is _________.
a. unitless
b. dimensionless
c. both (a) and (b)
d. none of these
5. Dipole moment is _________ a right-hand screw, when it is moved in the
current's direction in a current loop.
a. orthogonal to the direction of
b. opposite to the direction of
c. in the direction of
d. none of these
6. On the basis of magnetic behaviour, materials are classified into _________ categories.
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5
7. Maxwell's equations involve_______.
a. Charge density
b. Current density
c. Magnetic intensity
d. All of these
8. As per Coulomb's Law, force between two point charges is____.

a. (distance)2
b. (distance)

c.

90
 d.
9. 0 is ________ F/m.

a. 8.854 1012
b. 6.654 1012
c. 8.854 1010
d. 6.654 1010
10. Electric field intensity is related to force and charge q as __________.
a. F=E/Q
b. E=FQ
c. E=F/Q
d. F=QE
11. Electric dipole is a pair of __________ and __________ point charges.
a. Equal and same
b. Unequal and same
c. Equal and opposite
d. Unequal and opposite

12. Magnitude of dipole moment | | is given as __________.

a. qd
b. q/d
c. d/q
d. None of these
13. Electric field intensity due to volume charge is given as __________.

a.

b.

c.

91
 d.
14. Electric flux density________medium.
a. Depends on
b. Independent of
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
15. Electric potential energy V is given as _________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
16. As per Gauss's Law, the total electric flux through a closed surface and the total
charge qenc by that surface are related as________.

a.

b.

c.
d.
17. If work done Wmn is zero, then VN and VM are related as _______.
a. VN + VM = 0
b. VN VM = 0
c. 2VN + VM = 0
d. VN + 2VM = 0

18. According to Maxwell's first equation, _______.

a.

92
 b.

c.
d.
19. Charge distribution symmetry can be of _______ type.
a. Spherical
b. Cylindrical
c. Planar
d. All of these
20. Curl of electrostatic field is __________.
a.
b. 1
c. 0
d. None of these

21. As per Stoke's Theorem, = _________.

a.
b. 1
c. 0
d. None of these

93
UNIT II
MAGNETOSTATICS

Introduction :
In previous chapters we have seen that an electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary
charges. The relationship of the steady magnetic field to its sources is much more complicated.

The source of steady magnetic field may be a permanent magnet, a direct current or an electric
field changing with time. In this chapter we shall mainly consider the magnetic field produced
by a direct current. The magnetic field produced due to time varying electric field will be
discussed later. Historically, the link between the electric and magnetic field was established
Oersted in 1820. Ampere and others extended the investigation of magnetic effect of electricity .
There are two major laws governing the magnetostatic fields are:
Biot-Savart Law
Ampere's Law

Usually, the magnetic field intensity is represented by the vector . It is customary to represent the
direction of the magnetic field intensity (or current) by a small circle with a dot or cross sign
depending on whether the field (or current) is out of or into the page as shown in Fig. 2.1.

(or l ) out of the page (or l ) into the page

Fig. 2.1: Representation of magnetic field (or current)
Biot- Savart Law

This law relates the magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point due to a differential current
element as shown in Fig. 2.2.

94
Fig. 2.2: Magnetic field intensity due to a current element

The magnetic field intensity at P can be written as,

............................(2.1a)

..............................................(2.1b)

where is the distance of the current element from the point P.

Similar to different charge distributions, we can have different current distribution such as line
current, surface current and volume current. These different types of current densities are
shown in Fig. 2.3.

Line Current Surface Current Volume Current

Fig. 2.3: Different types of current distributions

95
By denoting the surface current density as K (in amp/m) and volume current density as J
(in amp/m2) we can write:

......................................(2.2)

( It may be noted that )

Employing Biot-Savart Law, we can now express the magnetic field intensity H. In terms
of these current distributions.

............................. for line current............................ (2.3a)

........................ for surface current .................... (2.3b)

....................... for volume current...................... (2.3c)

To illustrate the application of Biot - Savart's Law, we consider the following example.

Example 2.1: We consider a finite length of a conductor carrying a current placed along z-axis
as shown in the Fig 2.4. We determine the magnetic field at point P due to this current carrying
conductor.

Fig. 2.4: Field at a point P due to a finite length current carrying conductor

With reference to Fig. 2.4, we find that

96
 ..........................................(2.4)

Applying Biot - Savart's law for the current element We can write,

..............................................(2.5)

Substituting we can write,

..............(2.6)

We find that, for an infinitely long conductor carrying a current I , and

Therefore, .........................................................................................(2.7)

The value of the constant of proportionality 'K' depends upon a property called
permeability of the medium around the conductor. Permeability is represented by
symbol 'm' and the constant 'K' is expressed in terms of 'm' as

Magnetic field 'B' is a vector and unless we give the direction of 'dB', its description is
not complete. Its direction is found to be perpendicular to the plane of 'r' and 'dl'.

If we assign the direction of the current 'I' to the length element 'dl', the vector product dl
x r has magnitude r dl sinq and direction perpendicular to 'r' and 'dl'.

Hence, BiotSavart law can be stated in vector form to give both the magnitude as well
as direction of magnetic field due to a current element as

97
Value of permeability changes from medium to medium. For ferromagnetic materials it is
much higher than that for other materials. The permeability of free space (vacuum) is
denoted by the symbol 'm0' and its value is 4p x 107 Wb/Am

Ampere's Circuital Law:

Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the magnetic field (circulation of H
) around a closed path is the net current enclosed by this path. Mathematically,

......................................(24.8)
The total current I enc can be written as,

......................................(24.9)
By applying Stoke's theorem, we can write

......................................(2.10)
which is the Ampere's law in the point form.
Applications of Ampere's law:

We illustrate the application of Ampere's Law with some examples.

Example2.2: We compute magnetic field due to an infinitely long thin current carrying
conductor as shown in Fig. 2.5. Using Ampere's Law, we consider the close path to be
a circle of radius as shown in the Fig. 4.5.

If we consider a small current element , is perpendicular to the plane

containing both and . Therefore only component of that will be present is

,i.e., .

By applying Ampere's law we can write,

98
......................................(2.11)

Therefore, which is same as equation (2.7)

Fig. 2.5: Magnetic field due to an infinite thin current carrying conductor

Example 2.3: We consider the cross section of an infinitely long coaxial conductor, the
inner conductor carrying a current I and outer conductor carrying current - I as shown in
figure 2.6. We compute the magnetic field as a function of as follows:

In the region

......................................(2.12)

............................(2.13)

In the region

......................................(2.14)

99
 Fig. 2.6: Coaxial conductor carrying equal and opposite

currents In the region

......................................(2.15)

........................................(2.16)

In the region

......................................(2.17)
Lorentz force

A charged particle at rest will not interact with a static magnetic field. But if the charged
particle is moving in a magnetic field, the magnetic character of a charge in motion
becomes evident. It experiences a deflecting force. The force is greatest when the particle
moves in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field lines. At other angles, the force is
less and becomes zero when the particles move parallel to the field lines. In any case, the
direction of the force is always perpendicular to the magnetic field lines and to the
velocity of the charged particle.
Magnetic Flux Density

The amount of magnetic flux through a unit area taken perpendicular to the direction of
the magnetic flux. Also called magnetic induction.

Definition Of Ampere

When two current carrying conductors are placed next to each other, we notice that each

100
induces a force on the other. Each conductor produces a magnetic field around itself (Biot
Savart law) and the second experiences a force that is given by the Lorentz force.

Ampere's Law

The magnetic field in space around an electric current is proportional to the

electric current which serves as its source, just as the electric field in space is
proportional to the charge which serves as its source.

Ampere's law states that for any closed loop path, the sum of the length
elements times the magnetic field in the direction of the length element is equal
to the permeability times the electric current enclosed in the loop.

101
 Or

In the electric case, the relation of field to source is quantified in Gauss's

Law which is a very powerful tool for calculating electric fields.

Application of Ampere's law:

Ampere's law can be used to calculate 'B' for various current carrying
conductor configurations.

Gauss's Law

Gauss's law for magnetic field This law deals with magnetic flux inside a closed surface
and is equivalent to Gauss's law for electric field discussed in Electric Charge and
Electric Field, connected electric flux j E and electric charge.

And j E = E. A

Similarly, magnetic flux fB can be defined as the number of lines of force crossing a
unit area.

Magnetic flux fB = B.A

Since there are no free magnetic charges, the magnetic flux crossing a closed surface
will always be zero. Thus Gauss's law of magnetic field says that the net magnetic flux
fB out of any closed surface is zero.

or B.A = 0

102
Lenz's law

Soon after Faraday proposed his law of electromagnetic induction, Lenz gave the
law determining the direction of the induced emf.

Lenz's law may be stated as follows:

The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the cause producing it.

Lenz's law can be compared with the Newton's third law ? every action has equal
and opposite reaction.

When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to the Faraday's law, the
polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes
the change that produces it. The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always
acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop constant.

In the examples below, if the 'B' field is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition
to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to try to
keep it constant.

Fig. 2.8: Cross Section of a Coaxial Line

If Vm is the magnetic potential then,

103
If we set Vm = 0 at then c=0 and

We observe that as we make a complete lap around the current carrying conductor , we
reach again but Vm this time becomes

We observe that value of Vm keeps changing as we complete additional laps to pass

through the same point. We introduced Vm analogous to electostatic potential V. But for

static electric fields, and , whereas for steady magnetic field

wherever but even if along the path of integration.

We now introduce the vector magnetic potential which can be used in regions where
current density may be zero or nonzero and the same can be easily extended to time
varying cases. The use of vector magnetic potential provides elegant ways of solving
EM field problems.

Since and we have the vector identity that for any vector , , we
can write .

Here, the vector field is called the vector magnetic potential. Its SI unit is Wb/m. Thus if
can find of a given current distribution, can be found from through a curl
operation.

We have introduced the vector function and related its curl to . A vector function is
defined fully in terms of its curl as well as divergence. The choice of is made as
follows.

104
 ...........................................(2.24)

By using vector identity, .................................................(2.25)

......................................... (2.26)

Great deal of simplification can be achieved if we choose .

Putting , we get which is vector poisson equation.
In Cartesian coordinates, the above equation can be written in terms of the components as

......................................(2.27a)

......................................(2.27b)

......................................(2.27c)

The form of all the above equation is same as that of

..........................................(2.28)

for which the solution is

..................(2.29)

In case of time varying fields we shall see that , which is known as Lorentz
condition, V being the electric potential. Here we are dealing with static magnetic field, so
.

By comparison, we can write the solution for Ax as

...................................(2.30)

Computing similar solutions for other two components of the vector potential, the vector
potential can be written as

.......................................(2.31)

105
This equation enables us to find the vector potential at a given point because of a
volume current density . Similarly for line or surface current density we can write

...................................................(2.32)

respectively. .............................. (2.33)

The magnetic flux through a given area S is given by

.............................................(2.34)
Substituting

.........................................(2.35)

Vector potential thus have the physical significance that its integral around any closed path
is equal to the magnetic flux passing through that path.

Magnetic Moment In A Magnetic Field

The magnetic moment of an object is a vector relating the aligning torque in a magnetic
field experienced by the object to the field vector itself. The relationship is given by

where

is the torque, measured in newton-meters,

is the magnetic moment, measured in ampere meters-squared, and

is the magnetic field, measured in teslas or, equivalently in newtons per

(ampere-meter).
Magnetic Scalar Potential

The magnetic scalar potential is another useful tool in describing the magnetic field
around a current source. It is only defined in regions of space in absence of (but could be
near) currents.

The magnetic scalar potential is defined by the equation:

106
Applying Ampere's Law to the above definition we get:

Since in any continuous field, the curl of a gradient is zero, this would suggest that
magnetic scalar potential fields cannot support any sources. In fact, sources can be
supported by applying discontinuities to the potential field (thus the same point can have
two values for points along the disconuity). These discontinuities are also known as "cuts".
When solving magnetostatics problems using magnetic scalar potential, the source currents
must be applied at the discontinuity.

The magnetic scalar potential is suited to use around lines/loops of currents, but not a region
of space with finite current density. The use of magnetic potential reduces the three
components of the magnetic field to one component , making computations and
algebraic manipulations easier. It is often used in magnetostatics, but rarely used in
other applications.
Magnetic Vector Potential

The magnetic vector potential is a three-dimensional vector field whose curl is the
magnetic field in the theory of electromagnetism:

Since the magnetic field is divergence free (i.e. ), always exists.

107
 Magnetic Flux

Faraday understood that the magnitude of the induced current in a loop was due to
the "amount of magnetic field" passing through the loop.

To visualize this "amount of magnetic field", which is now called the magnetic flux, he
introduced a mental picture of magnetic field as lines of force. This is exactly analogous
to electric flux.

Magnetic flux is the product of the 'B' times the perpendicular area that it penetrates.

The contribution to jB for a given area is equal to the area times the component of
magnetic field perpendicular to the area.

For a closed surface, the sum of magnetic flux is always equal to zero (This is also
known as Gauss's law for magnetic field).

The standard unit for magnetic flux is a weber (Wb), it is the number of magnetic lines of
force (Tesla) crossing a unit area (m2).

Magnetic Flux Density:

In simple matter, the magnetic flux density related to the magnetic field intensity as
where called the permeability. In particular when we consider the free space

108
 where H/m is the permeability of the free space. Magnetic flux density
is measured in terms of Wb/m 2 .
The magnetic flux density through a surface is given by:

Wb...................................... (2.18)

In the case of electrostatic field, we have seen that if the surface is a closed surface, the net flux
passing through the surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the surface. In case of magnetic
field isolated magnetic charge (i. e. pole) does not exist. Magnetic poles always occur in pair
(as N-S). For example, if we desire to have an isolated magnetic pole by dividing the magnetic
bar successively into two, we end up with pieces each having north (N) and south (S) pole as
shown in Fig. 2.7 (a). This process could be continued until the magnets are of atomic
dimensions; still we will have N-S pair occurring together. This means that the magnetic poles
cannot be isolated.

Fig. 2.7: (a) Subdivision of a magnet (b) Magnetic field/ flux lines of a straight current
carrying conductor

Similarly if we consider the field/flux lines of a current carrying conductor as shown in Fig.
2.7 (b), we find that these lines are closed lines, that is, if we consider a closed surface, the
number of flux lines that would leave the surface would be same as the number of flux lines
that would enter the surface.

From our discussions above, it is evident that for magnetic field,

......................................(2.19)

109
 which is the Gauss's law for the magnetic field.

By applying divergence theorem, we can write:

Hence, ......................................(2.20)
which is the Gauss's law for the magnetic field in point form.
Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials:

In studying electric field problems, we introduced the concept of electric potential that
simplified the computation of electric fields for certain types of problems. In the same manner
let us relate the magnetic field intensity to a scalar magnetic potential and write:

...................................(2.21)
From Ampere's law , we know that

......................................(2.22)

Therefore, ............................(2.23)

But using vector identity, we find that is valid only where . Thus
the scalar magnetic potential is defined only in the region where . Moreover, Vm in general
is not a single valued function of position.

This point can be illustrated as follows. Let us consider the cross section of a coaxial line
as shown in fig 2.8.

In the region , and

110
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1. (a) Prove that the field given by E = x2ax + x ay can not arise from a static distribution
of charge.
(b) Show that the power density corresponding to the field E = ax cos (?z ? ?t) + ay sin (?z ?
?t) is constant everywhere
2. a) What are the transformer and motional electromotive forces (emfs)in the context of
Faradays law.
b) In a medium characterized by = 0, =,=0 and E=20 sin(108 t-z)ay v/m.
Calculate and H using Maxwells equations.

3. Explain the equation of continuity for time varying fields.

4. A lossy dielectric has an intrinsic impedance of 200 30 at a particular frequency. If at that

frequency, the plane wave propagating through the dielectric has the magnetic field component
H=10eaxcos(Wt-1/2x)ay A/m.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. According to the method of images, the tangential component of electric field
to conductor surface is __________.
a. Unity
b. Zero
c. Infinity
d. None of these
2. Steady magnetic fields are governed by __________ law.
a. BiotSavart's
b. Ampere's Circuital
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
3. There will be force of attraction between two current-carrying conductors if the
currents are in __________ direction.
a. Same
b. Opposite
c. None of these

111
 d. Cannot say
4. Lorentz force equation comprises __________ and __________ forces.
a. Electric, magnetic
b. Mechanical, chemical
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
5. Magnetic dipole moment is a product of __________.
a. Current and area
b. Area and its direction
c. Current, area and its direction
d. None of these
6. According to Faraday's __________ Law, as long as changes happen in magnetic
flux, induced emf persists.
a. First
b. Second
c. Third
d. Fourth
7. According to __________ Law, induced current acts to produce an opposing flux.
a. BioSavart's
b. Lenz's
c. Ampere's
d. Faraday's
8. In terms of current density, BiotSavart's Law is expressed as __________.

a.

b.

c.

112
 d.
9. BiotSavart's Law can be applied to __________ length current-carrying conductors.
a. Large
b. Medium
c. Small
d. Very small

10. According to Ampere's Circuital Law, field intensity at a point at distance R from a
very long straight filament conductor-carrying current I is given as

a.

b.

c.

d.
11. Ampere's Circuital Law is analogous to __________ Law in electrostatics.
a. Lenz's
b. Gauss's
c. BiotSavart's
d. Faraday's
12. Ampere's Circuital Law can be applied __________ the conductor.
a. Inside
b. Outside
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
13. Magnetic flux density is the same as __________.
a. Magnetic induction
b. Magnetic field strength
c. Both (a) and (b)

113
 d. None of these
14. Total flux passing through a closed surface held in a magnetic field is __________.
a. Infinity
b. Zero
c. Unity
d. None of these
15. Which of the following is true for electrostatics?
a. = V
2
b. V=0
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
16. __________ gradient of magnetic scalar potential gives magnetic field intensity.
a. Positive
b. Negative
c. Double
d. Integral
17. Magnetic vector potential for volume current is expressed as __________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
18. __________ can be obtained from vector magnetic potential .

a.
b.
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these

114
19. Magnetization is given as __________.

a.

b.
c. Dipole moment Volume
d. None of these
20. Magnetization volume current density in magnetic materials is due to __________.
a. Applied non-uniform magnetic field
b. Non-uniform magnetic susceptibility of material
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
21. According to the Law of refraction __________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
22. Energy density WH is given as __________.

a.

b.

c.
d. All of these
23. Maxwell's equations shelter on __________ law(s).
a. Faraday's
b. Gauss's
c. Ampere's

115
 d. All of these
24. Conduction current through a wire is __________ displacement current in capacitor.
a. Same as
b. Different from
c. Twice of
d. None of these

116
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

Maxwell's Equations

Maxwell's equations represent one of the most elegant and concise ways to state the
fundamentals of electricity and magnetism. From them one can develop most of the
working relationships in the field. Because of their concise statement, they embody a high
level of mathematical sophistication and are therefore not generally introduced in an
introductory treatment of the subject, except perhaps as summary relationships.

These basic equations of electricity and magnetism can be used as a starting point for
advanced courses, but are usually first encountered as unifying equations after the study of
electrical and magnetic phenomena.

Symbols Used

E = Electric field = charge density i = electric current

B = Magnetic field 0 = permittivity J = current density

D = Electric displacement 0 = permeability c = speed of light

H = Magnetic field strength M = Magnetization P = Polarization

Integral form in the absence of magnetic or polarizable media:

I. Gauss' law for electricity

II. Gauss' law for magnetism

III. Faraday's law of induction

117
IV. Ampere's law

Differential form in the absence of magnetic or polarizable media:

I. Gauss' law for electricity

II. Gauss' law for magnetism

III. Faraday's law of induction

IV. Ampere's law

Differential form with magnetic and/or polarizable media:

I. Gauss' law for electricity

118
II. Gauss' law for magnetism

III. Faraday's law of induction

IV. Ampere's law

Faraday's Law

Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be
"induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated. The
change could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward or
away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative
to the magnet, etc.

Faraday's law is a fundamental relationship which comes from Maxwell's equations. It serves as
a succinct summary of the ways a voltage (or emf) may be generated by a changing magnetic
environment. The induced emf in a coil is equal to the negative of the rate of change of magnetic
flux times the number of turns in the coil. It involves the interaction of charge with magnetic
field.

119
120
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1. Prove that the field given by E = x2ax + x ay can not arise from a static distribution of charge.
2. Show that the power density corresponding to the field E = ax cos (?z ? ?t) + ay sin (?z ?
?t) is constant everywhere
3. Obtain Maxwells equations in phasor form.
4. Verify whether the following fields E = 2 sin x sin t ay and H = 2?0 cos x cos t az satisfy the
Maxwells equation in free space.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. As per Maxwell's first equation __________.

a.
b.
c.
d.
2. Maxwell's second equation gives __________.

a.
b.
c.
d.
3. According to Ampere's Circuital Law __________.

a.
b.
c.
d. None of these
4. Maxwell's third equation gives __________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
5. Maxwell's fourth equation gives __________.

121
 a.

b.

c.

d.
6. emf is closed __________ integral of non-conservational electric field that is generated
by battery.
a. Line
b. Surface
c. Volume
d. None of these
7. Maxwell's equations in __________ form give unformation at points of discontinuity
in electromagnetic fields.
a. Differential
b. Integral
c. Algebraic
d. None of these
8. Which of the following is a boundary condition?
a.

b.
c.
d. None of these
9. Another boundary condition using Maxwell's equations is given as __________.
a. Htan '1' + Htan '2' = 0
b. Htan '1' Htan '2' = 0
c. Htan '1' + Htan '2' = Js
d. Htan '1' Htan '2' = Js
10. At the point of discontinuity, __________ component of magnetic flux density
is continuous.

122
 a. Tangential
b. Normal
c. None of these
d. Cannot say
11. For those surfaces where surface charge density is __________ normal component
of electric flux density is continuous.
a. Infinity
b. Unity
c. Zero
d. None of these
12. Which of the following vector form of boundary condition is incorrect?

a.
b.
c.
d. None of these
13. Waves are used in __________.
a. TV
b. Radio
c. Radar
d. All of these
14. Current through a capacitor is expressed as __________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
15. Displacement current density ____________ current passing through a capacitor.
a. Represents
b. Does not represent

123
 c. Is the same as
d. None of these
16. Line integral of an electric field around a closed path is __________.
a. infinity
b. unity
c. zero
d. None of these
17. __________ are caused by accelerated charges
a. Time-varying fields
b. Waves
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
18. At the Brewster angle, polarization ______________.
a. Cannot be reflected
b. Is reflected at 30
c. Is reflected at 90
d. None of these
19. Wave number has units of____________.
a. Radians
b. Meter
c. Radians/meter
d. None of these
20. Wave speed in terms of frequency f and wavelength is expressed as _________.
a. f/
b. /f
c. f
d. ( + f)

124
UNIT III
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES-I

THE WAVE EQUATION:

The wave equation for a plane wave traveling in the x direction is

where v is the phase velocity of the wave and y represents the variable which is changing as the
wave passes. This is the form of the wave equation which applies to a stretched string or a plane
electromagnetic wave. The mathematical description of a wave makes use of partial derivatives.

In two dimensions, the wave equation takes the form

which could describe a wave on a stretched membrane.

General Wave Equations:

Electromagnetic (EM) wave can be ultimately described by three things: 1) Maxwell

equations, material response to the EM fields, and boundary conditions:

D D E E E P
v r 0 0

B 0 B H 0 H M 0 1 m H
B
E t J v u E
D
H J t P 0 e E M 0 m H

In charge free medium (v=0), linear, isotopic ( is scalar), homogeneous, and time
invariant medium (P responds to E instantaneously). We have

125
 E 0
H 0
H
E
t
E

H E
t

if the EM wave only contains one frequency component , we can rewrite the Maxwell equation
in phasor form using E = Re (Es ejt).
E 0
s

E
ss
jH
H s Es jEs

Use the third equation (Faradays Law) and apply the curl on both sides of the full time-varying
equation.


E H
t
Use the last equation into the above equation and use a vector identity..

E
E E

t t
2
E2E E
E
2
t t
Since we are considering a charge-free region the general wave equation (Helmholtz equation)
becomes:

2
E E
E 2
2
t t

Again, if the E and H fields only have one frequency components, we can get wirte a
phasor equation for the time-harmonic field.

126
 2 E j j E
s s

or 2 Es 2 E s where the material properties which govern the wave propagation are described
by::

j j j

Where characterizes materials absorption (gain), and characterize the propagation

speed (propagation constant).

Uniform plane waveguide (UPW) solution:

Now, lets try to solve the waveguide equation. The simplest solution beyond trial (0) is
the UPW solution. While we have

a). Electrical filed only have one components (say Ex component)

b). This components is constant in two directions (say x-y plane), only change along z-
axis (propagation direction).

So the proposed solution is (For notational convenience, we drop the subscript s.)
E
E za
How do we know this is a solution? Just plug in the wave equation, if we can find a Ex(x)
which satisfies the wave equation, we have a solution.

127
d2E
x 2E0
dz2 x
The solution is

z z
E
x z E 0 e E 0
e
ax
If we translate this solution back into a fully time-varying solution, it is:

z j tz z j tz
e e
Ex z ReE 0 e E0 e ax
The first term characterizes the forward-propagating UPW, the second term characterizes
the backward-propagating one.

By the help of the Maxwell equations, we can also figure out other field such D, B. and H.

Es jHs

Therefore, the H field can be calculated as

H s 1 Es

E E
H 0
ez
0
ez a
s y
j j

(The subcript s is written here to remind you that all quanatities are phasor quantitites.) Having
E and H solution available, the ratio between the E and H field can be taken. Lets take a
forward-propagation UPW as examples:

j
E j
H j

128
Since E and H fields have unit (V/m) and (A/m). The ratio yields a unit of (). This ratio is
referred as intrinsic impedance of the materials.

The wave propagates along az, we can use a vector to represent that

az
The unit vector to represent this direction is defined as ap (az in this case) E-field
propagates along ax, and E-field propagates along a y. Therefore, these three vectors form a
right-handed rectangle coordinate system, i.e.

1
H s a p Es

Es a p H s

Now, we can see, the propagation characteristics for UPW is ultimately determined by
j j j . We then discuss the responses in various materials.

129
a). Propagation in lossless, charge-free region
In a charge free region with zero loss, the propagation constant

j j j

=0, so j0 j j

Ex z Re E 0e j t z
E e a x

0
j t z

E z a [E cost z E cost z]

x x 0 0

up 1

A special example will be vacuum, where =0, =0.

0
120
0
u p 3 108 m/s

b). Propagation in lossy media

In a lossy media, the loss comes from two parts: a non-zero electric conductivity 0), a
polarization loss (energy required of the filed to flip reluctant dipoles, dielectric loss). A
complex permittivity c is used to characterize this part.

c ' j"
Therefore, the propagation constant can be written:

130
 j jc j j ' j"
j " j ' jeff j

Where eff ", we can solve for the absorption and the propagation constant of the
medium i.e.and = Re ; =Im

2
eff
2
1 1


'

2
1 eff
1

2

'

Loss Tangent: a standard measure of lossiness in a dielectric is measured by the ratio of

tan eff "
' '
Referred as loss-tangent

Low-loss dielectrics

For low loss dielectrics, <<1, <<, therefore

eff 1

'

131
Conductors:

In conductor, >>1, therefore the loss tangent is >>1, the propagation constant can take
another approximation due to

eff 1
'

f
2

j j e j 4 1 j f 1 j
j
2 4f
up
f
1
H a
s p Es

The phasor form for the field can be written:

z j t z z j t z
E z E e e
x 0 e E0 e ax
We can see that if is not a small quantity, the EM wave cannot penetrate into metal too deep.
A fair measure will be the skin depth where the amplitude of E-field reduces to its 1/e of its
surface value. This depth is referred as skin depth

1
e
e 1

132
Current flow in a good conductor:

From above analysis, we can see that E-field of a UPW can only penetrate into a finite depth of
a conductor. Therefore, the actual resistance of a conductor to an EM wave is determined by this
penetration depth (not by the actual thickness of the conductor itself). We now calculate this
resistance:

If we have UPW propagating along z-direction, we have E-field pointing along x-direction. The
E-field in the conductor is given by:
z
(1 j )
z j z
a
E E0 e e ax E 0 e x

Where is the penetration depth defined above, the current density in conductor is:
(1 j ) z
J E E0 e ax

The current flowing through a rectangular strip extending between zero and in the z-direction,
and width w in y-direction is:

E0 w
Iw
0 J zdz 1 j
The voltage across a length l at the surface is given by

V E0 l

So the impedance of a slab of width w and length l is

~
V (1 j) l l
Z ~ ZS
I w w
Here we define surface impedance ZS:

133
Z S RS jLS

R 1 f
S

L 1 1
S
2 f

Skin Effect:

The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to distribute itself within
a conductor so that the current density near the surface of the conductor is greater than that at
its core. That is, the electric current tends to flow at the "skin" of the conductor.

The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase with the frequency of
the current. The skin effect has practical consequences in the design of radio-frequency and
microwave circuits and to some extent in AC electrical power transmission and distribution
systems. Also, it is of considerable importance when designing discharge tube circuits.
The current density J in an infinitely thick plane conductor decreases exponentially with depth
from the surface, as follows:

where d is a constant called the skin depth. This is defined as the depth below the surface of
the conductor at which the current density decays to 1/e (about 0.37) of the current density at
the surface (JS). It can be calculated as follows:

where
= resistivity of conductor
= angular frequency of current = 2 frequency
= absolute magnetic permeability of conductor , where 0 is the permeability of
7 2
free space (410 N/A ) and r is the relative permeability of the conductor.
The resistance of a flat slab (much thicker than d) to alternating current is exactly equal to the
resistance of a plate of thickness d to direct current. For long, cylindrical conductors such as
wires, with diameter D large compared to d, the resistance is approximately that of a hollow
tube with wall thickness d carrying direct current. That is, the AC resistance is approximately:

134
where
L = length of conductor
D = diameter of conductor
The final approximation above is accurate if D >> d.
A convenient formula (attributed to F.E. Terman) for the diameter DW of a wire of circular
cross-section whose resistance will increase by 10% at frequency f is:

The increase in ac resistance described above is accurate only for an isolated wire. For a wire
close to other wires, e.g. in a cable or a coil, the ac resistance is also affected by proximity effect,
which often causes a much more severe increase in ac resistance.

Polarization of plane wave:

The polarization of a plane wave can be defined as the orientation of the electric field vector as
a function of time at a fixed point in space. For an electromagnetic wave, the specification of the
orientation of the electric field is sufficient as the magnetic field components are related to
electric field vector by the Maxwell's equations.
Let us consider a plane wave travelling in the +z direction. The wave has both E x and
Ey components.

..........................................(5.1)

The corresponding magnetic fields are given by,

Depending upon the values of Eox and Eoy we can have several possibilities:

135
1. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarized in the x-direction.
2. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarized in the y-direction.
3. If Eox and Eoy are both real (or complex with equal phase), once again we get a linearly

polarized wave with the axis of polarization inclined at an , with respect to the x-
angle axis. This is shown in fig 5.1

Fig 5.1 : Linear Polarization

4. If Eox and Eoy are complex with different phase angles, will not point to a single spatial
direction. This is explained as follows: Let

Then,

and ....................................(5.2)

To keep the things simple, let us consider a =0 and . Further, let us study the nature of the
electric field on the z =0 plain.
From equation we find that,

136
 .....................................(5.3)
and the electric field vector at z = 0 can be written as

.............................................(5.4)

Assuming , the plot of for various values of t is hown in figure 5.2

Figure 5.2 : Plot of E(o,t)

From equation and figure we observe that the tip of the arrow representing electric field vector
traces qn ellipse and the field is said to be elliptically polarised.

137
Figure 5.3: Polarization ellipse

The polarization ellipse shown in figure 6.6 is defined by its axial ratio(M/N, the ratio of
semi major to semi minor axis), tilt angle (orientation with respect to xaxis) and sense of
rotation(i.e., CW or CCW).

Linear polarization can be treated as a special case of elliptical polarization, for which the
axial ratio is infinite.

In our example, if , from equation , the tip of the arrow representing electric field
vector traces out a circle. Such a case is referred to as Circular Polarization. For circular
polarization the axial ratio is unity.

Figure 5.4: Circular Polarization (RHCP)

138
Further, the circular polarization is aside to be right handed circular polarization (RHCP) if the
electric field vector rotates in the direction of the fingers of the right hand when the thumb
points in the direction of propagation-(same and CCW). If the electric field vector rotates in the
opposite direction, the polarization is said to be left hand circular polarization (LHCP) (same as
CW).

In AM radio broadcast, the radiated electromagnetic wave is linearly polarized with the field
vertical to the ground( vertical polarization) where as TV signals are horizontally polarized
waves. FM broadcast is usually carried out using circularly polarized waves.

In radio communication, different information signals can be transmitted at the same frequency
at orthogonal polarization ( one signal as vertically polarized other horizontally polarized or
one as RHCP while the other as LHCP) to increase capacity. Otherwise, same signal can be
transmitted at orthogonal polarization to obtain diversity gain to improve reliability of
transmission

139
EXERCISE QUESTIONS

1. Derive an expression for reflection of a wave when incident on dielectric with

oblique incidence with perpendicular polarization.

2. For the wave propagation in good dielectrics, derive the expression for
intrinsic impedence of a good dielectric

3. Derive the expression for skin depth of a good conductor

4. Find all the relations between E and H in a uniform plane wave. Hence find

the value of intrinsic independence of free space.

5. Explain uniform plane wave propagation

OBJECTVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Line integral of an electric field around a closed path is __________.
a. infinity
b. unity
c. zero
d. None of these
2. __________ are caused by accelerated charges
a. Time-varying fields
b. Waves
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
3. At the Brewster angle, polarization ______________.
a. Cannot be reflected
b. Is reflected at 30
c. Is reflected at 90
d. None of these

140
4. Wave number has units of____________.
a. Radians
b. Meter
c. Radians/meter
d. None of these
5. Wave speed in terms of frequency f and wavelength is expressed as _________.
a. f/
b. /f
c. f
d. ( + f)
6. For a lossy dielectric medium, ____________.
a. = 0
b. 0
c. None of these
d. Cannot say
7. Wave attenuation is given as ______________.

a. e+x
b. e-x
c. e+x
d. ex
8. In the case of a perfect dielectric medium, phase constant ______________
as conductivity increases.
a. Increases
b. Decreases
c. Remains unchanged
d. None of these
9. Phase velocity is given as _________.
a.
b.

141
 c. /
d. None of these
10. For a good conductor ________________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
11. For a good dielectric medium ____________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
12. In good conductors, rate of attenuation is __________.
a. Small
b. Large
c. Infinity
d. Zero
13. Poynting Vector is obtained as

a.
b.
c.
d.
14. Power density has _________________.
a. A DC component
b. A second harmonic component

142
 c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
15. Reflection coefficient is __________.
a. 100
b. = 10
c. 1
d. None of these
16. Which of the following expressions is correct?
a. (1 + ) =
b. (1 + ) =
c. (1 + ) = 0
d. (1 + ) = 0
17. Transmission coefficient is given as __________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
18. Standing wave consists of two travelling waves of ____________ amplitudes and
_____________ is direction.
a. Unequal, same
b. Unequal, opposite
c. Equal, same
d. Equal, opposite
19. Standing wave ratio S is given as __________.

a.

143
 b.

c.

d.
20. SNR ranges from ______.
a. 0 to 1
b. 1 to 10
c. 10 to 100
d. 1 to
21. As per Snell's Law _______.

a.

b.

c.

d.
22. Brewster's angle is given as tan B = ____________.

a.

b.
c.
d. None of these
23. The Smith chart is a ________ dimensional representation of complex impedances with
respect to coordinates.
a. Two
b. Three
c. Four

144
 d. None of these
24. ZL/Zo is equal to _____________.

a.

b.

c.

d.

145
ELECTRMAGMETIC WAVES-II
Reflection and refraction of a plane wave at oblique incidence:
Let us consider a plane wave that obliquely incidents at the boundary of two media that
are characterized by their permittivity and permeability (see Figure 1). The plane

containing both the normal to the surface and the direction of propagation of the incident
wave is known as the plane of incidence.
We consider two different cases:
Case A: The electric field of the incident wave is perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
Case B: The electric field of the incident wave is in the plane of incidence.
Any other incident wave can be decomposed into linear combination of these two.
Fig. shows a wave of either polarization incident on the boundary of two media. In this Figure,
the angle between the normal to the boundary and the propagation direction is

146
the angle of incidence. We choose the plane of incidence to be the plane with the axes
directions shown in the Figure1, the y-axes is out of the page.
There may also be reflected and refracted (transmitted) waves, as shown in Fig. 1. Directions of
propagation of these waves have angles and with the normal to the boundary. The unit wave
vectors of the incident, reflected and transmitted waves can be written as the following:

The phasors of the traveling incident, reflected, and refracted plane waves can be written in
the following form:

&

correspondingly. If the wave fields depend on coordinate as then Maxwell

equations for phasors

Now we can write the wave fields for the cases A and
B, Incident wave,

Case A (perpendicular to plane of incidence) E

147
Case B (Ein plane of incidence)

Reflected wave,

Case A (E perpendicular to plane of incidence)

Case B (Ein plane of incidence)

Refracted (transmitted) wave,

Case A (E perpendicular to plane of incidence)

Case B (Ein plane of incidence)

We introduced unit vectors i,j,k along x,y,zaxes in Eqs

Case B: Let us consider a plane wave with electric field E in the plane of incidence incident
on the discontinuity between two dielectrics

148
The boundary conditions at are continuity of tangential components of electric and
magnetic fields and : 0 z tanE tanH

must hold for all values of , which is possible only if x

We see that
(angle of refraction equals angle of incidence)
and

Hereis index of refraction. n

Above Eq. is the familiar Snells law.
Canceling the exponential terms in (13), (14) by means of (15), we obtain

We can now solve Eqs. for and with the result 1E 2E

Angle Of Incidence:

149
Angle of incidence is a measure of deviation of something from "straight on", for example in
the approach of a ray to a surface, or the direction of an airfoil with respect to the direction of an
airplane.

Optics

In geometric optics, the angle of incidence is the angle between a ray incident on a surface and
the line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence, called the normal. The ray can be
formed by any wave: optical, acoustic, microwave, X-ray and so on. In the figure above, the red
line representing a ray makes an angle with the normal (dotted line). The angle of incidence at
which light is first totally internally reflected is known as the critical angle. The angle of
reflection and angle of refraction are other angles related to beams.

Grazing angle:

When dealing with a beam that is nearly parallel to a surface, it is sometimes more useful to
refer to the angle between the beam and the surface, rather than that between the beam and the
surface normal, in other words 90 minus the angle of incidence. This angle is called a glancing
angle or grazing angle. Incidence at small grazing angle is called "grazing incidence".

Grazing incidence is used in X-ray spectroscopy and atom optics, where significant reflection
can be achieved only at small values of the grazing angle. Ridged mirrors are designed for
reflection of atoms coming at small grazing angle. This angle is usually measured in milliradians.
Brewster's angle

150
An illustration of the polarization of light which is incident on an interface at Brewster's angle.

Brewster's angle (also known as the polarization angle) is an optical phenomenon named
after the Scottish physicist, Sir David Brewster (17811868).

When light moves between two media of differing refractive index, generally some of it is
reflected at the boundary. At one particular angle of incidence, however, light with one
particular polarization cannot be reflected. This angle of incidence is Brewster's angle, B. The
polarization that cannot be reflected at this angle is the polarization for which the electric field of
the light waves lies in the same plane as the incident ray and the surface normal (i.e. the plane of
incidence). Light with this polarization is said to be p-polarized, because it is parallel to the
plane. Light with the perpendicular polarization is said to be s-polarized, from the German
senkrechtperpendicular. When unpolarized light strikes a surface at Brewster's angle, the
reflected light is always s-polarized.

The physical mechanism for this can be qualitatively understood from the manner in which
electric dipoles in the media respond to p-polarized light. One can imagine that light incident
on the surface is absorbed, and then reradiated by oscillating electric dipoles at the interface
between the two media. The polarization of freely propagating light is always perpendicular to
the direction in which the light is travelling. The dipoles that produce the transmitted (refracted)
light oscillate in the polarization direction of that light. These same oscillating dipoles also
generate the reflected light. However, dipoles do not radiate any energy in the direction along
which they oscillate.

Consequently, if the direction of the refracted light is perpendicular to the direction in which
the light is predicted to be specularly reflected, the dipoles will not create any reflected light.
Since, by definition, the s-polarization is parallel to the interface, the corresponding oscillating
dipoles will always be able to radiate in the specular-reflection direction. This is why there is
no Brewster's angle for s-polarized light.

With simple trigonometry this condition can be expressed as:

151
where 1 is the angle of incidence and 2 is the angle of refraction.

Using Snell's law,

we can calculate the incident angle 1=B at which no light is reflected:

Rearranging, we get:

where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two media. This equation is known as
Brewster's law.

Note that, since all p-polarized light is refracted (i.e transmitted), any light reflected from the
interface at this angle must be s-polarized. A glass plate or a stack of plates placed at Brewster's
angle in a light beam can thus be used as a polarizer.
For a glass medium (n21.5) in air (n11), Brewster's angle for visible light is approximately
56 to the normal while for an air-water interface (n21.33), it's approximately 53. Since the
refractive index for a given medium changes depending on the wavelength of light, Brewster's
angle will also vary with wavelength.

The phenomenon of light being polarized by reflection from a surface at a particular angle was
first observed by Etienne-Louis Malus in 1808. He attempted to relate the polarizing angle to the
refractive index of the material, but was frustrated by the inconsistent quality of glasses
available at that time. In 1815, Brewster experimented with higher-quality materials and showed
that this angle was a function of the refractive index, defining Brewster's law.

Although Brewster's angle is generally presented as a zero-reflection angle in textbooks from

the late 1950s onwards, it truly is a polarizing angle. The concept of a polarizing angle can be
extended to the concept of a Brewster wave number to cover planar interfaces between two
linear bianisotropic materials.

Poynting Vector and Power Flow in Electromagnetic Fields:

Electromagnetic waves can transport energy from one point to another point. The electric and
magnetic field intensities asscociated with a travelling electromagnetic wave can be related to
the rate of such energy transfer.

Let us consider Maxwell's Curl Equations:

152
Using vector identity

the above curl equations we can write

.............................................(4.29)

In simple medium where and are constant, we can write

and

Applying Divergence theorem we can write,

...........................(4.30)

The term represents the rate of change of energy stored in the electric

and magnetic fields and the term represents the power dissipation within the volume.
Hence right hand side of the equation (6.36) represents the total decrease in power within the
volume under consideration.

The left hand side of equation (6.36) can be written as where

2
(W/mt ) is called the Poynting vector and it represents the power density vector associated with
153
the electromagnetic field. The integration of the Poynting vector over any closed surface gives
the net power flowing out of the surface. Equation (6.36) is referred to as Poynting theorem
and it states that the net power flowing out of a given volume is equal to the time rate of
decrease in the energy stored within the volume minus the conduction losses.

Poynting vector for the time harmonic case:

For time harmonic case, the time variation is of the form , and we have seen that
instantaneous value of a quantity is the real part of the product of a phasor quantity and
when is used as reference. For example, if we consider the phasor

then we can write the instanteneous field as

.................................(4.31)
when E0 is real.
Let us consider two instanteneous quantities A and B such that

where A and B are the phasor quantities.

i.e,

Therefore,

..............................(4.32)

Since A and B are periodic with period , the time average value of the product form AB,
denoted by can be written as

154
 .....................................(4.33)
Further, considering the phasor quantities A and B, we find that

and , where * denotes complex conjugate.

..............................................(4.34)

The poynting vector can be expressed as

...................................(4.35)

If we consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in +z direction and has

only component, we can write:

Using (6.41)

........................................(4.36)

where and , for the plane wave under consideration.

For a general case, we can write

.....................(4.37)

We can define a complex Poynting vector

155
and time average of the instantaneous Poynting vector is given by
EXERCISE QUESTIONS

1.For the case of reflection by a perfect dielectric with oblique incidence, explain the
two possible polarizations with appropriate sketches and explain the snells laws.
2. Define poynting theorem
3.Derive the expression for power flow in a concentric cable?
4. A parallel polarized wave propagates from air to a dielectric at Brewster
angle of 75 degrees. Find ?r.
5.Identify frequency, phase constant when the electric field of an EM wave
is given by E = 5.0 sin(108t - 4.0x)az. Also find ?.
6. Describe the propagation characteristics of EM waves in good dielectrics.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Line integral of an electric field around a closed path is __________.
a. infinity
b. unity
c. zero
d. None of these
2. __________ are caused by accelerated charges
a. Time-varying fields
b. Waves
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
3. At the Brewster angle, polarization ______________.
a. Cannot be reflected
b. Is reflected at 30
c. Is reflected at 90
d. None of these

156
4. Wave number has units of____________.
a. Radians
b. Meter
c. Radians/meter
d. None of these
5. Wave speed in terms of frequency f and wavelength is expressed as _________.
a. f/
b. /f
c. f
d. ( + f)
6. For a lossy dielectric medium, ____________.
a. = 0
b. 0
c. None of these
d. Cannot say
7. Wave attenuation is given as ______________.

a. e+x
b. e-x
c. e+x
d. ex
8. In the case of a perfect dielectric medium, phase constant ______________
as conductivity increases.
a. Increases
b. Decreases
c. Remains unchanged
d. None of these
9. Phase velocity is given as _________.
a.
b.

157
 c. /
d. None of these
10. For a good conductor ________________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
11. For a good dielectric medium ____________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
12. In good conductors, rate of attenuation is __________.
a. Small
b. Large
c. Infinity
d. Zero
13. Poynting Vector is obtained as

a.
b.
c.
d.
14. Power density has _________________.
a. A DC component
b. A second harmonic component

158
 c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
15. Reflection coefficient is __________.
a. 100
b. = 10
c. 1
d. None of these
16. Which of the following expressions is correct?
a. (1 + ) =
b. (1 + ) =
c. (1 + ) = 0
d. (1 + ) = 0
17. Transmission coefficient is given as __________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
18. Standing wave consists of two travelling waves of ____________ amplitudes and
_____________ is direction.
a. Unequal, same
b. Unequal, opposite
c. Equal, same
d. Equal, opposite
19. Standing wave ratio S is given as __________.

a.

159
 b.

c.

d.
20. SNR ranges from ______.
a. 0 to 1
b. 1 to 10
c. 10 to 100
d. 1 to
21. As per Snell's Law _______.

a.

b.

c.

d.
22. Brewster's angle is given as tan B = ____________.

a.

b.
c.
d. None of these
23. The Smith chart is a ________ dimensional representation of complex impedances
with respect to coordinates.
a. Two
b. Three
c. Four

160
 d. None of these
24. ZL/Zo is equal to _____________.

a.

b.

c.

d.

161
UNIT-IV
TRANSMISSION LINES-I

Introduction to Transmission Lines

How do you connect a receiver or transmitter to an antenna? Simple - atransmission line. You
are no doubt familiar with transmission lines (sometimes abbreviated as tx lines). If you plug
any electric device into a wall outlet, the wires that connect the wall outlet to the device is a
transmission line.

However, transmission lines behave very oddly at high frequencies. In traditional (low-
frequency) circuit theory, wires connect devices, but have zero resistance. There is no
phase delay across wires; and a short-circuited line always yields zero resistance.

For high-frequency transmission lines, things behave quite differently. For instance, short-
circuits can actually have an infinite impedance; open-circuits can behave like short-
circuited wires. The impedance of some load (ZL=XL+jYL) can be transformed at the
terminals of the transmission line to an impedance much different than ZL. The goal of this
tutorial is to understand transmission lines and the reasons for their odd effects.

Let's start by examining a diagram. A sinusoidal voltage source with associated impedance ZS
is attached to a load ZL (which could be an antenna or some other device - in the circuit
diagram we simply view it as an impedance called a load). The load and the source are
connected via a transmission line of length L:

In traditional low-frequency circuit analysis, the transmission line would not matter. As a
result, the current that flows in the circuit would simply be:

162
However, in the high frequency case, the length L of the transmission line can significantly
affect the results. To determine the current that flows in the circuit, we would need to know
what the input impedance is, Zin, viewed from the terminals of the transmission line:

The resultant current that flows will simply be:

Since antennas are often high-frequency devices, transmission line effects are often VERY
important. That is, if the length L of the transmission line significantly alters Zin, then the
current into the antenna from the source will be very small. Consequently, we will not be
delivering power properly to the antenna. The same problems hold true in the receiving mode: a
transmission line can skew impedance of the receiver sufficiently that almost no power is
transferred from the antenna.

Hence, a thorough understanding of antenna theory requires an understanding of transmission

lines. A great antenna can be hooked up to a great receiver, but if it is done with a length of
transmission line at high frequencies, the system will not work properly.

Examples of common transmission lines include the coaxial cable, the microstrip line which
commonly feeds patch/microstrip antennas, and the two wire line:

163
When are transmission line effects significant?

We know that at low frequencies, transmission lines don't affect power transfer in practical
applications we use every day. However, at high frequencies, even short lengths of
transmission lines will affect the power transfer. Why is there this difference?

The answer is fundamentally important:

It is not the length of the transmission line, or what frequency we operate at that determines if
a transmission line will affect a circuit. What matters is how long the transmission line is,
measured in wavelengths at the frequency of interest.

If a transmission line has a length greater than about 10% of a wavelength, then it will affect
the circuit. Lets look at some examples to make this clear:

Lets say you plug your vaccuum cleaner into a wall outlet. The chord (transmission line)
that connects the power to the motor is 10 meters long. The power is supplied at 60 Hz.
Should transmission line effects be taken into account?:

Answer: The wavelength at 60 Hz is 5000 km (5 million meters). Hence, the transmission line
in this case is 10/5,000,000 = 0.000002 wavelengths (2*10^-6 wavlengths) long. As a result, the
transmission line is very short relative to a wavelength, and therefore will not have much impact
on the device.

Example #2. Suppose a wireless device is transmitting at 4 GHz. Suppose also that a receiver
is connect to a microstrip antenna via a microstrip transmission line that is 2.5 centimeters
(cm) long. Should transmission line effects be taken into account?

Answer: The wavelength at 4 GHz (4*10^9 Hz) is 7.5 cm. The transmission line is 2.5 cm
long. Hence, the transmission line is 0.33 wavelengths long. Since this is a significant fraction
of a wavelength (33%), the length of the line must be taken into account in analyzing the
reciever/transmission line/antenna system.

Hopefully we now understand when a transmission line will affect the circuit. If you don't,
read the last two examples again until you understand. What we don't understand yet, is how
the transmission line messes things up. This will be covered in the next sections.

we'll form a model for transmission lines and then analyze the equations that govern
their behaviour. We'll then introduce the key property of characteristic impedance.

To understand transmission lines, we'll set up an equivalent circuit to model and analyze
them. To start, we'll take the basic symbol for a transmission line of length L and divide it into
small segments:

164
Then we'll model each small segment with a small series resistance, series inductance,
shunt conductance, and shunt capcitance:

The parameters in the above figure are defined as follows:

R' - resistance per unit length for the transmission line (Ohms/meter)
L' - inductance per unit length for the tx line (Henries/meter)
G' - conductance per unit length for the tx line (Siemans/meter)

C' - capacitance per unit length for the tx line (Farads/meter)

We will use this model to understand the transmission line. All transmission lines will be
represented via the above circuit diagram. For instance, the model for coaxial cables will
differ from microstrip transmission lines only by their parameters R', L', G' and C'.

To get an idea of the parameters, R' would represent the d.c. resistance of one meter of the
transmission line. The parameter G' represents the isolation between the two conductors of the
transmission line. C' represents the capacitance between the two conductors that make up the
tx line; L' represents the inductance for one meter of the tx line. These parameters can be
derived for each transmission line. An example of deriving the paramters for a coaxial cable is
given here.

Assuming the +z-axis is towards the right of the screen, we can establish a relationship between
the voltage and current at the left and right sides of the terminals for our small section of
transmission line:

165
Using oridinary circuit theory, the relationship between the voltage and current on the left
and right side of the transmission line segment can be derived:

Taking the limit as dz goes to zero, we end up with a set of differential equations that relates
the voltage and current on an infinitesimal section of transmission line:

These equations are known as the telegraphers equations. Manipulation of these equations in
phasor form allow for second order wave equations to be made for both V and I:

166
The solution of the above wave-equations will reveal the complex nature of transmission lines.
Using ordinary differential equations theory, the solutions for the above differential equations
are given by:

The solution is the sum of a forward traveling wave (in the +z direction) and a backward
traveling wave (in the -z direction). In the above, is the amplitude of the forward traveling
voltage wave, is the amplitude of the backward traveling voltage wave, is the amplitude
of the forward traveling current wave, and is the amplitude of the backward traveling current
wave.
Characteristic Impedance - Z0

We're now ready to introduce a fundamental parameter of every transmission line: its
characteristic impedance. This is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the forward
traveling voltage wave to the magnitude of the forward traveling current wave:

In terms of the transmission line per-length parameters, the characteristic impedance is given by:

Z0 will be extensively used in determining other transmission line parameters.

This page will end with special cases of the characteristic Impedance. If R'=G'=0, then the
conductors of the transmission line are perfectly conducting (so R'=0) and the dielectric medium
that separates the conductors has zero conductivity (so that G'=0). In this case, the line is
referred to as aLossless Line. The characteristic impedance becomes:

167
Another type of line of interest is the distortionless line This type of line may contain loss (so
that the voltage dies off somewhat as it propagates down the line), but the magnitude of the
attenuation is frequency-independent, and the phase constant varies linearly with frequency.
This is desirable; similar to filter theory, this would be considered "linear phase" - that is, signals
that come out of the transmission line might be attenuated, but have the same shape. The criteria
for this is:

The Propagation Constant:

The propagation constant shows up in the solution for the spatial variation of the voltage and
current waves along the line (see above). The real part is given by ; this represents the rate of
decay of the wave as it travels down the transmission line. The larger is, the more "lossy" the
line is, and the faster the wave decays. If =0, then the line is lossless, and the voltage and
current waves do not die (shrink) as they travel down the line.

The imaginary part of the propagation constant is given by . This represents the rate at which the
waves oscillate as a function of position on the line. In contrast, frequency represents the rate
of change of oscillation as function of time. For a lossless line, can be determined from the
speed of propagation along the line (u). In general, can be determined from:

168
In the above, epsilon is the permittivity of the line, and mu is the permeability of the
transmission line. Note that lambda in the above equation is the wavelength within the
transmission line: it is not necessarily the wavelength of a wave of frequency f in free space. For
an "air line", the speed u is equal to the speed of light c.

We are now aware of the characteristic impedance of a transmission line, and that the tx line
gives rise to forward and backward travelling voltage and current waves. We will use this
information to determine the voltage reflection coefficient, which relates the amplitude of the
forward travelling wave to the amplitude of the backward travelling wave.

To begin, consider the transmission line with characteristic impedance Z0 attached to a load
with impedance ZL:

At the terminals where the transmission line is connected to the load, the overall voltage must
be given by:

[1]
Recall the expressions for the voltage and current on the line (derived on the previous page):

If we plug this into equation [1] (note that z is fixed, because we are evaluating this at a
specific point, the end of the transmission line), we obtain:

169
The ratio of the reflected voltage amplitude to that of the forward voltage amplitude
is thevoltage reflection coefficient. This can be solved for via the above equation:

The reflection coefficient is usually denoted by the symbol gamma. Note that the magnitude of
the reflection coefficient does not depend on the length of the line, only the load impedance
and the impedance of the transmission line. Also, note that if ZL=Z0, then the line is
"matched". In this case, there is no mismatch loss and all power is transferred to the load. At
this point, you should begin to understand the importance of impedance matching: grossly
mismatched impedances will lead to most of the power reflected away from the load.

Note that the reflection coefficient can be a real or a complex number.

Standing Waves

We'll now look at standing waves on the transmission line. Assuming the propagation
constant is purely imaginary (lossless line), We can re-write the voltage and current
waves as:

If we plot the voltage along the transmission line, we observe a series of peaks and
minimums, which repeat a full cycle every half-wavelength. If gamma equals 0.5 (purely
real), then the magnitude of the voltage would appear as:

170
Similarly, if gamma equals zero (no mismatch loss) the magnitude of the voltage would
appear as:

171
Finally, if gamma has a magnitude of 1 (this occurs, for instance, if the load is entirely reactive
while the transmission line has a Z0 that is real), then the magnitude of the voltage would
appear as:

One thing that becomes obvious is that the ratio of Vmax to Vmin becomes larger as the reflection
coefficient increases. That is, if the ratio of Vmax to Vmin is one, then there are no standing waves,
and the impedance of the line is perfectly matched to the load. If the ratio of Vmax to Vmin is
infinite, then the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is 1, so that all power is reflected. Hence,
this ratio, known as the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) or standing wave ratio is a
measure of how well matched a transmission line is to a load. It is defined as:

This parameter is commonly quoted in antenna spec sheets. It is typically given over a
bandwidth, so that you have an idea of how much power is reflected by the antenna over
a frequency range (or alternatively, how much power the antenna radiates).

We are now aware of the characteristic impedance of a transmission line, and that the tx line
gives rise to forward and backward travelling voltage and current waves. We will use this
information to determine the voltage reflection coefficient, which relates the amplitude of the
forward travelling wave to the amplitude of the backward travelling wave.

172
To begin, consider the transmission line with characteristic impedance Z0 attached to a load
with impedance ZL:

At the terminals where the transmission line is connected to the load, the overall voltage must
be given by:

[1]

Recall the expressions for the voltage and current on the line (derived on the previous page):

If we plug this into equation [1] (note that z is fixed, because we are evaluating this at a
specific point, the end of the transmission line), we obtain:

The ratio of the reflected voltage amplitude to that of the forward voltage amplitude
is thevoltage reflection coefficient. This can be solved for via the above equation:

The reflection coefficient is usually denoted by the symbol gamma. Note that the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient does not depend on the length of the line, only the load impedance and the
impedance of the transmission line. Also, note that if ZL=Z0, then the line is "matched". In this
case, there is no mismatch loss and all power is transferred to the load. At this point, you

173
should begin to understand the importance of impedance matching: grossly
mismatched impedances will lead to most of the power reflected away from the load.

Note that the reflection coefficient can be a real or a complex number.

Standing Waves

We'll now look at standing waves on the transmission line. Assuming the propagation
constant is purely imaginary (lossless line), We can re-write the voltage and current
waves as:

If we plot the voltage along the transmission line, we observe a series of peaks and
minimums, which repeat a full cycle every half-wavelength. If gamma equals 0.5 (purely
real), then the magnitude of the voltage would appear as:

Similarly, if gamma equals zero (no mismatch loss) the magnitude of the voltage would
appear as:

174
Finally, if gamma has a magnitude of 1 (this occurs, for instance, if the load is entirely reactive
while the transmission line has a Z0 that is real), then the magnitude of the voltage would
appear as:

175
One thing that becomes obvious is that the ratio of Vmax to Vmin becomes larger as the reflection
coefficient increases. That is, if the ratio of Vmax to Vmin is one, then there are no standing waves,
and the impedance of the line is perfectly matched to the load. If the ratio of Vmax to Vmin is
infinite, then the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is 1, so that all power is reflected. Hence,
this ratio, known as the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) or standing wave ratio is a
measure of how well matched a transmission line is to a load. It is defined as:

This parameter is commonly quoted in antenna spec sheets. It is typically given over a
bandwidth, so that you have an idea of how much power is reflected by the antenna over
a frequency range (or alternatively, how much power the antenna radiates).

EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the different excitation methods for different TE and TM waves.
2. A rectangular waveguide with dimensions 3 2cm operates at 10GHz. Find fc, ?c, ?, ?g,
?g, ?p of TE10 mode.
3. Derive the equation for input impedance of a transmission line. & deduce the expression
for short & open circuited lines.
4. Explain the field equations for TE waves in rectangular wave guide. Define dominant mode.
5. If a wave of 6GHz is propagating between two parallel conducting plates sepa-
rated by 30mm, find the cut-off wavelength, guide wavelength for TE10 mode.
6. Obtain the expression for current and voltage at any point along a line which is terminated
in Zo.
7. Explain the significance of TEM waves in parallel plane guide. Derive an expression
for the attenuation factor for TEM waves
8.Explain the factors on which cut off frequency of a parallel plate wave guide depends
9.Draw the equivalent circuit of a two wire transmission line.
10. List out the applications of a transmission lines.
11.Define input impedance of a transmission line and derive the expression for it

176
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. In a _________ transmission line, the reflection coefficient domain is a circle of unitary
radius.
a. Lossy
b. Lossless
c. None of these
d. Cannot say
2. The Smith chart represents a family of circles obtained by varying normalized
resistance in the range of __________.
a. 1 to 0
b. 0 to 1
c. 0 to
d. to
3. A family of arcs is obtained in the Smith chart by varying normalized reactance in
a range of __________.
a. 1 to 0
b. 0 to 1
c. 0 to
d. to
4. Smith charts depict a wide impedance range of transmitter for _______VSWR.
a. Low
b. High
c. Medium
d. None of these
5. A cable or a wire is considered as a transmission line if its length is _________of
the wavelength of the signal travelling through it.
a. Greater than 1/10
b. Less than 1/10
c. Greater than 1/5
d. Less than 1/5

177
6. Transmission lines facilitate _________propagation of energy.
a. Guided
b. Unguided
c. None of these
d. Cannot say
7. A transmission line is specified in terms of _________.
a. R, G,L
b. G, L,C
c. R, G, L,C
d. None of these
8. In the case of a lossless transmission line _________.

a.
b. LC =
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
9. Velocity of propagation in a lossless transmission line is given as _________.

a.

b.
c.

d.
10. Conductance per unit length of a coaxial transmission line is given as ___________.

a.

b.

c.

d.

178
11. In planar transmission lines, C = _________.
a. b/d
b. d/b
c. b/d
d. None of these.
12. In a microstrip line, there is _________metal strip over the substrate.
a. A thin
b. A thick
c. No
d. None of these
13. Characteristic impedance Zo = _________.

a.

b.
c.
d. None of these.
14. In a fully lossless line, = _________.
a. 0
b. 1
c.
d. None of these.
15. In a distortionless line, attenuation constant is frequency _________.
a. Dependent
b. Independent
c. None of these
d. Cannot say
16. A distortionless line has _________.
a. Non-vanishing attenuation constant

179
 b. Constant velocity
c. Constant real characteristic impedance
d. All of these
17. Voltage reflection coefficient is the ratio of _________ wave to _______ wave.
a. Incident, reflected
b. Reflected, incident
c. Incident, absorbed
d. Absorbed, incident
18. In a quarter-wave transformer, input impedance is equal to _________.

a.

b.

c.

d.
19. ________ are very efficient in a frequency range of 3-300 GHz.
a. Transmission line
b. Wave guides
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
20. Wave guides ________ in DC applications.
a. Can also be used
b. Cannot be used
c. None of these
d. Cannot say
21. Wave guides are a type of _________ filter.
a. Low pass
b. All pass

180
 c. Band pass
d. High pass
22. For lossless wave guides, c ________and ______

a. , 0
b. 0,
c. 0, 0
d. ,
23. In a lossless medium, Maxwell's equation in the phasor form is given as _________
.

a.
b. K2 H = 0

c.
d. None of these
24. In the TM mode, Ez _____ and Hz = ________.

a. 0, 0
b. 0,
c. 0
d. None of these
25. In the TEM mode, Ez ______ and Hz =_______

a. 0, 0
b. 0,
c. , 0
d. None of these

181
UNIT-VIII
TRANSMISSION LINES-II

We are now ready to determine the input impedance of a transmission line of length
L attached to a load (antenna) with impedance ZA. Consider the following circuit:

In low frequency circuit theory, the input impedance would simply be ZA. However, for high-
frequency (or long) transmission lines, we know that the voltage and the current are given by:

For simplicity, assume the transmission line is lossless, so that the propagation constant is
purely imaginary. If we define z=0 to be at the terminals of the load or antenna, then we are
interested in the ratio of the voltage to the current at location z=-L:

Using the definition for gamma (the voltage reflection coefficient), the above equation can
be manipulated algebraically, and when evaluated at z=-L, we obtain:

182
This last equation is fundamnetal to understanding transmission lines. The input impedance of
a load ZA is transformed by a transmission line as in the above equation. This equation can
cause ZA to be transformed radically. An example will now be presented.
Example

Consider a voltage source, with generator impedance Zg, hooked to an antenna with impedance
ZA via a transmission line. Suppose that Zg=50 Ohms, ZA=50 Ohms, Z0=200 Ohm, and that
the line is a quarterwavelength long. How much power does the generator deliver?

Answer: The diagram for this problem is given in the following diagram:

The above diagram also shows the "equivalent circuit". The input impedance becomes:

183
Hence, the current that flows is given by:

Note that if high frequency circuit theory was not taken into account, the current flow would
have been V/100 Amps. This illustrates how transmission lines can upset the expected
operation of high frequency circuits.

In the next section, we'll look at ways we can exploit the transmission line characteristics for
our benefit. This is very useful for impedance matching, which enables maximum power
transfer from a load to (or from) a receiver (a generator).

We are now aware of the fundamental properties of transmission lines, which are very important
in electronics and antenna theory for microwave frequencies (anything above 600 MHz). On
this page, we'll look at using the properties of a transmission line to our advantage. The first
application is in impedance matching, with the quarter-wave transformer.

Quarter-Wave Transformer

Recall our formula for the input impedance of a transmission line of length L with characteristic
impedance Z0 and connected to a load with impedance ZA:

184
An interesting thing happens when the length of the line is a quarter of a wavelength:

The above equation is important: it states that by using a quarter-wavelength of transmission

line, the impedance of the load (ZA) can be transformed via the above equation. The utility
of this operation can be seen via an example.

Example. Match a load with impedance ZA=100 Ohms to be 50 Ohms using a

quarter-wave transformer, as shown below.

Solution: The problem is to determine Z0 (the characteristic impedance of our quarter-

wavelength transmission line) such that the 100 Ohm load is matched to 50 Ohms. By
applying the above equation, the problem is simple:

185
Hence, by using a transmission line with a characteristic impedance of 70.71 Ohms, the
100 Ohm load is matched to 50 Ohms. Hence, if a transmitter has an impedance of 50
Ohms and is trying to deliver power to the load (antenna), no power will be reflected back
to the transmitter. In general, impedance matching is very important in RF/microwave
circuit design. It is relatively simple at a single frequency, but becomes very difficult if
wideband impedance matching is desired.

This technique is commonly employed with patch antennas. Circuits are printed as shown in
the following figure. A 50 Ohm microstrip transmission line is matched to a patch antenna
(impedance typically 200 Ohms or more) via a quarter-wavelength microstrip transmission
line with the characteristic impedance chosen to match the load.

Because the quarter-wavelength transmission line is only a quarter-wavelength at a

single frequency, this is a narrow-band matching technique

Short-Circuited Lines
Consider a transmission line of length L, but suppose the end of the line is short-circuited
together (so that ZA=0). Then from the impedance equation:

186
We can determine the input impedance (or input admittance = 1/Z) for a short circuited line:

[1]

The above equation states that by using a short circuited transmission line, we can add a
reactive impedance to a circuit. This can be used for impedance matching, as we'll illustrate.

Example. Suppose an antenna has an impedance of ZA = 50 - j*10. Using a short-

circuited transmission line (with Z0=50 and u=c) in parallel with the antenna, transform
the input impedance to be entirely real (zero reactance).

Solution. The problem is illustrated below.

We are trying to use a short-circuited transmission line to make the input impedance
purely real (cancel out the capacitive reactance of the load). [Also note that we could
further transform the real impedance by using a quarter-wave transformer at the
terminals above.]

The admittance of the load is:

187
YA = 1/ZA = 1/(50-j*10) = YA = 0.0192 + j*0.0038

If a reactance is added in parallel with a value of YA = -j*0.0038, the admittance will be

entirely real, so the impedance will also be entirely real. Using equation [1], we can
solve for the length of the transmission line so that YA = -j*0.0038:

Hence, if a short-circuited transmission line of length 0.22 wavelengths is added in parallel

with the load, then the admittance will be entirely real and given by Yin=0.0192. Hence, the
input impedance Zin = 1/Yin = 52 Ohms.

Open-Circuited Transmission Lines

Similarly, if a transmission line is terminated in an open circuit (so that ZA is infinite), then
the impedance of a line of length L is given by:

Note that we can use open- and short-circuited transmission lines as substitutes for inductors
and capacitors if a reactance is desired. This is often done in practice.

188
Measuring Z0 of a Transmission Line

How would you go about measuring the characteristic impedance of a transmission line? There
is a simple solution. If you measure the open- and short-circuited impedances of a transmission
line for any fixed length L, the characteristic impedance (Z0) can be determined:

The square root of the product of the measurements gives the characteristic impedance of
the line. This method is easy and commonly done in practice.

SMITH CHART:

The Smith Chart is a fantastic tool for visualizing the impedance of a transmission line and antenna
system as a function of frequency. Smith Charts can be used to increase understanding
oftransmission lines and how they behave from an impedance viewpoint. Smith Charts are also
extremely helpful for impedance matching, as we will see. The Smith Chart is used to display an
actual (physical) antenna's impedance when measured on a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA).

Smith Charts were originally developed around 1940 by Phillip Smith as a useful tool for
making the equations involved in transmission lines easier to manipulate. See, for instance, the
input impedance equation for a load attached to a transmission line of length L and characteristic
impedance Z0. With modern computers, the Smith Chart is no longer used to the simplify the
calculation of transmission line equatons; however, their value in visualizing the impedance of
an antenna or a transmission line has not decreased.

The Smith Chart is shown in Figure 1. A larger version is shown here.

189
Figure 1. The basic Smith Chart.

Figure 1 should look a little intimidating, as it appears to be lines going everywhere. There is
nothing to fear though. We will build up the Smith Chart from scratch, so that you can
understand exactly what all of the lines mean. In fact, we are going to learn an even more
complicated version of the Smith Chart known as the immitance Smith Chart, which is twice as
complicated, but also twice as useful. But for now, just admire the Smith Chart and its curvy
elegance.

This section of the antenna theory site will present an introduction to Smith Chart
basics. Smith Chart Tutorial

We'll now begin to explain the fundamentals of the Smith Chart. The Smith Chart displays the
complex reflection coefficient [Equation 1, below], in polar form, for an arbitrary impedance (we'll
call the impedance ZL or the load impedance). The reflection coefficient is completely determined
by the impedance ZL and the "reference" impedance Z0. Note that Z0 can be viewed as the
impedance of the transmitter, or what is trying to deliver power to the antenna. Hence, the Smith
Chart is a graphical method of displaying the impedance of an antenna, which can be a

190
single point or a range of points to display the impedance as a function of frequency. For a
primer on complex math, click here.

Recall that the complex reflection coefficient ( ) for an impedance ZL attached to

a transmission line with characteristic impedance Z0 is given by:

[Equation 1]

For this Smith Chart tutorial, we will assume Z0 is 50 Ohms, which is often, but not always
the case. Note that the Smith Chart can be used with any value of Z0.

The complex reflection coefficient, or , must have a magnitude between 0 and 1. As such,
the set of all possible values for must lie within the unit circle:

Figure 2. The Complex Reflection Coefficient must lie somewhere within the unit circle.

In Figure 2, we are plotting the set of all values for the complex reflection coefficient, along
the real and imaginary axis. The center of the Smith Chart is the point where the reflection
coefficient is zero. That is, this is the only point on the Smith Chart where no power is
reflected by the load impedance.

The outter ring of the Smith Chart is where the magnitude of is equal to 1. This is the black
circle in Figure 1. Along this curve, all of the power is reflected by the load impedance.

191
Normalized Load Impedance

To make the Smith Chart more general and independent of the characteristic impedance Z0
of the transmission line, we will normalize the load impedance ZL by Z0 for all future plots:

[1]

Equation [1] doesn't affect the reflection coefficient ( ). It is just a convention that is
used everywhere.
Constant Resistance Circles

On the previous page, we did examples of plotting values of on the Smith Chart. Similarly,
for a given normalized load impedance zL, we can determine and plot it on the Smith
Chart.
Now, suppose we have the normalized load impedance given by:

[2]

In equation [2], Y is any real number. What would the curve corresponding to equation [2]
look like if we plotted it on the Smith Chart for all values of Y? That is, if we plotted z1 = 1 +
0*i, and z1 = 1 + 10*i, z1 = 1 - 5*i, z1 = 1 - .333*i, .... and any possible value for Y that you
could think of, what is the resulting curve? The answer is shown in Figure 1:

Figure 1. Constant Resistance Circle for zL=1 on Smith Chart.

192
In Figure 1, the outer blue ring represents the boundary of the smith chart. The black curve is a
constant resistance circle: this is where all values of z1 = 1 + i*Y will lie on. Several points
are plotted along this curve, z1 = 1, z1 = 1 + i*2, and zL = 1 - i*4.

Suppose we want to know what the curve z2 = 0.3 + i*Y looks like on the Smith Chart.
The result is shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2. Constant Resistance Circle for zL=0.3 on Smith Chart.

In Figure 2, the black ring represents the set of all impedances where the real part of z2 equals
0.3. A few points along the circle are plotted. We've left the resistance circle of 1.0 in red on the
Smith Chart.

These circles are called constant resistance curves. The real part of the load impedance is
constant along each of these curves. We'll now add several values for the constant resistance,
as shown in Figure 3:

193
Figure 3. Constant Resistance Circles on Smith Chart.
In Figure 3, the zL=0.1 resistance circle has been added in purple. The zL=6 resistance circle
has been added in green, and zL=2 resistance circle is in black.

On this page, we start to see where the all the curves and lines on the smith chart come from. In
the next section, we'll look at constant reactance curves.

On this page, we will look at the set of curves defined by zL = R + iY, where Y is held
constant and R varies from 0 to infinity. Since R cannot be negative for antennas or passive
devices, we will restrict R to be greater than or equal to zero. As a first example, let zL = R + i.
The curve defined by this set of impedances is shown in Figure 1:

194
Figure 1. Constant Reactance Curve for zL = R + i*1.

The resulting curve zL = R + i is plotted in green in Figure 1. A few points along the curve are
illustrated as well. Observe that zL = 0.3 + i is at the intersection of the Re[zL] = 0.3 circle
and the Im[zL]=1 curve. Similarly, observe that the zL = 2 + i point is at the intersection of
the Re[zL]=2 circle and the Im[zL]=1 curve. (For a quick reminder of real and imaginary parts
of complex numbers, see complex math primer.)

The constant reactance curve, defined by Im[zL]=-1 is shown in Figure 2:

195
Figure 2. Constant Reactance Curve for zL = R - i.

The resulting curve for Im[zL]=-1 is plotted in green in Figure 2. The point zL=1-i is placed on
the Smith Chart, which is at the intersection of the Re[zL]=1 circle and the Im[zL]=-1 curve

An important curve is given by Im[zL]=0. That is, the set of all impedances given by zL
= R, where the imaginary part is zero and the real part (the resistance) is greater than or
equal to zero. The result is shown in Figure 3:

196
Figure 3. Constant Reactance Curve for zL=R.
The reactance curve given by Im[zL]=0 is a straight line across the Smith Chart. There are 3 special
points along this curve. On the far left, where zL = 0 + i0, this is the point where the load

is a short circuit, and thus the magnitude of is 1, so all power is reflected.

In the center of the Smith Chart, we have the point given by zL = 1. At this location, is 0, so
the load is exactly matched to the transmission line. No power is reflected at this point.
The point on the far right in Figure 3 is given by zL = infinity. This is the open circuit location.
Again, the magnitude of is 1, so all power is reflected at this point, as expected.

Finally, we'll add a bunch of constant reactance curves on the Smith Chart, as shown in Figure 4.

197
Figure 4. Smith Chart with Reactance Curves and Resistance Circles.

In Figure 4, we added constant reactance curves for Im[zL]=2, Im[zL]=5,

Im[zL]=0.2, Im[zL]=0.5, Im[zL]=-2, Im[zL]=-5, Im[zL]=-0.2, and Im[zL] = -0.5.
Figure 4 shows the fundamental curves of the Smith Chart. If you look back on Figure 1 on the
intro to Smith Charts page, it should now make sense where all the chaotic curves come from.

we'll see how the Smith Chart makes viewing the impedance transformation due to transmission
lines very simple. That is, suppose that we have an impedance ZL on the end of atransmission
line with characteristic impedance given by Z0, as shown in Figure 1:

198
Figure 1. Diagram of a Load Impedance at the End of a Transmission Line.

In Figure 1, we have a load impedance (which could represent an antenna, for instance), attached
to a generator (or voltage source, with source impedance ZS) via a transmission line of
length L and characteristic impedance Z0. To find the input impedance a distance L from
the load ZL, we can use the complicated equation found in the transmission line tutorial:

[1]

(Recall that is the propogation constant).

Now, the question is: If we have a load impedance ZL, what is the input impedance Zin a
distance Ldown the transmission line, using the Smith Chart? To figure this out, let's just take
an example. Let ZL = 100 Ohms, so that the normalized load is zL=100/50 = 2.0. Let's plot, on
the Smith Chart, a few values for zin=Zin/Z0, which are given by:

[2]
199
We can calculate the input impedances using equation [1]:

[3]

The impedances in equation [3] are plotted in Figure 2:

Figure 2. Input Impedances of Equation [3] Plotted on the Smith Chart.

From Figure 2, something interesting emerges. We could go through a ton of math equations
to prove this, but that's not real fruitful. Each of the points in Figure 2 are the same distance
away from the center of the Smith Chart. That is, the complicated input impedance equation
([2] above) translates into a simple circular motion on the Smith Chart. Hence, you can find
the impedance of a load a distance L down a transmission line simply by moving in a circular
fashion around the Smith Chart.

Let's take an example. Let zL = 2.0 again as above. If we draw a circle centered at the center
of the Smith Chart and travelling through zL, then we get the curve given in Figure 3 by the
black x's:

200
Figure 3. Constant VSWR circle.

A few points are plotted along this circle. If you travel lambda/8 (one eighth of a wavelength)
down the transmission line in Figure 1, the resulting input impedance can be found by rotating
90 degrees in the clockwise direction on the Smith Chart. Similarly, if you want the input
impedance lambda/4 (one quarter of a wavelength) from the load impedance, the resulting
input impedance can be found by rotatin 180 degrees in the clockwise direction around the
Smith Chart. Hence, the input impedance (from equation [1] or the Smith Chart) repeats itself
every half-wavelength. That is, a half-wavelength along the transmission line corresponds to a
complete rotation on the Smith Chart (back to where you started).
The circle in Figure 3 that runs through zL is known as a constant VSWR or constant SWR
circle. Since this circle is centered at the center of the Smith Chart, the magnitude of is
constant along this curve. Hence, the VSWR is constant everywhere along this curve.
Introduction to Impedance Matching

Impedance Matching is the process of removing mismatch loss. That is, we want to minimize
the reflection coefficient, to reduce the power reflected from the load (the antenna), and
maximize the power delivered to the antenna. This is one of the fundamental tasks in getting an
antenna to radiate, and hence is one of the more important topics in antenna theory.

To achieve perfect matching, we want the antenna or load impedance to match the transmission
line. That is, we want ZL=Z0 (or Zin=Z0). In Smith Chart terms, we want to move the

201
impedance ZL towards the center of the Smith Chart, where the reflection coefficient is
zero.
We'll now introduce some of the basic building blocks to make this happen.

Series Inductor
An inductor has a normalized impedance given by:

[1]

In equation [1], f is frequency, and L is the inductance in Henries.

The question now is: what does a series inductor do to a load impedance ZL? The block
diagram is shown in Figure 1:

Figure 1. Series Inductor and load impedance ZL.

Mathematically, the series impedances will add. That is:

[2]

From equation [2], we see that the series inductor will move the impedance zL along the
constant resistance circles of the Smith Charts. Hence, if the reactance (X) of the load impedance
ZL is negative, then we can use a series inductor to cancel out this reactance, making the input
impedance purely real.

As an example, let zL = 1 - i2 when f=1 GHz. Then we can cancel out the reactance with a
series inductor, determined by:

202
 [3]

That is, equation [3] states that we can cancel out the reactance of the load with a 15.9 nH
series inductor. This move is illustrated on the Smith Chart in Figure 2:

Figure 2. Series Inductor matching load impedance zL.

203
Note that the impedance zL is translated along the constant resistance circle (Re[z]=1) to the
center of the Smith Chart. By increasing the inductance L, we can move the impedance zL
farther along the constant resistance circle. In this case, we have exactly matched the
impedance zL to the center of the Smith Chart, so that no reflection will occur in Figure 1. We
will only be able to do that if the load impedance starts out with the real part equal to 1. More
general cases will be considered later.

Series Capacitor
A capacitor has normalized impedance given by:

[4]

In equation [4], f is frequency, and C is the capacitance in Farads. Note that the capacitor
gives rise to a negative reactance.

The question now is: what does a series capacitor do to a load impedance ZL? The
block diagram is shown in Figure 3:

Figure 3. Series Capacitor and load impedance ZL.

Mathematically, the series impedances will add. That is:

[5]

From equation [5], we see that the series capacitor will move the impedance zL along the
constant resistance circles of the Smith Charts, but in the opposite direction that the inductor
moves it. If the reactance (X) of the load impedance ZL is positive, then we can use a series
capacitor to cancel out this reactance, making the input impedance purely real.

204
As an example, let zL = 0.3 + i when f=500 MHz. Then we can cancel out the reactance with
a series capacitor, determined by:

[6]

That is, equation [6] states that we can cancel out the reactance of the load with a 6.4 pF
series capacitor. This move is illustrated on the Smith Chart in Figure 4:

205
Figure 4. Series Capacitor cancelling reactance of load impedance zL.

Note that the impedance zL is translated along the constant resistance circle (Re[z]=0.3) to the
equator of the Smith Chart. By lowering the capacitance C, we can move the impedance zL
farther along the constant resistance circle (note that the capacitor's reactance is inversely
proportional to the capacitance - equation [4]). In this case, we have not exactly matched the
load impedance zL to the center of the Smith Chart. The reflection coefficient is reduced, but not
ideally.

206
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1. What is the significance of standing wave ratio in a transmission line. Calculate
the reflection coefficient and VSWR for a 50 line terminated with i) Matched load ii)
short circuit
iii) +j75load iv) j75load
2. Explain why short circuited stubs are preferred over open circuited stubs
3. Explain briefly properties of smith chart?
4. A lossless transmission line of length 100m has an inductance of 28?H and a capacitance
of 20nF. Find propagation velocity, phase constant at an operating frequency of 100kHz and
characteristic impedance of the line
5.Obtain the expression for current and voltage at any point along a line which is terminated
in Zo.
6. A lossless transmission line of length 100m has an inductance of 28?H and a capacitance
of 20nF. Find propagation velocity, phase constant at an operating
frequency of 100kHz and characteristic impedance of the line.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. _______ velocity is the one at which loss of constant phase propagates down the guide.
a. Medium
b. Phase
c. Group
d. None of these
2. Information or energy through the wave guide travels at _______ velocity.
a. Medium
b. Phase
c. Group
d. None of these
3. _______velocity is that whose resultant repeated reflected waves travel down the guide.
a. Medium
b. Phase
c. Group

207
 d. None of these
4. ________ vector is needed to determine power flow in wave guides.
a. Poynting
b. Average Poynting
c. Power
d. Phase
5. Surface current density K on wave guide walls for ______ is given as
a. TM mode
b. TE mode
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these
6. At _______ frequencies, RLC resonant circuits are replaced by electromagnetic cavity
resonators.
a. Low
b. Medium
c. High
d. None of these
7. Resonator cavities are used in _______.
a. Klystron tubes
b. Band-pass filters
c. Wave meters
d. All of these
8. Cavity is a rectangular wave guide _______.
a. Open at both ends
b. Shorted at both ends
c. With one end open and the other shorted
d. None of these
9. Quality factor for a cavity is expensed as _______

208
209