Amplifiers Study Notes For Electronics and Communication Engineering

7/29/2017 Amplifiers Study Notes for Electronics and Communication Engineering
GATE EE > GATE EE > Analog Circuits
Himanshu Verma
16 mins ago GATE EE
Ampli ers Study Notes for Electronics and Communication

Engineering
In this article, you will nd theStudy Notes on Ampli erswhich will cover the
topics such asIntroduction, Ampli er Parameters, Common base & Emitter
Ampli er, Comparison between three con gurations, Biasing Circuits, Feedback
Ampli er and Circuits, Operational Ampli er and Circuits
1. Introduction
https://gradeup.co/Amplifiers-notes-topics-for-gate-ec-ies-isro-barc-2018-i-11d9db90-742d-11e7-bb7c-fd827ef8c64d 1/33
1. Introduction
An ampli er is used to increase the amplitude of a signal waveform, without

changing other parameters of the waveform such as frequency or wave
shape.
There are many forms of electronic circuits classed as ampli ers, from
Operational Ampli ers and Small Signal Ampli ers up to Large Signal and
Power Ampli ers.
The classi cation of an ampli er depends on the size of the signal, large or
small, its physical con guration and how it processes the input signal that is
the relationship between input signal and the current owing in the load.
2. Ampli er Parameters
Gain (A):
It is a measure of the "Ampli cation" of an ampli er, i.e. how much it
increases the amplitude of a signal.
It is the ratio of the output signal amplitude to the input signal
amplitude.
Voltage gain= Amplitude of output voltage / Amplitude of input voltage.
Current gain= Amplitude of output current / Amplitude of input current.
Power gain= Signal power out /Signal power in.
Bandwidth:
An important piece of information that can be obtained from a frequency
response curve is the Bandwidth of the ampli er.
This refers to the band of frequencies for which the ampli er has a
useful gain.
Outside this usefulband, the gain of the ampli er is considered to be

insu cient compared with the gain at the centre of the bandwidth.
Bandwidth speci ed for voltage ampli ers is the range of frequencies for
Bandwidth speci ed for voltage ampli ers is the range of frequencies for
which the ampli ers gain is greater than 0.707 of the maximum gain.
Alternatively, decibels are used to indicate the gain, the ratio of output to
the inputvoltage.
InputImpedance:
The word impedance means opposition to AC current ow.
At 0 Hz, (that is, DC) impedance (symbol Z) is the same as resistance
(R), but at frequencies other than 0Hz impedance and resistance are not
the same.
The input impedance of an ampli er is the effective impedance between
the input terminals.
Input Impedance is in uenced by a number of factors including the
frequency of the applied signal, the gain of the ampli er, any signal
feedback used and even what is connected to the output of the ampli er.
Output Impedance:
It is not solely dependent on the actual components connectedtothe
output of an ampli er.
It is an apparent impedance and can best be demonstrated as being
responsible for a fall in signal voltage at the output terminals of
anampli er when a current is drawn from the output terminals.
The more current drawn from the output terminals, the greater the
reduction in output signal voltage.
The effect is that of an impedance or resistance in series with the output
terminals.
3. Common Base Ampli er
The graphical analysis of a large signal common base ampli er involves the
following steps
Draw the diagramOne end at V =0, I =V

https://gradeup.co/Amplifiers-notes-topics-for-gate-ec-ies-isro-barc-2018-i-11d9db90-742d-11e7-bb7c-fd827ef8c64d /R the other at V =V , I =0. 3/33
Draw the diagramOne end at V CB =0, I C =V CC /R L ; the other at V CB = V CC , I C =0.

Locate the operating point Q, where I E = V EE / R
Draw the AC load line through the Q point with a slope given bywhereR E =
R L || R 0
Obtain the current and voltage gains by reading off the corresponding values
of current and voltage from the AC load line for a given emitter current drive.
The current gain is less than one, but the voltage gain may be anywhere from
50 to 2000.
For common base con guration A V >1and A i <1,low R in while highRout.
The common base ampli er is used primarily to match a very low source
impedance (approximately 20
) to a high load impedance (100 k and up).
The AC output power can be calculated from
The conversion or collector circuit e ciency is a measure of how successfully

the active device converts DC power to AC signal
https://gradeup.co/Amplifiers-notes-topics-for-gate-ec-ies-isro-barc-2018-i-11d9db90-742d-11e7-bb7c-fd827ef8c64d power and may be close to 4/33
the active device converts DC power to AC signal power and may be close to
the maximum value of 25% in a CB ampli er.
The output voltage is in phase with the input voltage.
Distortion of the input voltage waveform may occur due to the very low input
resistance of the ampli er.
Very little harmonic distortion is generated in the output of a CB ampli er
except at very high values of load resistance.
Alpha ():
In the DC mode, the levels ofI C andI E due to the majority carriers are,
relatedtoa quantity called alpha and it is de ned by the following
equations.
If I E =0thenI C = I CBO
For AC operation where point of operation moves on the characteristic curve
= constant
AC is called as common base short circuit ampli cation factor.
4. The Common Emitter Ampli er
The maximum theoretical conversion e ciency of a classAn ampli erwith a

direct coupled resistive load is 25%.
The input resistance to a common emitter ampli er is in the order to 1 kand
The input resistance to a common emitter ampli er is in the order to 1 kand
is thus much higher than in a common base but lower than a common
collector. Its output is inverted with respect to its input voltage.
A common emitter ampli er enjoys both a voltage and a current gain, with the
result that its power gain is usually larger than in either a common base or
common collector,
One of the greatest advantages of a common emitter ampli er is the ability to
operate from a single supply voltage, using a resistor from V CC to the base to
provide bias current.
Drawing the AC load linethroughthe operating point with a slope given by
(-1/R E )where R E =R 0 || R L and reading off the corresponding values of
collector current and voltage from the AC load line resulting from a speci ed
base current drive.
The analysis of a class A common emitter ampli er involves drawing the DC
load line, locating the operating point at I B V BB /R B.
If the source resistanceR S is large compared with common emitters input
resistanceR i , a condition of current drive results such that base current
variation is symmetrical but base emitter voltage is not. For large
signalinputs, this can cause considerable distortion in the output.
Voltage drive results when,R S <<R i , so that the unequal variations in base
current resulting from large signal operation tend to compensate for the
insensitive region of the characteristic curves at higher collector current,
keeping harmonic distortion lower.
Atransistor'scharacteristic curve may be displayed on an oscilloscope using
a manual control of base current or by using a commercial curve tracer that
permits a photograph of the complete set of curves.
In normal ampli er operation, the transistors base emitter junction is always

forward biased but the collector base junction is reverse biased.
Beta ():
Beta ():
It is de ned as common emitter forward current, ampli cation factor.
For DC mode, beta is de ned as follows
Also,
For practical devices ranges from 50 to 400.
For AC situation
5. Comparison between Three Transistor Con gurations
Gamma ():
It is de ned as current gain of common collector transistor,
Note:
A typicalvalue ofis 50.
The relationship between , and :
6. Biasing Circuit of Transistor
Fixed bias
Pertinent Equations:
Emitter bias
Con guration
Pertinent Equations
Voltage divider bias

Con guration
Pertinent Equations
Feedback Biasing Circuit Collector feedback
Emitter follower
Common base
7.Input and Output Characteristics of Different Con guration
Common Base
Common Emitter
8.Feedback Ampli ers
A feedback ampli er is one which is used to provide voltage gain or current

gain or both in the form of power gain.
Other desirable characteristics of the ampli er circuits are high input
Other desirable characteristics of the ampli er circuits are high input
impedance, low output impedance, larger bandwidth, low distortion, low noise
and high stability.
To achieve these characteristics, a part of an outputsignal is feedback.
where is feedback factor or feedback ratioV f is feedback voltage andV s is

input voltageV 0 is the output voltage.
The nature of the feedback in feedback ampli ers can be divided into
following categories.
Negative Feedback:when the feedback signal is out of phase with the input
signal and thus opposes it, it is called negative feedback.
Positive Feedback:when the inputsignal and part of the outputsignal are in
phase with each other, the feedback is called positive feedback.
9.Feedback Topologies
There are four basic ways of connecting the feedback signal. Both voltage and
current can be feedback to the input either in series or parallel.
Voltage series feedback

Voltage shunt feedback
Current series feedback
Current series feedback
Current shunt feedback
In the list above, voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as an inputto the
feedback network;currently, refers to tapping off some output current through the
feedback network.
Series refers to connecting the feedback signal in series with the input signal
voltage; shunt refers to connecting the feedback signal in shunt (parallel) with an
input current source.
Note:Voltage shunt feedback, such as a resistor connected from collector to base
in a CE ampli er, reduces both input and output resistance.
10. Some useful comparisons
Effect of Negative Feedback on Ampli er

Summary of Gain, Feedback, and Gain with Feedback
Effect of Feedback Connection on Input and Output Impedance
Where, = Feedback factor,A v = Voltage gain,A i = Current gain,G m =

Transconductance,R m =trans-resistance,A vf = Voltage gain with
feedback,A If = Current gain with feedback,G mf = Transconductance with
feedback,R mf = Transresistance with feedback,AandA f are gain and
gainfeedback respectively,I s andV s are input current and input voltage
respectively.
The common-collector or emitter follower is an example of voltage series
feedback. It inherently uses 100% negative feedback and is the one
connection that simultaneously increases input resistance and decreases
output resistance.Itsvoltage gain is a little than unity.
11. Operational Ampli er
Op-Amp (Operational Ampli er) is a fundamental building block for handling

analog electrical signals.
An operational ampli er is a high gain, differential, voltage ampli er.
OP AMP has two inputs called + and -, ( or V IN + and V IN -) and a single
output.
The output depends only on the difference of the voltage on the two inputs.
If the difference between the two input voltages is V IN , the output voltage is
V Out , then V Out = V IN G V ; where G v is the (voltage) gain.
The differential operation involves the use of opposite polarity inputs.
Common mode operation involves the use of the same polarity inputs.
Common-mode rejection compares the gain for differential inputs to that for
common inputs.
common inputs.
An ideal op-amp is usually considered the following properties, and they are
considered to hold for any input voltages:
In nite open loop gain
7/29/2017
In nite open Amplifiers
loop gain Study Notes for Electronics and Communication Engineering
In nite bandwidth ( the frequency magnitude response is at everywhere

with zero phase shift)
In nite input impedance
Zero input current (There is no leakage or bias current into the device)
Zero input offset voltage (when the input terminals are shorted, output is
a virtual ground)
In nite slew rate (Rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded)
and power bandwidth (full output voltage and currently available at all
frequencies).
Zero output impedance (R out = 0, and so output voltage does not vary
with output current)
Zero noise
In nite CMRR (Common mode rejection ratio)
In nite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails.
Properties of Op-Amp
Op-Amp Classi cation

12. Differential Operational Ampli er
A differential operational ampli er has inverting and non-inverting inputs with

high input impedance and differential or open-loop gains between 1000 and
10 million.
When the inverting input is used with negative feedback due toR 0 , the closed
loop gain is given by (-R 0 / R 1 ) and the input impedance isR 1 the output
impedance is the open loop output impedance divided by loop gain.
or
Loop gain (dB) = Open loop gain (dB) Closed loop gain (dB)
If a number of signals are connected to the inverting input, the output is

proportional to the sum of the input signals, making possible the solution of
linear algebraic and differential equations on an analog computer.
If the non-inverting input to a differential operational ampli er is used, the
input impedance is increased to a value,
R cm || (R i loop gain)
whereR cm is the common mode impedance andR i is the differential
impedance.
One way to increase input impedance to an ampli er utilizing the inverting

input is to reduce the feedback voltage by connecting a voltage divider at the
output.
The voltage gain for a non-inverting input is:
A true ideal differential ampli er the difference between two input voltages
providing an output,
In practice, the output also consists of an error term that is due to the
common-mode input voltage = (V1 + V2)/2.
The total output of a differential ampli er is:
7/29/2017
The total output ofAmplifiers Study Notes for Electronics and Communication Engineering
a differential ampli er is:
13.Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
The common mode rejection ratio is a gure of merit of a differential ampli er

since it is the ratio of differential gain,A d (the desired gain), to the common-
mode gainA C .
or
Emitter-coupled differential ampli ers are the type of circuit used

predominantly in IC s , because of the manufacturing ability to closely match
components, and since the devices are so closely spaced their variations due
to temperature tend to cancel, providing excellent DC coupling stability.
High values of CMRR are provided by large effective values of emitter
resistance Re, in the emitter-coupled ampli er. This may be provided by a
transistor or CRD to provide essentially a constant-current source in the
emitter.


Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve:

The graphic representation of the output equation is shown in the gure
in which the output voltageV 0 is plotted against differential input
voltageV d , keeping gainA d constant.
14. Non-linear Op-Amp Circuits
Integrator
Differentiator
Non-Linear: Log-Ampli er
= recombination factor,V t = thermal voltage, andI 0 = reverse saturation

current of a diode.
Non-Linear: Anti-logAmpli er
15. Determination of Grounded Load
Capacitance Multiplier
This circuit is useful in creating arti cially large values of capacitances while
using low-valued C which is normally available.
Inductance Simulator
Inductance L eq =CR 1 R 2 Henry

Quality factor:
Quality factor:
Non-inverting Integrator
The circuit shownbelow is a non-inverting integrator, where negative
feedback exists.
The analysis will be as follows.
or
Non-inverting Differentiator
It uses a single operational ampli er.

The main feature of the circuit is that the input impedance is purely
resistive.
resistive.
or
16. Applications of Operational ampli ers
Inverting Ampli er
Non-inverting Ampli er
Differentiator
Differential Ampli er
Voltage follower
Selective inversion circuit
Current-to-voltage converter
Active recti er
Integrator
Comparator
Comparator
Filters
Voltage comparator
Signal Ampli er
All the Best.

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7/29/2017 Amplifiers Study Notes for Electronics and Communication Engineering

GATE EE > GATE EE > Analog Circuits

Ampli ers Study Notes for Electronics and Communication

An ampli er is used to increase the amplitude of a signal waveform, without

Outside this usefulband, the gain of the ampli er is considered to be

3. Common Base Ampli er

Draw the diagramOne end at V =0, I =V

Draw the diagramOne end at V CB =0, I C =V CC /R L ; the other at V CB = V CC , I C =0.

) to a high load impedance (100 k and up).

The AC output power can be calculated from

The conversion or collector circuit e ciency is a measure of how successfully

AC is called as common base short circuit ampli cation factor.

4. The Common Emitter Ampli er

The maximum theoretical conversion e ciency of a classAn ampli erwith a

In normal ampli er operation, the transistors base emitter junction is always

5. Comparison between Three Transistor Con gurations

6. Biasing Circuit of Transistor

Voltage divider bias

Feedback Biasing Circuit Collector feedback

7.Input and Output Characteristics of Different Con guration

8.Feedback Ampli ers

A feedback ampli er is one which is used to provide voltage gain or current

where is feedback factor or feedback ratioV f is feedback voltage andV s is

Voltage series feedback

10. Some useful comparisons

Effect of Negative Feedback on Ampli er

Summary of Gain, Feedback, and Gain with Feedback

Effect of Feedback Connection on Input and Output Impedance

Where, = Feedback factor,A v = Voltage gain,A i = Current gain,G m =

11. Operational Ampli er

Op-Amp (Operational Ampli er) is a fundamental building block for handling

In nite bandwidth ( the frequency magnitude response is at everywhere

Op-Amp Classi cation

12. Differential Operational Ampli er

A differential operational ampli er has inverting and non-inverting inputs with

If a number of signals are connected to the inverting input, the output is

One way to increase input impedance to an ampli er utilizing the inverting

13.Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

The common mode rejection ratio is a gure of merit of a differential ampli er

Emitter-coupled differential ampli ers are the type of circuit used

Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve:

14. Non-linear Op-Amp Circuits

= recombination factor,V t = thermal voltage, andI 0 = reverse saturation

15. Determination of Grounded Load

Inductance L eq =CR 1 R 2 Henry

It uses a single operational ampli er.

16. Applications of Operational ampli ers

All the Best.

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