A PROJECT REPORT ON

Improvement of Solar Energy by Mirror Reflection Technique

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
____________________________________ ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
-------------------- (--------------)
--------------------- (---------------)
--------------------- (---------------)

DEPARTMENT OF _______________________ ENGINEERING

__________COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled Improvement of Solar

Energy by Mirror Reflection Technique is the work done by

_______________________________________________submitted in partial
fulfillment for the award of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.E)in
__________________________Engineering from______________ College of
Engineering affiliated to _________ University, Hyderabad .

________________ ____________
(Head of the department, ECE) (Assistant Professor)

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant
guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting
before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both research and
knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

______________, Department of ECE, our project guide, for his constant support,
encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable
suggestions.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either
directly or indirectly for the completion of this project.

3
 INDEX

Contents Page No.

Abstract

Introduction to Embedded systems

Microcontroller AT89S52.

Hardware Description.

Coding..

Software Description

Conclusion

References.

4
 ABSTRACT

Improvement of Solar Energy by Mirror Reflection Technique

To reduce the high cost of photovoltaic (PV) systems the new cost effective
mirror reflecting linear focus type solar energy concentrating system is developed. The
concentrator system consists of flat glass mirrors, placed under the different angles, and
focusing the sun light on to the solar sells mounted along the line. The developed PV
concentrator system has several advantages in comparison with widely used other
concentrating systems. It is mostly protected from environmental influences (wind,
dust, rain, hail). Due to the simplified structure of concentrating optics, the standard off-
the-shelf technologies enable low-cost manufacturing.The cost optimization method and
the computer program for new concentrating systems design is developed as well. The
program allows to design a PV system with the given output power, having the minimal
price.

The design can be used for cost effective PV solar energy concentrating
systems. The structure of new cost effective PV concentrator system is a mirror
reflecting linear focus type. The concentrator system consists of flat glass mirrors,
placed under the different angles, and focusing the sun light on to the solar sells
mounted along the line.

To determine the optimal concentration rate of mirror reflecting linear focus PV

concentrator systems, the cost optimization method (algorithm) is developed. The
method is based on the iteration of calculations of the cost of a concentrator system by
increasing the concentration rate in a small amount, starting from the one sun.

5
 Block Diagram :

Mirrors 12V 1.3Ah

Solar LEDs
Charge Battery
Reflection
Controller

Solar Panel

Brief Explanation :

We are using mirror reflection method for improving effieciency of solar energy.
The mirrors are arranged sidewise and it is adjusted such that solar panel gives
maximum power output. The rechargeable battery is charged through solar panel. We
are using basic solar charger controller circuit to charge the battery. The charge
controller circuit is designed with transistor driver and relay. Whenever battery is fully
charged, charging process is automatically stopped with the help of relay.

We are using LEDs array for power utilization. When battery gets discharged,
again charging process is started. We are using MOSFET based driver circuit for LEDs.

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 Circuit Diagram :

In circuit , we can see BC547 trasnistor driver and IRFZ44 MOSFET driver for
LEDs. When we give logic high to base of the transistor, MOSFET supply is off and
LEDs are off whereas when we give logic low (gnd) to transistor base, it does not
conduct and MOSFET conducts and LEDs are on. We have rectifier circuit here so we
can either give AC or DC supply for the board.

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 Relay Driver Circuit

In circuit, we can see transistor driver BC547 is used here to control 12V relay.
The battery gets charged through solar panel. We have used semiconductor diode to
restrict current to flow from solar panel to battery. Thus battery here will be load for solar
panel. We are giving battery supply for relay. Thus when battery has exact 12v relay
gets activated and charging process stops and whenever battery voltage falls below
12V relay is deactivated and charging process starts again. Thus this is simple charge
controller circuit. We are connecting one terminal of the battery through N/O and
common terminal of the relay.

8
 Introduction

Photovoltaic (PV) cells technologically represent a mature technology for energy

production but are still very expensive. The main reason preventing the one-sun PV
cells to be cost effective is the high price of the semiconductor grade silicon necessary
for their fabrication when a high efficiency is desired. One way to overcome this problem
is to suppress the factor high price using the concentrating type PVs. Up to now this
technology has not been exploited (although it needs 500 to 1000 times less crystalline
Si than conventional PV cells) for several reasons one of which is the cost of
concentrating optics. Indeed although mirrors are a relatively cheap material,
manufacturing of curved concentrating mirrors able to remain exposed outdoors and
sustain environmental degradation for a time period of the order of 20 years is
impossible. After a small fraction of this period mirrors must be replaces thus increasing
the cost of the produced energy. Additionally,the supporting structure and the sun-
tracking device must be designed for the expected wind speed during their 20-year or
so lifetime. Thus, the total cost of such a technical solution using concentrating mirrors
is prohibitive and leaves little hope to reduce it at an effective level.

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 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

This is most common voltage regulator that is still used in embedded designs. LM7805 voltage
regulator is a linear regulator. With proper heat sink these LM78xx types can handle even more than 1A
current. They also have Thermal overload protection, Short circuit protection.

This will connect at the output of rectifier to get constant Dc supply instead of ripple voltages. It mainly
consists of 3 pins:

1. Input voltage

2. Ground

3. Output voltage

For some devices we require 12V/9V/4V Dc supply at that time we go for 7812/7809/7804
regulator instead of 7805 regulator. It also have same feature and pins has 7805 regulator except output is
of 12V/9V/4V instead of 5V.

The general circuit diagram for total power supply to any embedded device is as shown below.

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RELAY:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts the coil current can be on or off,
so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw switches.

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230v ac mains circuit. There is
no electrically connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12v relay, but it can be as
much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most chips cannot provide this
current and transistor. Usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the
relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555timer IC is 200ma, so these devices can
supply relay coils directly without amplifications.

Relays usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have more sets of switch contacts, for example relays
with four sets of change over contacts are readily available.

Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.

The suppliers catalogue should show you relay connection. The coil will be obvious and it may
be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage spikes. When they are switched
off and this can be destroying transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage, we must connect a
protection diode across a relay coil.

The figure shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see the lever on the
being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switches contacts.

11
 NCC

NOC

POLE

COIL COIL

The relays switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC, and NO:

COM= common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.

NC=normally closed, COM is connected to this when relay is off.

NO=normally open, COM is connected to this when relay is no.

Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.

Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.

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Choosing a Relay:

You need to consider several features in choosing a relay.

1. Physical size and pin arrangement:

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensures that its dimension and
pin arrangement are suitable.

2. Coil voltage:
The relays coil voltage rating and resistance must suite the circuit powering the relay coil.
Many relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12v supply but 5v and 12v relays are readily
available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is little lower than rated value.

3. Coil resistance:

The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. We can use ohms
law to calculate:

Relay coil current= Supply voltage/ Coil resistance

For example: A 12v supply relay with a coil resistance of 400ohms passes a current of 30ma. This is ok
for 555timer IC (maximum output current 200ma), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a
transistor to amplify the current.

4. Switch ratings (voltage and current):

The relays switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. We will need to
check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for
example:5A AT 24VDC OR 125V AC.

5. Switch contacts arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc):

Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as single pole changeover (SPCO) or double
pole changeover(DPCO).
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Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and CD, transistors can only switch CD.

Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.

Relay are a better choice for switching large currents (>5a).

Relay can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second.
Relays use more power due to the current following through their coil. Relays require more
current than many chips can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the
current for the relays coil.

14
RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by producing a

voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and
films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can dissipate.
Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical
resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and
above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the
resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits.
Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be
physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

15
 A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.

The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A

16
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of
the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing
of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilohm (1 k =
103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

17
PUSH BUTTONS

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for
controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material,
usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand,
so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even many un-
biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to return to their un-pushed state.
Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the button, such as press, depress, mash, and
punch.

Uses:

In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a mechanical
linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a stop
button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual
operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for control.

Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the operator
will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the machine or
process and green for starting the machine or process.

Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to
facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and are
mandated by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large mushroom shape
can also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for their work and could
not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators and users in industrial or
commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the attention of the user and to

18
provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is included into the center of the
pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.

The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the back of
the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when pushed will
cause the process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact designed into the
operation or process will close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action of pushing the button
caused the resultant process or action to start.

In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a military or
government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.

Push to ON button:

Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become connected.
This makes the switching operation using the push button.

19
 IN4007

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.

1. Maximum forward current capacity

2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market are as
follows:
Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have maximum
reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1 Amp.

Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more
capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used
in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be
used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by
company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes
IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

Features

Wide supply voltage range 3.0V to 15V

High noise immunity 0.45 VCC (typ.)

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 LED

LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out of silicon.
What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that are added to the
silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.

When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light bulbs
produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons directly and not via
heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Typical LED circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or electronic
equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional lighting technologies.
Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LEDS

LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most common,
estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light
emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices
have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages, such as those found on blinkers and on
cell phone keypads. The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.

21
 BC547

The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a general-
purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

The BC547 transistor is an NPN bipolar transistor, in which the letters "N" and "P" refer
to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar
transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in
semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation. NPN transistors consist of a layer
of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the
base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an NPN
transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter. The arrow in the NPN
transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow
when the device is in forward active mode. One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for
the NPN transistor is "not pointing in." An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with
a shared anode region. In typical operation, the emitter base junction is forward biased and the
base collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive
voltage is applied to the base emitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated
carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing
thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse")
through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low
concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because
the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base.
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 MOSFET

The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS

FET) is a device used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The basic principle of the
device was first proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. In MOSFETs, a voltage on the
oxide-insulated gate electrode can induce a conducting channel between the two other contacts
called source and drain. The channel can be of n-type or p-type and is accordingly called an
nMOSFET or a pMOSFET. It is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog
circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.

A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is generally a line for
the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right angles and then bending back at right
angles into the same direction as the channel. Sometimes three line segments are used for
enhancement mode and a solid line for depletion mode.
Comparison of enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along with
JFET symbols (drawn with source and drain ordered such that higher voltages appear higher on
the page than lower voltages).

P-channel

N-channel

JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET enh (no bulk) MOSFET dep

23
 For the symbols in which the bulk, or body, terminal is shown, it is here shown internally
connected to the source. This is a typical configuration, but by no means the only important
configuration. In general, the MOSFET is a four-terminal device, and in integrated circuits many
of the MOSFETs share a body connection, not necessarily connected to the source terminals of
all the transistors.

MOSFET operation
A traditional metaloxidesemiconductor (MOS) structure is obtained by growing a layer
of silicon dioxide on top of a silicon substrate and depositing a layer of metal or polycrystalline
silicon (the latter is commonly used). As the silicon dioxide is a dielectric material, its structure
is equivalent to a planar capacitor, with one of the electrodes replaced by a semiconductor.
When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of charges
in the semiconductor. If we consider a P-type semiconductor, a positive voltage, VGB, from gate
to body (see figure) creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively charged holes away from
the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a carrier-free region of immobile,
negatively charged acceptor ions. If VGB is high enough, a high concentration of negative charge
carriers forms in an inversion layer located in a thin layer next to the interface between the
semiconductor and the insulator.
An example of using the MOSFET as a switch

MOSFET as switch

24
 In this circuit arrangement an Enhancement-mode N-channel MOSFET is being used to
switch a simple lamp "ON" and "OFF" (could also be an LED). The gate input voltage VGS is
taken to an appropriate positive voltage level to turn the device and the lamp either fully "ON",
(VGS = +ve) or a zero voltage level to turn the device fully "OFF", (VGS = 0).
If the resistive load of the lamp was to be replaced by an inductive load such as a coil or
solenoid, a "Flywheel" diode would be required in parallel with the load to protect the MOSFET
from any back-emf. Above shows a very simple circuit for switching a resistive load such as a
lamp or LED. But when using power MOSFET's to switch either inductive or capacitive loads
some form of protection is required to prevent the MOSFET device from becoming damaged.
Driving an inductive load has the opposite effect from driving a capacitive load. For
example, a capacitor without an electrical charge is a short circuit, resulting in a high "inrush" of
current and when we remove the voltage from an inductive load we have a large reverse voltage
build up as the magnetic field collapses, resulting in an induced back-emf in the windings of the
inductor.
For the power MOSFET to operate as an analogue switching device, it needs to be
switched between its "Cut-off Region" where VGS = 0 and its "Saturation Region" where VGS (on)
= +ve. The power dissipated in the MOSFET (PD) depends upon the current flowing through the
channel ID at saturation and also the "ON-resistance" of the channel given as RDS (on).

25
 CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and
quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.

26
 A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a
non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.

A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated

by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

27
 SOLAR CELL
A solar cell is an electronic device that produces electricity when light falls on it. The
light is absorbed and the cell produces dc voltage and current. The device has a positive and a
negative contact between which the voltage is generated and through which the current can flow.
You connect these contacts to whatever it is you want to power. Solar cells have no moving
parts. Effectively they take light energy and convert it into electrical energy in an electrical
circuit, exploiting a physical process known as the photovoltaic effect.

The discovery of the photovoltaic effect is credited to the French physicist, Edmond
Becquerel, in 1839. He found that by concentrating the sun's light on one side of a battery the
output current of the battery could be increased. This revolutionary discovery triggered the idea
that one could produce energy from light by an artificial process. In 1883 an American inventor
produced a solar cell from a material called selenium, but it was very inefficient. Selenium
became used in light-exposure meters for cameras, but not for power production.

It was not until the 1950s that practical solar cells were developed. In 1948 the transistor was
invented, at Bell Laboratories in the United States, and it was found that the same high quality silicon
wafers used for making transistors could be used to make solar cells. This work was published in 1954.
From 1958 onwards the cells were employed in the space race. Solar cells are still the only sensible
source of electrical power for space satellites, because they are in effect batteries that never run out.

28
 Initially solar cells were too expensive to be used in non-space (i.e. terrestrial)
applications, though Bell Telephone did demonstrate them for rural telephone systems. They are
a good idea for country areas that have no electricity supply network, of which there are many in
the Developing World, and for maritime applications (e.g. to power flashing lights on buoys). If
cells can be made cheap enough (and great efforts are being made to achieve this) they could
even replace our normal methods of making electricity, which are either polluting and/or non-
renewable (burning fossil fuels) or waste poses a long term environmental hazard (radioactive
waste from nuclear power plants). Solar cells produce no emissions and do not contribute to the
greenhouse effect, and the amount of energy available from the world's sunlight is far more than
we should ever need.

Individual solar cells are small and therefore not very powerful (though they can run
calculators and watches). More powerful supplies can be made by connecting many cells
together in a solar module. Modules are connected together to form solar panels, and in turn
panels are connected together to form solar arrays.

Efficiency
The efficiency of a solar cell is a measure of the proportion of the light hitting it that is actually
converted into electricity. If the cell were 100% efficient then it would turn all the incident light into
energy, but sadly this is impossible: the maximum allowed within the laws of physics is between 30% and
40%. Practical solar cells made from silicon wafers (monocrystalline silicon) can have an efficiency of
16% or so. Thin-film solar cells (e.g. amorphous silicon solar cells) have lower efficiencies than this, at
least for commercial cells, but are much cheaper to produce.

Around mid-day on a clear summer's day the sunlight falling on the earth has a power density of
about 1 kW (1000 watts) for every square meter of surface; (this is typically the power given off by a one-
bar electric fire). A solar module measuring 0.30 m 0.45 m has an area of 0.135 m, and therefore when
you point it at the sun the light falling on it has a power of 0.135 1000 watts = 135 watts. If the module
is 10% efficient, the power available from it is 10% of this, i.e. 13.5 watts. The module is stated to have
an output of 13.5 watts peak, i.e. at the peak sunlight of 1000 watts per square meter. The output will be
less at other times of the day, in cloudy conditions, or if the module is in the shade or not pointing directly
at the sun. In space the output is higher because the solar radiation there is stronger, not being affected by
the earths atmosphere. It has a power density of 1365 watts per square metre.
29
How does the light intensity effect the solar cell?
As the intensity of light falls, because of clouds or time of day, solar cell output also falls.
The cell's current is more sensitive to the light intensity than the voltage is. Roughly speaking if
you halve the light intensity you halve the current; but the voltage falls only slightly.

The light intensity can also be reduced just by twisting the cell. The output of a solar cell
is at its maximum when it is perpendicular to the incident light beam, i.e. when it is pointed at
the sun. If you now change the angle, the cell intercepts less of the light beam; however, this
smaller amount of light is still spread out over the same area of cell, so the light intensity on the
cell is reduced.

30
 INSIDE A SOLAR CELL - HOW DOES IT WORK?

Photons
Photons are what make up the light we see. Light is an electromagnetic wave that is transmitted
in tiny pulses of energy. These tiny pulses of energy are referred to as photons.

Semiconductors
All substances can be arranged in order of their ability to conduct electrical charges. Those at the
top of the list are called conductors, and those at the bottom are called insulators. Whether a
substance is classified as a conductor or an insulator depends on its interatomic bonding and on
how tightly the atoms of the substance hold their electrons. The interatomic bonding in some
materials, such as silicon, is intermediate between that of a good conductor and that of a good
insulator.

Copper, iron,
Rubber, glass, wood Silicon, germainium
aluminium, gold

Poor conductors Semi-conductors Good conductors

Good insulators Poor insulators

Most metals are good conductors, most non-metals are poor conductors.

Silicon and germanium belong to group of materials called semiconductors. They are
good insulators in their pure crystalline form at very low temperature. Conductivity increases
with temperature or when they are exposed to light Conductivity can be increased tremendously
when even one atom in ten million is replaced with an impurity that adds or removes an electron
from the crystal structure. The chips used in electronics are made of semiconductor materials,
and so are photovoltaic cells. The most common semiconductor is silicon. Semiconductor
materials will also interact with light (see Figure 1). A photon hitting a silicon atom can give an
electron within the atom enough energy to leave it and move off through the structure. The
negatively charged electron leaves a positively charged hole (a position once occupied by an
electron) in its place; so the photon has created an electron/hole pair. An electron orbiting a
31
surrounding atom near to a hole can move into the hole leaving a new hole in it's place; in this
way the positively charged holes can also move through the structure. In the presence of an
electric field the electrons move in one direction and the holes in the other, because they have
opposite electric charges with holes behaving in nearly all respects as positive particles. In
semiconductor materials, electric current is the flow of oppositly charged electrons and holes.

The Photovoltaic (PV) Effect

Without an electric field to separate the electrons and holes created by the light they would soon
recombine and there would be no net current. To avoid this a photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is a
wafer or thin film of semiconductor material which is arranged to have an internal electric field,
pointing from the top surface of the wafer or film to the bottom surface (or vice versa). An
electrical contact, usually aluminium, covers the bottom surface. The top surface also has an
electrical contact, but this one is transparent so as to let in the light. When the silicon (or other
semiconductor material) in the PV cell absorbs light, electron/hole pairs are generated. Because
of the internal electric field the electrons move to one contact and holes to the other thus building
up a voltage. The cell acts as a voltage source. If you connect the two contacts with a wire an
electric current will flow in the wire; this is known as the "short-circuit current" of the PV cell;
you can measure it with an ammeter. If you don't connect the contacts the electrons and holes
build up on opposite surfaces of the cell, producing a voltage between the contacts that you can
measure with a voltmeter; this is called the "open-circuit voltage" of the PV cell.

32
The internal field; p-n junctions
To produce the necessary internal electric field we make use of two types of "doped"
semiconductor material; these are called "n-type" and "p-type" material.

n-type silicon contains a small percentage of phosphorus atoms. These fit quite well into
the structure of the silicon, except that each has one more electron than each silicon atom. These
extra electrons escape from the phosphorus and are free to move round the structure; what they
leave behind are positively charged phosphorus ions, (which are fixed in the structure and can't
move). The phosphorus is called an n-type dopant because of the negative electrons it adds to
the silicon; the resulting material is called n-type silicon because of the electrons it contains
(though you should remember it contains an equal number of positive fixed charges).

p-type silicon contains boron atoms. These fit quite well into the structure of the silicon,
except that each has one fewer electrons than each silicon atom. They therefore grab electrons
from the silicon, creating holes that are free to move round the structure; what the holes leave
behind are negatively charged boron ions, (because of the extra electron they've grabbed); the
boron ions are fixed in the structure and can't move. The material is called p-type because of the
positive holes it contains; it also contains an equal number of negative fixed charges. Boron is
said to be a p-type dopant in silicon.

Now consider a wafer of silicon that has excess boron in the top half (p-type silicon) and
excess phosphorus in the bottom half (n-type silicon). In the middle there is what is called a pn-
junction, where the material changes from p-type to n-type. On the n-type side of the junction
there will be electrons and fixed positive charge (phosphorus ions); on the p-type side there will
be holes and fixed negative charge (boron ions). Because there are many electrons in n-type and
very few in p-type material the electrons from the n-side will tend to spread into the p-side,
leaving some net positive charge on the n-side (because of the positive phosphorus ions); this
positive charge will stop the electrons diffusing too far into the p-type material and is further
increased by holes spreading from the p-side, (which also leaves negative charge on the p-side,
because of the negative boron ions). The result is fixed positive electric charges on the n-type
side of the junction and negative fixed charges on the p-type side. This produces an internal
electric field pointing across the junction, which is precisely what is needed for a PV cell.
33
 This accelerates electrons from electron-hole pairs separated by light from the p-type
material into the n-type material where there are many electrons and few holes and so not much
chance of recombining. Similarly the junction accelerates holes from electron-hole pairs in the
n-type material to the p-type material where they are similarly unlikely to recombine.

34
Solar cells
A solar cell is a PV cell designed to convert sunlight to electricity. The simplest cells (Figure 1a)
consist of a circular silicon wafer with a pn-junction sandwiched in the middle, a metallic bottom
contact (e.g. aluminium) and a transparent top contact (either a transparent conducting oxide or a
grid-like metal structure). Solar panels with cells like this have played a vital role in space
technology since the late '50s, powering space satellites. They are expensive to produce because
silicon wafers are expensive to produce (mainly because they are high-purity single crystals) but
their cost was
Photon
unimportant in the Photon

space race. Photon

FRONT CONTACT GRID

hole
SILICON CONTAINING BORON AS DOPANT
p-region
electron


hole
SILICON CONTAINING PHOSPHOROUS AS DOPANT
n-region
electron

BACK CONTACT PLATE

Crystalline silicon PV cell

In recent years there has been a continuous search for cheaper forms of PV cell, economical
enough to be used in applications here on earth (terrestrial applications). Attempts have been
made to use cheaper forms of silicon, of lower quality than that used in computer chips, despite
the poorer cell efficiencies that result. One possibility has been to replace the single-crystal
wafer by polycrystalline squares, (consisting of many small grains of crystalline material). A
more radical approach is to use amorphous silicon, having no crystalline structure at all. This
material has the advantage of being much more light-absorbing than crystalline silicon: a thin
film on a suitable substrate only a few microns thick (a thousandth of a millimetre) absorbs most
of the sunlight falling on it; by contrast crystalline cells have to be about 100 microns and in
practice are 0.5mm thick. This means that you need far less amorphous silicon to make the cells,
35
and they can even be made flexible, whereas crystalline cells are very fragile. The electrons and
holes don't move so easily in amorphous silicon, but this is partly compensated for by the fact
that they don't have to move as far (because the cell is so thin). Cell efficiencies are perhaps only
half those in crystalline silicon, but the amorphous cells potentially cost much less than half for
the same surface area, so they seem to be the most economical choice at the moment.

Manufacture of amorphous silicon solar cells

The manufacture of amorphous silicon cells (e.g. by UNI-SOLAR) is very different from that
of crystalline cells. No wafers are involved. Instead the silicon is deposited as a thin film on a
substrate, usually either stainless steel or a glass sheet covered with a layer of tin oxide acting as
a transparent contact.

As shown in Figure 2, the substrate is placed in a steel chamber which is evacuated (i.e. all the
air is pumped out); a small amount of the gas silane (a gaseous compound of silicon and
hydrogen) is then bled in through a valve. Two metal plates within the chamber connect to a
radio-frequency power supply which sets up a purple-coloured glow discharge (sometimes called
a plasma) in the silane gas; electrons collide with silane molecules and knock away the hydrogen
atoms, leading to the silicon atoms depositing in a thin amorphous film on the substrate (mixed
with some of the hydrogen atoms, which in fact turn out to be beneficial for the cell). Substrates
used are often 300 mm wide, but in principle they could be larger, limited only by the size of the
deposition chamber.

To make n-type amorphous silicon the same procedure is followed, except that the silane is
mixed with one or two per cent of the gas phosphine, a compound of phosphorus and hydrogen.
To make p-type amorphous silicon the silane is mixed with diborane, a compound of boron and
hydrogen. Either separate chambers or sequential gas streams are used for making each type.

36
 Photon
Photon

SUPERSTRATE (not necessary if stainless steel back contact used)

Transparent front contact (tin oxide or indium-tin oxide)

Figure 1b: p-layer AMORPHOUS SILICON CONTAINING BORON

amorphous silicon electron

electron
AMORPHOUS SILICON
PV cell INTRINSIC
LAYER

hole hole

n-layer AMORPHOUS SILICON CONTAINING PHOSPHOROUS

Aluminium
Photon back contact or stainless steel

37
Unfortunately electron-hole recombination of n- or p-type amorphous silicon to light is very
high. To get round this problem the cell is made mostly from undoped amorphous silicon (i.e.
using just silane): the thin film of undoped amorphous silicon is sandwiched between far thinner
layers of n- and p-type amorphous silicon, as shown in Figure 1b. The n- and p-layers serve to
produce the internal field across the undoped layer, but almost all the light is absorbed in the
undoped layer. (The undoped material is referred to as intrinsic, and the cell is said to have a p-
i-n structure, as opposed to the p-n structure of crystalline silicon cells).

The process used for depositing amorphous silicon lends itself well to mass production
techniques. The substrate (with its electrical contact layer if necessary) passes into a chamber
and receives the n-type deposition, then into a chamber receiving the undoped deposition, and
then to chamber receiving the p-type deposition. (This is simpler to automate than cutting and
polishing wafers).

The PV industry benefits from technological developments in other fields. The development of
silicon coated drums for colour photocopiers is now applied to the production of continuous
metal strips covered with amorphous silicon. If the substrate is flexible stainless steel (as with
Plugging into the Sun laminates) that can be wound into a large roll, it is possible to have a
continuous roll-to-roll production process for amorphous silicon solar cells, (Figure 3). The
stainless steel sheet unwinds from the supply roll and passes though cleaning procedures and the
chambers for n-type, intrinsic, and p-type deposition before reaching the take-up roll. The
resulting cells have the additional advantage of being flexible.

Many manufacturers base their cells on glass substrates. Normally tin-oxide-coated glass is used
since the tin oxide serves as a transparent contact. The p-layer is deposited, followed by the i-
layer and then the n-layer. Aluminium is deposited to form the back contact. In this form of
structure the cell is illuminated through the glass and is protected by it (it is therefore known as a
superstrate).

A single silicon solar cell produces an open-circuit voltage of about 0.5volt. There are
amorphous silicon solar modules that are in fact single cells, producing a low voltage and a
correspondingly high current. However, it is far more common for the module to be divided into

38
individual strip-shaped cells, which are arranged to be connected in series to produce a working
voltage of around 14 volts, suitable for charging 12-volt lead-acid batteries.

39
We have dealt with the main principles of amorphous silicon solar cell production. There is a
mass of subsidiary detail which is too extensive to cover here. Cell efficiencies can be increased
to some extent by including a second p-i-n structure under the first, using an alloy of amorphous
silicon with germanium. This absorbs a longer wavelength part of the solar spectrum. This is
called a tandem cell or multi-junction cell.

Spectrum-splitting
cell, constructed of
three separate p-i-n
type, amorphous
semiconductor solar
sub-cells, each with a
different spectral
response
characteristic. In this
way, the cell can
convert the different
visible and near
infrared wavelengths
of sunlight with
optimal efficiency.

40
How a tandem (two layer) amorphous silicon PV cell is made.

thicker intrinsic layer chamber thicker intrinsic layer chamber

p-layer chamber p-layer

chamber
n-layer chamber n-layer chamber

In Roll Out Roll

41
 How a triple (three layer) UNI-SOLAR amorphous silicon PV cell is made.

thicker intrinsic layer chamber thicker intrinsic layer chamber

p-layer chamber p-layer chamber

n-layer chamber n-layer chamber

In Roll Out Roll

n-layer chamber p-layer chamber

thicker intrinsic layer chamber

Adding a third p-i-n structure forms a triple-junction cell. (In production terms this is just a
matter of additional chambers and their gas supplies; see Figure 3b). The right sort of
roughening of the cell surface leads to less reflection from the cell surface, and to corresponding
increases in cell efficiency. The front contact needs careful design, and the whole cell must be
suitably encapsulated and protected against the weather. If everything is done right there is no
reason why the cells should not last for thirty years or more.

42
Deposition of amorphous silicon

How the Plasma Chambers Work

The plasma chambers suspend the silicon and the phosphorus or boron molecules in a gaseous
state. This mixture is pushed into a chamber which has electrodes at the top and bottom. When
the electrodes are charged an electric field is produced between them. The electric field removes
some of the electrons from the mixture so creating a gas of positively charged ions, a plasma. A
stainless steel or glass sheet with an indium/tin oxide layer, is passed into the chamber and
between the electrodes. The plasma-like gas deposits charged particles on to the uncharged
surface of the steel or glass substrate. Depending upon the chemical nature of the gaseous
mixture fed into the chamber, one of the three layers which make up the photovoltaic cell will be
formed. The thickness of the layers depends on the speed at which the substate passes through
the chamber, and the size of the chamber.

Excited molecules in a
gaseous state containing:
Silicon and either boron (p- Electrode 1
layer) or phosphrous (n-
layer)

Regular layer of
deposited silicon
and >1% doping

material


Substrate (stainless

steel or glass)
passing through

chamber

Electrode 2

43
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards may be covered in two topics namely

1) Technology

2) Design

Introduction to printed circuit boards:

It is called PCB in short printed circuit consists of conductive circuit pattern

Applied to one or both sides of an insulating base, depending upon that, it is called single sided PCB or
double-sided PCB.(SSB and DSB).

Conductor materials available are silver, brass, aluminium and copper. Copper is most widely
used. The thickness of conducting material depends upon the current carrying capacity of circuit. Thus a
thicker copper layer will have more current carrying capacity.

The printed circuit boards usually serves three distinct functions.

1) it provides mechanical support for the components mounted on it.

2) It provides necessary electrical interconnections.
3) It acts as heat sink that is provides a conduction path leading to removal of the heat
generated in the circuit.

44
Advantages of PCB:

1) When a number of identical assemblies are required. PCBs provide cost saving because once a
layout is approved there is no need to check the circuit every time.

2) For large equipments such as computers, the saving on checking connections or wires is
substantial.

3) PCBs have controllable and predictable electrical and mechanical properties.

4) A more uniform product is produced because wiring errors are eliminated.

5) The distributed capacitances are constant from one production to another.

6) Soldering is done in one operation instead of connecting discrete components by wires.

7) The PCB construction lands itself for automatic assembly.

8) Spiral type of inductors may be printed.

9) Weight is less.

10) It has miniaturization potential.

11) It has reproducible performance.

12) All the signals are accessible for testing at any point along conductor track.

45
Advantages & Disadvantages

Solar energy is free and natural source of energy. The efficiency can be
improved by simple arragement by using reflecting mirrors.

The initial cost of investment is high.

46
 Conclusion

The developed new cost effective mirror reflecting type PV solar energy
concentrator system has several advantages in comparison with well known systems. It
is mostly protected from environmental influences (wind,dust, rain, hail) and has the
simple structure. Due to the simplified structure of concentrating optics, the standard off-
the-shelf technologies enable low-cost manufacturing. The developed optimization
method and computer program allows to design the cost effective flat mirror reflecting
linear focus PV solar energy concentrating systems.

47
 References

[1] Stone K., Garboushian V., Hayden H. Field

Performance and Reliability Issues of High Concentration
PV Systems. 19th European PVSEC, Paris, 2004.

[2] Garboushian V. Continuous Installation of

Concentrating PV in the Southwest, 1st ICSEC, New
Orleans, 2002.

[3] Rumyantsev V., Chalov A., Ionova E., Larionov V.,

Andreev V. Concentrator PV Modules with Multi-Junction
Cells and Primary/Secondary Refractive Optical
Elements. 19th European PVSEC, Paris, 2004.

[4] Fraas L., McConnell B. High Power Density

Photovoltaics. Renewable Energy World. v. 5, n. 5, 2002.

[5] www.edtekinc.com/Products/.../EDTEK_SolarCon.htm

[6] Luque J.C., Sala G., Arboiro J.C., Zamorano A.,

Minano J.C., Dramsch C. (Instituto de Energia
Solar.Universidad Politecnica de Madrid), Bruton T.,
Cunningham D. (BP Solar. Middlesex, U.K.) The
EUCLIDES Prototype: An Efficient Parabolic Trough for
PV Concentration.

[7] Vardanyan R.R. Concentrator of Solar Energy. Patent

of Armenia No 1739 A2, March, 15, 2006.

48