This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been

fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2016.2624272, IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs

High-Efficiency Wireless Power Transfer System

for Electric Vehicle Applications
Yao-Ching Hsieh, Zhong-Rong Lin, Ming-Cheng Chen, Hsin-Che Hsieh, Yu-Chen Liu

Huang-Jen Chiu, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract In this paper, a high efficiency WPT system for
electric vehicle charging application is studied and implemented.
Series-series resonant topology with RF feedback design is
adopted as the wireless power transfer DC-DC stage due to the
advantages of circuit simplicity, easy analysis and control. A
500W laboratory prototype is built and tested to verify the
feasibility of the proposed design. According to the experimental
results, high wall-to- battery efficiency and unity power factor can
be achieved over an air gap of 15 cm and maximum sliding
distance of 10 cm under various power conditions and universal
input voltage from 90VAC to 264VAC.
Index TermsWireless Power Transfer, Electric Vehicle,
Series-Series Resonant Topology, Synchronous Rectification.
result in large equivalent leakage inductance [5-9]. In order to
transfer power effectively and efficiently, resonant
compensation must be used to overcome the inherent low
coupling and the resulting large leakage inductance [9-18].
Basic compensation topologies for resonant WPT system
include series-series (SS), series-parallel (SP), parallel-series
(PS), and parallel-parallel (PP) networks [6, 8, 9-11]. The
loosely coupled primary and secondary coils of wireless power
transfer system can be modeled as coupled inductors, as in Fig.
1(a) [5-9].
M
M
(Mutual Inductance) I2
I1 (Mutual Inductance) I2
I1

L1 L2
I. INTRODUCTION L1 L2 ZL
Zs

W PT technology has numerous inherent advantages over V12=jMI2 V21=jMI1 Zr V21=jMI1

conventional means of power transfer, thus has received

much attention in the past decade and has been proposed to (a) (b)
Ideal
apply to a wide range of applications, ranging from low power Lkp Transformer Lks
biomedical implants (several watts) electrical vehicle charger
(several kilowatts) to railway vehicles (several megawatts) with Lm
efficiency up to 95% or higher in some prototype systems [1-4].
Electric power can be transferred across air with a verity of n1:n2
means, such as capacitive coupling, magnetic coupling, (c)
Fig. 1 (a) WPT coils modeled as coupled inductor, (b) Secondary side
microwave, laser or ultrasound. However, resonant magnetic impedance reflected to primary side, and (c) WPT coils modeled as transformer
coupling seems to be the most practical and promising mean to with leakage inductance
date and most medium to high power WPT systems built to date The coupling coefficient is in direct proportion with mutual
are based on resonant magnetic coupling. In this paper, a inductance between two coils.
wireless charging system for lightweight electric vehicle is M
designed, built and tested. k (1)
L1L 2
Magnetic WPT systems rely on magnetic field coupling to
Secondary side impedance can be reflected to primary side
transfer electric power between two or more magnetically
to get Fig. 1(b). The reflected impedance is
coupled coils across relatively large air gap. Though
2 M 2
conventional transformers also rely on the same principle Zr (2)
(magnetic coupling) to transfer power between primary and Zs
secondary side, there are significant differences. Conventional Wireless power transfer coils can also be modeled as
transformers have very high (close to unity) coupling transformer with (relatively large) leakage inductance, as in Fig.
coefficients between primary and secondary coils/windings, 1(c) [9-11, 15-17]. These two models are electrically and
while WPT systems have much lower (usually 0.05~0.2) mathematically equivalent. The relationship between these two
coupling coefficient between primary and secondary, which models is shown in (3) ~ (5) [10, 11, 17, 19].
M
Lm (3)
Manuscript received September 09, 2016, revised October 05, n
2016; accepted Oct 21, 2016. This work was supported in part M
L kp L1 (4)
by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan through n
grant number NSC 103-2221-E-011-064-MY3. Paper no. Lks L2 nM (5)
TCAS-II-00987-2016.

1549-7747 (c) 2016 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2016.2624272, IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs

According to [19], any real number n will satisfy (3) ~ (5) 1

X cs (12)
mathematically. However, n is usually selected as the physical j2fC s
turns ratio of transformer or WPT coil [19]:
n L2 Load
n 2 (6) Vin(AC) Bridgeless
PFC
L1 Air
Gap
L2 or
n1 L1 Battery
Cp Cs
Synchronous
Gate Driver Rectification
II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION Controller
V/I
Fig. 2 gives the overview of developed WPT charging TMS320F28035 TMS320F28035
Sensor
system for electric vehicle applications. The primary and nRF24L01+ nRF24L01+
secondary sides are controlled by two Texas Instruments (Rx Mode) (Tx Mode)
Primary Side Secondary Side
TMS320F28035 digital signal processor (DSP) chips. The Fig. 2 Block diagram of the developed WPT charging system.
battery voltage and charging current are sensed to realize
constant current (CC)/ constant voltage (CV) charging schemes. Table 1 Coil and System Parameters @ 15 cm Air Gap
The wireless feedback communication from the secondary side L1 (Primary inductance) 720 H
L2 (Secondary Inductance) 23 H
to primary side is via a RF module. Output voltage/ current M (Mutual Inductance) 28 H (no misalignment)
control is done by frequency modulation of WPT DC/DC stage. 18.5 H (10cm misalignment)
AC input voltage is converted to 400VDC by bridgeless PFC Lm (Magnetizing Inductance) 217 H (no misalignment)
stage, then converted to AC high frequency square wave by 143 H (10cm misalignment)
Lkp (Primary Leakage Inductance) 503 H (no misalignment)
full-bridge inverter and fed into the primary resonant tank. In 577 H (10cm misalignment)
this paper, series-series resonant compensation topology is Lks (Secondary Leakage Inductance) 19.4 H (no misalignment)
adopted due to circuit simplicity and low component count. 20.8 H (10cm misalignment)
N2:N1 (Physical turns ratio) 4:31
Series-series topology has the characteristic that the voltage Cp (Primary Capacitor) 1.5nF
transfer ratio is constant, solely depends on the turns ratio of Cs (Secondary Capacitor) 39 nF
WPT coils and independent of load if operates at resonant Note: Coil dimension is 50 cm50 cm
frequency of leakage inductance and compensation capacitance. Input voltage : 400 V, Output voltage 48 V (WPT DC-DC Stage)
This is advantageous if constant output voltage is desired.
Cp Lkp Lks Cs
However, this may not hold true under misalignment condition
since equivalent leakage inductance and magnetizing +
Vin(AC) Lm RL Vout
inductance may change significantly under misalignment
condition. This can be compensated only to a limited extent by 51:n 3 3
4.5 175 10 200 10
varying the switching frequency. Variable frequency control is (a)4
incapable of maintaining constant output voltage if the 6 6 3.5
( )
Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,4.6
1:n n 3
misalignment is too large. Figs. 3(a) and 4(a) shows the 6 6
+2.52 RL
( )
Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,46
equivalent circuit and the voltage gain (Gv) versus frequency Vin(AC) Lm RL V1.5 Vin(AC) Lm RL =
n2
n out
curve of series-series resonant compensation topology that can 1
0.5 5
be derived as (7). System parameters of the proposed WPT (b) 0 4.5
(c)175 103 200 10
3

system are listed in Table 1. Fig. 3 (a) Equivalent circuit of series-series 1.5 10topology
5
1.6884 101.875 5(b) simplified
102.063
5
10equivalent
5
2.25 10
5

circuit at resonant frequency (c) load 6 resistance

6 3.5reflected fto primary side.
Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,4.6
vo 5
3 3 3
Gv (7) 5
4.5
175
175kHz
10
3
200
200 kHz
10
3
6
n 450
405
6
4.5
2.5 175
175
kHz
10
3 175kHz
200
200 10
10 3 200 10
4.5
5

vin 4
Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10
360 ,46
4
2 4
6n 6 3.5
6 6 3.5 Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10315 ,4.6 1.5 6 6 3.5
X cs + X Lks + R L 3
( )
@ 46 Load 6 n
X Lm
Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,4.6 6 1 Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,4.6 5
3 270 3
( ( ))
Im Z f ,505 10 , 215 10 ,4.6
n in
4.6 Load 6 2.5 n
4.5
n2
@ 6 0.5
6 6
2.5
G v6f ,505 10 6 ,215 225
10 ,46 20 6 6 2.5
4
( ) ( ( ))
Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,46 2 Im Zin f ,505 10 ,215 10 n,46 180 Gv f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,46 2
1.5
X cs + X Lks + R L n
1.5 135 1.510
5
1.6510 G 1.8
5
10
5 6n
1.95 10
5 6
2.110
5
3.5
,4.6 1.5
2.2510
5
+ X Lm 1 v f ,505 10 ,215 10
@ 46 fLoad 3
n2 R 1 90 0.5 n 1
n L 0.5 45 450
0 3@ 4.6 Load 6
f ,505 10 ,215
Gv 10 10
63
10 ,46
2.5
0.5
X cs + X Lks + R L X cs + X +R 0 405 175 200 2
X Lm
0 5 5 5 5 50 5
Lks L 150 kHz 5 5 5 5 5 kHz 5 150 kHz 5360
225 1.5 10
5
1.65 10
5
1.8
5
10 n
1.95 10
5225 kHz 5
2.1 10
1.5 2.25 5
10
2 1.5 101.65 101.8 101.95 102.1 102.25 10 1.5 101.65 101.8 101.95 102.1 10f2.25 10 1.5 10 1.65
X Lkp + X cp n G
Fig.4. (a) v of proposed f
series-series
6 6 WPT
315
450 (b) Imagery f
part of input3
1
,4.6 270
3 0.5
X cs + X Lks + R L 450 n 3
Im Zin f ,505 10
3
,215 10
405 175 10 200 10 4500
+ X Lm impedance
405 of proposed series-series
175 10 200
10 6 WPT 6 225
360 405
n2 Im Zin f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,46 180
5
1.510 1.65
360 315 360
135
X Lm j2fL m
6 6
315 Im Zin f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,4.6 270
315
90 450
6
(8)
6
,4.6 270 III. D ESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 6 6

( ( ))
Im Zin f ,505 10 ,215 10
6 6 225 Im Zin f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,4.6 270
45 405
225 Im Zin f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,46 180
225
X Lkp j2fL kp
6 6 6 6
0 360
( ( (9) )) In a series-series resonant WPT system, in order to transfer
Im Zin f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,46 180 Im Zin f ,505 10 ,215 10 ,46 180
135 5 5 5 5 5 5
135 1.5 10 1.65 10 1.8 10 1.95 10 2.1 315
10 2.2510
90 6 6 135

X Lks j2fL ks power effectively at the presence of relatively large air gap and
90 Im Zin f ,505 10
f
,215 10 ,4.6 270
(10) 45
45

90
225
leakage inductance, capacitors at both sides are used to cancel
0
0
5
Im Zin f ,505 10
5 5
6
,215 10
6

5
,46 180
45
5 5
1 1.510 1.6510 1.810 1.9510 2.110 0 2.2510
X cp (11)
out leakage inductance and improve power transfer efficiency.
5 5 5
1.5 101.65 101.8 101.95 102.1 102.25 10
5 5 5
f
135 5
1.5
90 10 1.65
j2fC p f
It is desirable to operate at or close to resonant frequency, as 45
0
shown in (13), at which leakage inductance and compensation 1.510
5
1.65
capacitance cancel out each other completely, eliminating the

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2016.2624272, IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs

effect of leakage inductance and power transfer capability is
unrestricted by leakage inductance. In other words, (14) and (15)
hold true if operate at resonant frequency [10-11, 15-17,
20-21].
1 1
(13)
L kp C p L ks C s
1 switches are not grounded and requires more sophisticated
jL kp 0 (14)
jC p
1 replaced two low side Schottky diode with MOSFE and does
jL ks 0 (15)
jC s
The equivalent circuit of series-series compensation
topology can be simplified to Fig. 3(b) if operates at resonant
frequency. Fig. 3(b) can be further simplified to Fig. 3(c) if load
is moved to primary side. In Fig. 3(c), both Lm and reflected
R 6(a), 6(b) and 6(c) respectively show the Schottky diode bridge
load resistance 2L are fed by AC voltage source from primary
n
switching circuit and will sink current. However, only reflected
load resistance consumes real power and transfers power to
load. Current flows into Lm contribute to reactive power,
increases the apparent power output of the AC source but does
not transfer power to load. This reactive power increases
conduction and copper loss because it causes excessive current,
and should be minimized. The current flow from an AC voltage
source into an inductor is in reverse proportion with frequency.
So in order to minimize reactive power caused by Lm, operation
frequency should be as high as possible. However, as frequency
increases, skin effect loss and core loss increase as well. The
operating frequency range selected by the prototype design of
this paper is 175 kHz~200 kHz. The resonant frequency is
designed at 182 kHz, with corresponding voltage gain equals to
G
turns ratio, or v equals to unity.
n
It is well known that resonant converters must operate in
inductive region to achieve ZVS. The imagery part of the input
impedance of the proposed WPT resonant network shown in
Fig. 4(b) is always positive, indicating that the proposed
resonant network is inductive in the designed frequency range
and load range, thus guaranteeing ZVS. In practical design,
of simplicity, low cost and high reliability, while synchronous
rectification technique can be used to significantly reduce
conduction loss. The low output voltage and large output
current (10.4 A at full load) of proposed WPT charging system
make synchronous rectification attractive. However,
implementing a full bridge synchronous rectifier is somehow
troublesome because the source of two high side MOSFET
driving circuit. At first, the semi-SR is implemented which only
not require floating gate driving circuit. Later the full-SR is also
implemented, which replace all four diodes in the bridge
rectifier with MOSFET switches. The full-SR provides lower
conduction loss and dissipation, but requires more complicated
gate driving circuit to drive the two high side MOSFETs. Figs.
rectifier, semi-SR and full-SR circuits. In the prototype WPT
system, synchronous rectification controller TEA1791 by NXP
Semiconductors is adopted to sense the drain-source voltage
and drive the MOSFET switch. Two isolated DC to DC
converter modules are used to provide floating DC voltage
necessary to drive two high side MOSFET switches. The
efficiency of these three rectifier configurations are test and
compared in this paper. In a conventional boost PFC, the power
loss on input bridge rectifier reduces the overall efficiency. A
bridgeless PFC pre-regulator controlled by Texas Instruments
UCC28070 controller is adopted for the proposed WPT system
to achieve high power factor and low input current harmonic
distortion. Gallium Nitride (GaN) FETs and Silicon Carbide
(SiC) diodes are used in the PFC stage to reduce switching
losses and achieve high efficiency.
RF Tx
Battery
Current/Volatge ADC Module
(nRF24L01+)
DSP
TMS320F28035
(a)
RF Rx
Module PI ePWM To
(nRF24L01+) Controller Module Gate Drivers

high-voltage polypropylene (PP) film capacitors with low DSP

TMS320F28035
equivalent series resistance (ESR) are usually adopted as the (b)
resonant capacitors to compensate the primary and secondary Fig. 5 Block diagram of wireless feedback design: (a) RF transmitter and (b) RF
receiver.
coils. Multi-layer ceramic capacitor (MLCC) with low loss
C0G/NP0 dielectric can also be used in series/ parallel array to
achieve the necessary high-voltage/ high-current ratings and Load Load
L2 or L2 Cs or
has the benefit of much smaller footprint, which dramatically Cs
Battery Battery
reduces the size of printed circuit board (PCB). Figs. 5(a) and
5(b) show the detailed wireless feedback design used in the (a) (b)
WPT charging system. Battery voltage and current are sensed
and fed back via a commercial ultra-low power 2.4GHz RF
Load
module nRF24L01+ to realize the constant-current/ L2 or
Cs
constant-voltage (CC/ CV) battery charging by modulating the Battery
operating frequency of the WPT DC-DC stage circuit. The DSP
and RF transmitter at secondary side are powered by a buck (c)
converter which takes power from the systems output. At Fig. 6 Secondary rectification circuits: (a) diode rectifier, (b) semi-SR, and (c)
full-SR.
secondary side of WPT system, high frequency AC current
must be rectified to DC before fed to battery or load.
Conventional Schottky diode bridge rectifier has the advantage

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2016.2624272, IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs

Secondary Voltage (Before Rectifier) (50V/Div)

IV. SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATIONS Primary Voltage (200V/Div)

In this paper, a 500W laboratory prototype of wireless

Secondary Current (Before Rectifier) (10A/Div)
charging system with specifications shown in Table 1 is Primary Current (1A/Div)

designed and implemented to verify the performance. Fig. 7(a)

shows the experimental setup of the WPT charging system Primary Capacitor Voltage (1kV/Div) Secondary Capacitor Voltage (200V/Div)

under test. The primary and secondary PCBs are shown in Figs.
7(b) and 7(c). It can be observed that multi-layer ceramic Drain Source Voltage (200V/Div) v.s Drain Current (2A/Div) Output Voltage (Approximately 48V)

capacitors (MLCC) with low ESR features are used for the
resonant capacitors both at the primary and secondary sides of 2uS/Div 5uS/Div

the prototype system to reduce PCB size and achieve higher (a) (b)
Fig. 8 Simulation waveforms for (a) primary and (b) secondary circuits at full
power density. Simulation waveforms of primary and
output power
secondary side circuits at rated output power condition are
shown in Fig 8(a) and 8(b), respectively. It should be noted that Primary Voltage Primary Voltage
both voltage and current across primary resonant capacitor is
very large so capacitors with high voltage and current rating
must be used. Fig. 9 shows the measured waveforms of primary
and secondary voltage and current at full load and light load
conditions. The high-frequency ripple on the primary current is
likely to be caused by the parasitic resonance of coil. The Primary Current Primary Current
soft-switching waveforms on primary MOSFETs are verified
and shown in Fig. 10. Fig. 11(a) shows the measured efficiency (a) (b)
performance of the WPT DC-DC stage circuit with
Secondary Voltage Secondary Voltage
synchronous rectification (SR) design at 400Vdc input and
48Vdc output condition. The peak efficiencies of the WPT
DC-DC stage with secondary Schottky diode bridge rectifier,
semi-SR and full-SR are respectively 92%, 92.7% and 93.2% Secondary Current Secondary Current
under 15cm air gap. The wall to battery efficiency of the WPT
charging system under no misalignment and 10 cm
misalignment are measured and shown in Figs. 11(b) and 11(c).
The wall-to-battery efficiency can be up to 91.6% at 240Vac
input and 15cm gap between primary and secondary coils. The
(c) (d)
power consumed by the control system (e.g. DSP, RF Tx/RX) Fig. 9 Measured primary resonant tank input voltage and current at (a) 500 W
is included in these efficiency measurements. Fig. 12(a) shows and (b) 50 W and secondary voltage and current before rectifier at (a) 500 W
the measured input voltage and current waveforms. At low-line and (b) 50 W load conditions.
and rated power condition, the total harmonic distortion (THD)
Drain-Source Voltage Drain-Source Voltage
of AC input current can be lower than 4% as shown in Fig.
12(b).

Secondary Coil
Primary PCB Gate-Source Voltage Gate-Source Voltage

Secondary PCB

(a) (b)
Primary Coil
Fig. 10 Measured soft-switching waveforms on primary MOSFETs. (a) No
misalignment (b) 10 cm misalignment
(a)

93.2%

(b) (c)
Fig. 7(a) Experimental setup, (b) primary and (c) secondary PCBs of the WPT
charging system.
(a)

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2016.2624272, IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT 6.6 kW wireless EV charger with self-resonant PWM, Electronics
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The authors would like to acknowledge the financial [21] Q. Chen, L. Jiang, J. Hou, X. Ren, and X. Ruan, Research on
support of the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan bidirectional contactless resonant converter for energy charging between
EVs, Industrial Electronics Society, IECON 2013 - 39th Annual
through grant number NSC 103-2221-E-011 -064 -MY3. Conference of the IEEE, pp.1236,1241, 10-13 Nov. 2013.

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