Product Design Lecture Notes

Product Design (MM ZG541)
Introduction
BITS Pilani Lecture 1
Pilani Campus
Product Planning
Srinivas Kota
Outline
Course Structure
Introduction
Product Planning
7/23/2016 Product Design MMZG541 BITS Pilani 2

Introduction
Introduction to design
Modern product development process
Innovative thinking

Product Development Process
Product development teams

Product development planning process and
basic tools

Scoping Product Development
What to develop?
Mission statement
Technical questioning
Business case analysis
Design drivers

Product Specification Development
Identifying the customer needs

Establishing product function
Benchmarking
Establishing product specifications

Portfolios and Product Architecture
Architecture types
Modularity design
Implications

Conceptual Design
Concept generation
Concept selection
Concept testing and embodiment

Physical Prototypes and Models
Prototype and model basics

Principles of prototyping
Rapid prototyping

Product Development Economics
Economic analysis process

Qualitative and quantitative analyses

Design for Manufacturing and
Assembly
Methods of designing for manufacturing and assembly

Design for Environment
Life Cycle Assessment

Methods for designing environmentally conscious
products

Industrial Design
Need for industrial design

Industrial design process Management
Assessing the quality of industrial design

Evaluation Scheme
EC-1 15% (3 Quizs)

EC-2 35% (Mid-Semester Exam) (CB)
EC-3 50% (Comprehensive Exam) (OB)

Product design An introduction

Why study Product Design
Economic success of most firms depends on their

ability to identify needs of customers
Translate those needs into physical products at
optimal cost
Craftsmanship style of working is on rapid decline
Intuition based
Poor repeatability
Lack of customer focus
Bad Perception that people will buy whatever is
designed good

Why study Product Design
Modern Product attributes desired by customers

Quality / Performance of product is order qualifier (Not order
winner)
Value worth the price
Robust performance is desired (Taking into account adverse
environmental conditions and usage patterns)
Easily serviceable
Maintenance free
Higher second value ( implies less wear and tear)

Case for Product design
Firestone ( US Tyre manufacturer ) had 70 years of tyre

manufacturing experience till 1970s
It had good relations with 3 auto makers of Detroit
Had good presence in Europe too
In late 1970s, Michelin, French company introduced Radial
tyres in US Market
Firestone could not respond as they were improving the
existing tyres and not adapting the new technology
They went almost into bankruptcy during that decade
In 1988, they were sold to Bridgestone, Japanese tyre

maker
The course is applicable to
Engineered, discrete, physical products

Terminologies
Product Development
Design and Development
Research and Development

Terminologies
Research and development

Responsible for development of new technology
Generally R&D transfers the technology to
product development team
Product development team applies the
technology to new product development

Terminologies
Design and development

Set of technical activities (Sizing shaft diameter
or calculating energy loss, efficiency etc.) and
is within product development process
Design process is the set of technical activities
within a product development process
Responsible for technical specification, new
concept development, Detailed Engineering

Terminologies
Product development
Product development is entire set of activities
required to bring a new concept to saleable
product
Includes Business case analysis, Marketing
efforts, technical engineering design,
manufacturing plans, validation of product
design

Shape memory alloys
R&D activity identifies the

material which retains the shape
upon Heating and on cooling they
can be deformed easily
Product development intelligently

uses them in simple applications
such as below.

Types of design
Original design
Adaptive design
Variant design

Original design
Few successful original designs occur over time

Disrupt the market
Replaces old equipment, manufacturing methods etc
Refrigeration ,air conditioning industry used to work on harmful

Ozone depleting Chloro flouro carbon gases (CFCs) such as R-
12, R-11 etc and HCFCs such as R-22 , R-502
Development of Zero ozone depleting HFCs(Hydro flouro

carbons) such as R-410A, R-134a impacted the industry to
change majority of components, processes etc

Adaptive design
Adapting a known system to a changed task

Reciprocating / Rotary mechanisms were known to
industrial world since 1900s
Domestic air conditioning market used to be dominated by
reciprocating compressors (for compressing refrigerant)
With new Rotary compressors (Size /weight being only
half) able to work in harsh climates got developed,
replaced most of reciprocating compressors
Rotary
Reciprocating

Variant design
Extension of product platforms

Variation of Size , geometry, material properties, control
parameters etc.
Company has products such as motors till 15kW
Extension of the product range to say 100 kW is variant
design
Development of Engine exhaust tail pipe in plastic instead
of metal is yet another example
Here Engineering studies and principles help directly most
and majority of the times.

Redesign
All the design concepts discussed are basically redesign

only
People used landlines for communication through long
distances, however had a serious limitation that they were
not portable
Mobile phones addressed the issue and made
communication portable.
A design solution (Mobile phone) which overcomes
shortcoming of existing product (Landline) can be termed
as redesign.

Challenges of product development
Trade offs
Dynamics of market
Details
Time pressure
Economics

What interests the people
Creation
Satisfaction of societal and individual needs
Team diversity
Team spirit

Product development process

Introduction
Product development is a process

Process is sequence of steps to convert
certain inputs into useful outputs
Product development process involves
steps which a organization employs to
conceive, design and commercialize a
product.

At Macro level.
Understand Develop a Implement

the concept the concept
opportunities (Look for new (Translate the
(Weakness of solutions or concept to
landlines- Not verify any physical
portable) other form of product)
same usage)
All activities needed to make All activities needed to All activities needed to
the decision to launch a new make the decision what the make the product and
product development effort product will be every product work well
all the time.

Understand the opportunity
Some relevant questions are
What do we use as a product?
What is the difficulty?
Why does not it do what we want it to be?
Anyone can have wild visions!
Can those visions be transformed to realities?
Can it be developed and implemented?
Can it generate worthwhile profit?
On concluding above, organization is clear on
State of competitive market
Customer population, preferences
Available technologies
Above information will decide whether to go ahead or drop the idea into
new product development

Develop a concept
- Target specifications are set

- Product positioning in market place is thought of
- Divide the product concept into input , output,
transformation models
- In this phase, what the product has to do is more
important than how it needs to be done
- Develop alternative functional models (on drawing board)
and sub functions to achieve them
- Select best possible functional models

Implement a concept
Till last two stages, product existed only in paper, in this

phase it turns into physical product
- Detailed Engineering
- Modelling
- Prototyping
- Design for X
- Robust design
- Production planning, manufacturing Engineering
- Quality control gate implementation
Caution: Changes are difficult at this stage.
Six phase product development
Steps outlined in reference book

- Planning
- Concept development
- System level design
- Detail design
- Testing and Refinement
- Production ramp-up

Staged gateway development process
46% of the resources that companies devote to the conception,

development and launch of new products go to projects that do
not succeed
- they fail in the marketplace or never make it to market.

Staged gateway development process
Stage 0 -Discovery: Activities designed to discover opportunities and to
generate new product ideas.
Stage 1 -Scoping: A quick and inexpensive assessment of the technical merits
of the project and its market prospects.
Stage 2 -Build Business Case: This is the critical homework stage - the one
that makes or breaks the project. Technical, marketing and business
feasibility are accessed resulting in a business case which has three
main components: product and project definition; project justification;
and project plan.
Stage 3 -Development: Plans are translated into concrete deliverables. The
actual design and development of the new product occurs, the
manufacturing or operations plan is mapped out, the marketing launch
and operating plans are developed, and the test plans for the next
stage are defined.
Stage 4 -Testing and Validation: The purpose of this stage is to provide
validation of the entire project: the product itself, the
production/manufacturing process, customer acceptance, and the
economics of the project.
Stage 5 -Launch: Full commercialization of the product - the beginning of full
production and commercial launch.

Thank you

Teams
Lecture 2
BITS Pilani PD Process Tools
Pilani Campus
Srinivas Kota
Outline
Teams
Composition
Roles
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Team building
Team Evaluation
PD Process Tools
Gantt Charts
PERT/CPM
30 July 2016 Product Design MMZG541 BITS Pilani 2

Introduction
New products do not result from routine exercises

Novel solutions require Imagination
common and extraordinary problems
Individuals need to work in teams
Composition of design team
Ability to plan and schedule a complex product
development project
Creation of vibrant environment for the team and
structuring teams activities are key to success of any
organization

Need for a team
Products are getting complex

Washing Machine:
Mechanical components such
as housing, drum, Pump etc
Electrical components like
motor, capacitor, power cord
etc,
Electronics parts such as
Printed Circuit Boards, user
interface
Safety , Fire related
Need for a team
Automobile:
Aerodynamics
Styling
Air conditioning
Industrial design
Instrumentation
Environmental
Legal
and many more!!

Team
Team
two or more persons engaged in a common goal

dependent on one another for results
joint accountability for the outcomes
Does not help us work as teammates

Organisational Realities
Many organizations exhibit characteristics that

leads to dysfunctional product development
team
Lack of empowerment of the team
Functional Kidnapping
Inadequate resources
Lack of cross functional representation on the project
team

PRIDE Principles
PRIDE principles
Purpose
Respect
Individuality Harnessing
Discussions
Excellence
Team composition
Synergy
Unity
Competence
Consensus

Team Roles
Administrator / Reviewer
Monitors project and judges outcomes
Trouble shooter / Inspector
Repairs problems and solves impediments to progress
Producer / Test pilot
Brings tasks to fruition and reality
Manager / Coordinator
Supervises and leads tasks
Conserver / Critic
Preserves teams goals, addresses moral issues
Expediter / Investigator
Experiences the team goals, gets facts and know-how
Team Roles
Conciliator / Performer
Detects and fixes interpersonal issues
Mockup Maker / Prototype Maker
Builds and tests rough prototypes
Visionary
Imagines various product forms and uses
Strategist
Speculates on and plans project and product future
Need finder
Evaluates human factors and consumer issues

Team Roles
Entrepreneur / Facilitator
Explores new products and methods, inspires, and
motivates
Diplomat / Orator
Harmonizes team, client and customer
Simulator / Theoretician
Attempts to understand phenomena, analyses
performance and efficiency
Innovator
Synthesizes new products, improves solutions
Director / Programmer
Sets deadlines and breaks bottlenecks

Behavioral Roles..
Organiser
Reliable person concerned about the practical aspects
of the design process
Motivator
Confident person in charge of the schedule and goals of
a design team
Pusher
Dynamic person forcing a design team to work faster
Soldier
Creative person predominately generating solutions
Gatherer
Extroverted person searching for information and
communicating with others outside the team
Behavioral Roles..
Listener
Perceptive person perceiving and combining the ideas
and statements of others
Completer
Conscientious person eliminating the last flaws of a
design
Specialist
Dedicated person with extensive knowledge in a special
field
Evaluator
Strategically thinking person concerned about alternatie
solutions

Myers Briggs Type indicator
MBTI is a simple measurement indicator of how

people behave and contribute in work environment
Developed by Carl Jung (1875-1961)
Psychology as basis for personality
Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs applied the
theory and developed MBTI Indicators
Final MBTI type category indicates how a person
makes decisions or comes to conclusions

Myers Briggs Type indicator

Personality types
How a person is energized
Introversion
Seldom interacts with others, they gain energy by processing
information internally
Extroversion
They initiate and tend to get energy from surrounding
What a person pays attention to
Intuition
Based on future thinking. Visionary , can take decisions without
any data
Sensing
Depends on 5 senses and believe in hard data

Personality types
How a person decides

Thinking
Relies on cause and effect / Logic
Feeling
Works on how ideas are communicated - Feelers
What kind of outlook a person adopts
Perception
Considers all data to arrive at conclusion, Slow decision
making
Judgment
Quickly comes to conclusion with the data (facts) on hand

Role mapping
E- Extroversion I Introversion
S- Sensing N Intuition
T Thinking F Feeling
J Judgement P - Perception

Who is an effective team member
A Good Team Member

There is a set of attitudes and work habits that you need
to adopt to be a good team member:
Take responsibility for the success or failure of the team

Be a person who delivers on commitments
Be a contributor to discussions
Give your full attention to whomever is speaking and
demonstrate this by asking helpful questions
Develop techniques for getting your message across the
team
Learn to give and receive useful feedback

Characteristics of effective team
Team goals are more important to individual goals

Understand the goals and committed to achieve
Trust replaces fear, and people feel comfortable
taking risks
Respect, collaboration, and open-mindedness
Team members communicate readily; diversity of
opinions is encouraged
Decisions are made by consensus and have the
acceptance and support of the members of the
team
Organisational structures
Structure of product development teams is very

important
Two such structures exists
Function based
Specialized education, training or experience
Marketing, Design and Manufacturing)
Project based
Handpicked individuals from each functions are put
together and asked to execute a project

Functional organization
Individuals, working on one or a limited

number of tasks each, are grouped
according to their technical expertise.
Individuals with similar technical
background form the basic building blocks of
the formal reporting lines.
Integration with other functions a tedious
task.
Because people are motivated by the need
to deepen their knowledge base in certain
area, these groups face tremendous
difficulties when attempt to integrate their
findings into a specific product to address a
specific market need.

Project organization
Individuals of different
technical/functional expertise are
grouped into an organizational subunit
responsible for one product or service
(or potentially a limited set of closely
related products/services).
Although from different
technical/functional backgrounds the
group builds a group identity ,their
focus is to create a product.
The team leader takes the customers
perspective and focuses the team on
defining and creating a cohesive
product or service.

Some thoughts on organization
Project organization focusses on result, the

product itself while neglecting building
technological excellence in the long run.
Functional organizations, in contrast, focus on

building technological excellence, while neglecting
the product / customer.

Stages of Team Development
Orientation (Forming)
The members are new to the team
They are probably both anxious and excited, yet unclear about what is
expected of them
Dissatisfaction (Storming)
Now the challenges of forming a cohesive team become real
Differences in personalities, working and learning styles, cultural
backgrounds, and available resources begin to make themselves known
Resolution (Norming)
The dissatisfaction abates when team members establish group norms,
either spoken or unspoken, to guide the process, resolve conflicts, and
focus on common goals
Production (Performing)
This is the stage of team development we have worked for
Termination (Adjourning)
When the task is completed, the team prepares to disband. Good teams
make suggestions on how to improve the team experience

Team Evaluation
Unity
Self direction
Group climate
Communication
Distribution of leadership
Distribution of responsibility
Problem solving
Conflict management
Decision making
Group self evaluation
Unity (Degree of unity, cohesion)
Is group just a collection of individuals? (little or

no group feeling)
Is unity of team by external factors or by real
friendship? (some group)
Is group very close but needs little exercise?
Strong common purpose and spirit based on
real friendship.

Self-Direction
( groups own motive / power)
Little drive from anywhere among members?
Group has some self propulsion but needs
some push?
Is there domination from strong single member
or leader?
Does initiation, planning , execution and
evaluation come from group as a whole?

Group Climate
(extent to which members feel free to share)
Does climate inhibits good fun, behavior and

opinions?
Members freely express needs?
Member express themselves but without
observing interest of total group?
Member express freely taking in to account
welfare of team?

Communication
(manner of expressing idea/ opinion)
Very little discussion occurs.
Members listen carefully but do not express
views.
Domination of own opinion?
Communications are open, two way, deep and
lengthy

Distribution of Leadership
Non of the members take leader roles.

Some take leader role but maximum remain
passive follower.
Many member taker leadership role quite few
are always followers.
All members of group share responsibilities.

Distribution of Responsibility
Everyone tries to get out of jobs.

Responsibilities are carried out by few
members?
Some accept responsibility but do not carry
them out.
Responsibilities are distributed and carried out
by every member.

Problem Solving
(Groups ability to think straight , make use of everyone's idea
and deicide creatively about its problems)
Not much thinking as a group, Decision made

hastily or group lets leaders do most of the
thinking ?
Some cooperative thinking but group gets
tangled up in pet ideas, confused movement
towards good solution.
Not an orderly process ?
Good pooling of ideas and orderly thoughts.
Everyone's ideas are used to reach the final
plan.

Conflict Management
(how group deals with conflicts)
Group ignores or avoids disagreement to
detriment of task ?
Friendly group discussion but little analysis of
problem ?
Members argue their own points and try to
dominate others ?
Differences are presented, thrashed through to
sound understanding , acknowledged in
decision making.

Decision Making
(how group arrives at final decision)
One or two members lead group and dominate
decision ?
Decisions are always hard to reach and group
allows deadlines to dictate course to take ?
Are decision hastily made without working
through options ?
Decisions are reached after through
consideration of options and consequences
of each possible option.

Product development
Planning

Planning
Basic Constituents of of planning are

What
Tasks
When
Schedule
Where
Equipment and facilities
How
People, material, facility and equipment costs

Steps
1. Identify the tasks and milestones of the project

2. Supplement product tasks with team tasks
3. Estimate project resources and time (updated)
4. Assign tasks to a timeline, including parallel and
sequential structure
5. Monitor Progress and assign additional tasks

Tasks

Basic planning Tools
- Gantt Charts
- PERT/ CPM

Gantt Charts
Basic planning and scheduling tool

Named after Henry Gantt
Activities (Tasks are written as rows) with time
as columns.
As an enhancement, task lists are used along
with Gantt charts
Task lists states the deadline, responsible
person, check box to fill whether the task is
completed or not.
Gantt Charts
Job 1
3
Job 2
Facility
Job 3 Job 4
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Days
Key: Planned activity

Gantt Charts - Updated
Job 1
3 Behind schedule
Job 2
Facility
2 Ahead of schedule
Job 3 Job 4
1 On schedule
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 Days
Todays Date
Key: Planned activity
Completed activity

Gantt Charts
They do not typically show the dependencies of

tasks
Gantt charts should contain
Time scales as fine (Weeks) as possible
Task categories Broken down to details
Responsibilities assigned
Monitoring /updating is mandatory on time scale
basis (If weekly , then monitoring should be done
weekly)
An open bar can be used to plan tasks and
shaded part can be used to monitor progress
CPM
CPM (Critical Path Method) represent both

dependencies and timing.
They do not allow loops or feedback and we
cannot explicitly show iterative coupling tasks

CPM
Product : Hair dryer ( Heater + Blower + Motor + Controls)
Task Description Immediate predcessors Time (Weeks

A Start 0
B Model the mechanical sub assembly (Housing, grip shape, nozzle etc A 6
C Model the electrical interface (Heater + Motor + controls) A 8
D Prototype - Mechanical sub assembly B 3
E Prototype - Electrical Components C 4
F Safety test on electrical sub assembly (As per standard) E 2
G Final proto type- Mechanical and electrical assembly D, F 3
H Performance testing G 4

Critical path
It is longest chain of dependent events

Dependencies among the tasks in CPM chart, some
serially and some of which are arranged in parallel,
leads to Critical path
The project leader must pay attention and monitor
electrical sub tasks based on this case.

Thank you

Lecture 3
Scoping
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Product Development
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Scoping
Product Development
Contents
Introduction
Technology S curves
S curves and Product Development
Technical Questioning
Mission Statement
Design Drivers
15-Oct-16 Product Design MMZG541 BITS Pilani 3

Introduction
What to develop ?
Should a new technology be introduced?
Should the current product be refined and
tweaked to better please the customer?
Should the product be expanded into
variant forms to more comprehensively
cover the market?
Outsourcing vs in-house development

Product development projects
Four Types
New product platforms
Derivatives of Existing product platforms
Incremental improvements to existing
products
Fundamentally new products

New product platforms

Hybrid cars
Touchpad incorporated laptops
Solar powered calculators
Digital watches
LED bulbs
LED television
Many more

Derivative of existing products

Diesel Engine in a new platform
Higher capacity (Kgs) washing machine
Low TR room air conditioners
Small or big display of LCD mobile phones
Bigger size television

Incremental improvements
Higher mileage vehicle ( More km / Liter)
More Megapixel camera
Less polluting engine
Aesthetic variants Redesign of tail lamps,
bumpers etc.

Fundamentally new products

Automobile (Driverless)
Bluetooth
Electricity transmitters through air
New composite material

Some thoughts
In business (and in life?) winning once is not enough.
Even if you score big, you cant rest on your laurels. You
have to rack up repeated victories in the market, one after
the other.
Otherwise, you become a has-been, just another business
that sparkled brightly before flaming out.
This has been the fate of many once-successful
companies that got to the top but couldnt stay there.
Yet, some organizations do thrive at the top for decades
and even longer. They launch one successful business
after another, and routinely outperform their rivals.

Whats their secret?

Technology Development
Simplified Technology Transferring Technology
Development Cycle Development Cycle

Technology s curves
Technological innovation time cycle and market

behavior is well characterized by S curve
Technological innovation typically manifest
themselves into a market along S curve
In case of product , the Product Metric (In case of
bulb, lumens of light output per unit watt;
efficiency) can be plotted as function of time when
each product was introduced
Metric value will naturally fall as an S- curve in
time

Product evolution - technology s curve
[Text Book]
Product evolution - technology s curve
[http://terrapacificusa.com/?page_id=128]

Telecom Industry
5G Etisalat (UAE) said

it has already
tested speeds of
up to 115GBps as
part of its 5G
strategy

Perspective
[http://noordinary.co.nz/how-to-tell-if-your-industry-is-going-to-be-disrupted-befor.html]
Stages of Technology S Curve
Lower portion
Changes are less and widely spaced
Not much innovation (slope)
Middle portion
rapid profusion of innovation (slope)
many products are launched
many competitors joins the market
Top portion
stagnation & maturity of existing product technology
Physical laws of the process dominates and performance can not
improve further
Few mature competitors

Violation (?) of S curve

Creative problem solving
The mere formulation of a problem is far more

often essential than [is] its solution, which may be
merely a matter of mathematical or experimental
skill. To raise new questions, new possibilities
to regards old problems from a new angle
requires creative imagination and marks real
advances in science Albert Einstein

Product Development
Product development Questions
Technical risk (Can we do?)
Market risk (Will customers buy?)

Product Development
1st step in design process
Mission Statements

Objectives of mission statement and
technical questioning
Define goals (goals must be stated before they

can met)
Focus design efforts
Translate the business case analysis to the
development team
Provide a schedule for tasks (timeline and
milestones)
Provide guidelines for the design process that will
prevent conflict within the design team

What is the problem really about?

What implicit expectations and desires are
involved?
Are the stated customer needs, functional
requirements, and constraints truly appropriate?
What avenues are open for creative design?
What characteristics the product must have or
not have?
Has the design task been posed at the
appropriate level of abstraction?
Mission Statement
Tangible result of technical questioning procedure
is design teams mission statement or market
attack plan
Who should write it?

Typically project manager or the Design Lead
When it should be available and whom it

should reach?
During the project kick-off and should reach all team
members

Mission statement : x product
One concise and focused
Product Description: sentence
Schedule
Key Business or Gross profit /margin
Humanitarian goals: Market share
Advancement of human
needs
Brief phrase of market
Primary Market: sector or group
List of secondary
Secondary Market: markets, currently or
perceived
Mission statement : x product
Assumption: Key assumptions or

uncontrolled factors to be
confirmed by customer
Stake Holders: 1-5 word statement of customer

set
Avenues of compact Identify key areas of innovation

design:
List of limitation that will reign
Scope Limitation: back the design team from
solving the world
Finger Nail Clipper

Mission statement : Fingernail Clipper
Remove & file excess
Product Description: fingernail length
6 month development of
Key Business or beta prototype
Humanitarian goals: 30% profit/margin
Initial 5% market share
Supplement fingernail
polish business
Primary Market: Adults of all ages focusing

on fingernail users
Secondary Market: Knife collectors

Business executives

Mission statement : Fingernail Clipper
Assumption: Small , compact stowage

volume
Long Life(10-2 years)
Stake Holders: XYZ corporation; users; salons;

retailers
Avenues of compact Ergonomic shape; store/capture

design: of nails; compact stowage; ease
of cutting
Scope Limitation: Material ; steel processing and

moldable plastics
Ceiling Fans

Mission statement : Ceiling fans
Product Description: Generates draft of air
2 month development of beta

prototype
Key Business or 7% profit/margin
Initial 2% market share
Humanitarian goals: Supplement Injection molding
business
Primary Market: Household usage
Secondary Market: Used in manufacturing industries

for ventilation

Mission statement : Ceiling fans
Assumption: Size, Color , Noise, Ease of

installation
Stake Holders: Common households,

Regulatory authorities
Avenues of creative Efficiency of fans, Variable

design: speeds (Not in steps),
Aesthetics
Scope Limitation: Dependence on electricity,

Metal processing limitations etc
Design Drivers
It is an early decision that must be made, but

once made, determines in large part many of
subsequent design decision
What makes a product desirable to
consumers as well as profitable for
organization to build and develop?
The key; fundamental specification which
drives subsequent design aspects, balancing
both business feasibility and technical
feasibility for an organization
Design Drivers for Fingernail Clipper
Business front
Clipper should be more comfortable & easy in
operation so as to attract more customers,
increase sales hence profit to organization
Technical front
Should be strong enough to withstand bending,
should not be heavy
Length, thickness, strength & width are
design drivers
These parameters must compromise on both
fronts to reach an equilibrium decision
Design drivers for Fingernail clipper

Design Drivers for Ceiling Fan
Business front
Fan should be aesthetically superior & should draft
more air at low noise during operation so as to attract
more customers, increase sales hence profit to
organization
Technical front
Motor should be strong enough to rotate the fan and
should not be heavy, The fan blade should be aero
dynamical in shape.
Diameter of the fan, thickness, shape, strength &
width of fan blade are design drivers
These parameters must compromise on both fronts to
reach at equilibrium decision
Design drivers for Ceiling Fan
Permits
means aids
Diameter Motor
or supports
or enables
Blade
shape

Design drivers for commercial Aircraft
Potentially profitable commercial Aircraft must
satisfy both business and technical mutually
constraining conditions
Must carry sufficient passengers to provide
revenue to cover operating cost
It must have enough thrust & lift to fly number
of passengers demanded by business case
Wing(s), Engine(s) and Fuselage are
design drivers
The other design aspects such as landing
gear, controls & so forth can be made in
accordance with design drivers
Design Drivers for commercial Aircraft

Summary
Technology S Curves
Relation between technology s curve and
product development
Mission statement
Design drivers identification

Thank you

Lecture 4
Understanding
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Customer Needs
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Understanding
Customer needs
Contents
Customer
Needs of customer
Types of Customer Needs
Kano diagram
Methods to capture customer
requirements
15-Oct-16 MM ZG541 Product Design BITS Pilani 3

Customer Who are they
Persons who we want to be purchasers of the

product
Different customers use the product differently
Operate them in different environments
Generally have different expectations
...
...
...

Why Identifying customer
needs is important
Organizations needs to
Ensure the product is focused on customer needs
Identify latent or hidden needs as well as explicit
needs
Provide a fact base for justifying the product
specifications
Create an archival record of the needs activity of the
development process
Ensure that no critical customer need is missed or
forgotten
Develop common understanding of customer needs
among members of the development team
Voice of customer
Words used by the customers to describe their

expectations are often referred to as the voice of the
customer
Capturing voice of customer increases the initial planning
stage of the project definition phase in the development
cycle
But the result is a total reduction of the overall cycle time
in bringing to the market a product that satisfies the
customer
Sources for determining customer expectations are focus
groups, surveys, complaints, consultants, standards, and
federal regulations
Voice of customer
Customer expectations are vague and general

in nature
- User friendly
- Vehicle should go fast after Green signal
- I want it to be easy to carry
- Engineer would think to design light weight
What does the customer really want?

What are the customers expectations?

Types of Customer Needs
Direct Needs
Watch should show right time, Water bottle must be easy to hold etc.
Latent Needs
Hidden needs (High end mobile phones should never be broken no
matter how abusive the drop or fall is!)
Constant Needs
Intrinsic to product Data storage space in servers / computers.
Variable Needs
As battery technology of laptop matures just like any solar powered
calculator, then it does not bother customer how long the power lasts
General Needs
Compliance to National standards, safety etc
Niche Needs
The car should have bullet proof feature

Classifying Customer Requirements
Kano recognized that there are four levels of customer
requirements:
Expecters
These are the basic attributes that one would expect to
see in the product, i.e., standard features
Spokens
These are the specific features that customers say they
want in the product Color, aesthetics etc
Unspokens
These are product attributes the customer does not
generally talk about, but they remain important. Customer
may not even realize that he or she wants these
Exciters
Often called delighters, these are product features that
make the product unique and distinguish it from the
competition
Kano diagram of Customer Satisfaction
Function
Customer Satisfaction
Customer Satisfaction
Satisfaction of Allows a company to ..

- Basic needs - Get into the market
- Performance needs - Remain in the market
- Excitement needs - Be world class

Examples

Understanding Customer Needs: Procedure
Gather raw data from customers

Interpret the raw data in terms of customer
needs
Organize the needs into a hierarchy
Establish the relative importance of the needs
Reflect on the results and the process

Need Gathering Methods
Interviews
Questionnaires
Focus group
Be the customer
Product clinics
Observations

Need gathering Methods
Interviews
One customer at a time
Usually held at customers environment where the
customer uses the product
Questionnaires
Develops a list of criteria relevant to customers
concerns based on their answers to questions in written
format

Need gathering Methods
Focus group
A moderator facilitates a session with a group of
customers
Usually held at product developers environment
Exploratory questions will be asked to uncover the
needs of customer
Be the customer
Critical of their own product or competitors product
Role play as if the product is used by product developer
and he looks at its strength and weakness

Gathering Information from Customers
Interviews
Focus
with
Groups
Customers
Customer
Surveys
Customer Warranty
Complaints Data

Choosing customers
10 - 50
Lead users and or extreme users are more useful
Lead users
Can articulate their emerging needs, they might have
conceptually invented solutions to meet their needs
Extreme users
Professional users, might be people having special
needs
Sometimes, one person makes the buying decision and
another person (end user) actually uses the product
It is better to gather information from end user
Conducting Interviews: Like / Dislike
Interview customers as they use the product
See that customers describe what they like and
dislike
Why questions uncover the latent needs
Factors that determine the purchase(what
customer looks at), should be asked at a dealer
shop or a retail shop rather than to user himself
Ask how the customer would change the product
to make it better

Example: Frying Pan (TAWA)
Product : Frying Pan (Tawa) Interviewer: Raj
Customer : Mrs. Sita Date: 10/8/2016
Address: Currently uses : Common utensils, Frying pan
Type of user : Home maker Willing to do follow up? Yes
Question Customer Statement Interpreted need imp
Typical Frying vegetables, Eggs, Cooking pasta, Cooking gravy

Uses
Contents do not stick to surface Non-stick surface Must
Size Compact Good
Can stand on its own Has a better flat bottom to suit Should
Likes
stove accessory
Depth of the Frying pan Deep side walls permitting food Good
not to spill over
After a while in the burner, handles becomes too The handle conducts heat from Must
hot to hold- approx 25 minutes the pan, there is a thermal bridge
Dislikes
Not good looking Rivets seen in the inner surface of Nice
the pan
Suggested 1. Heat resistant handles
improve- 2. Different painting colors at the base
ments 3. Elimination of rivets

How to have Effective Interaction with the
Customer
Go with the Flow (why and How)
Use visual stimuli and props
Suppress preconceived notion about the product
technology
Have the customer Demonstrate
Be alert for surprises and latent needs
Watch for non verbal information

Constructing a Survey Instrument
Determine the survey purpose

Identify what specific information is needed
Design the questions. Each question should be:
Unbiased
Unambiguous
Clear
Brief
Three categories of questions:
Attitude questions
Knowledge questions
Behavior questions

Ethnographic studies
Customers are inventive and much can be

discovered from them
Study is about way people behave in their
regular environments
Observing actual end users interacting with the
product under typical use conditions
Close observation is needed
Effectiveness lies in discovering certain latent
needs of the customer (unspokens)

Some reflections
Deep or Chest freezer

Documenting interaction with customers
Audio recording
Notes
Video recording
Photography
Any other suitable method

Conducting Interviews: Articulated-Use
Helps in uncovering latent needs

Express the customer statements in terms of
what the product must do, not how the product
might do it
Use positive, not negative phrasing
Express the need as an attribute of the product
Makes it easier to translate to product specifications
Do not use must or should in the statement
(need to be in importance ratings)

Conducting Interviews: Articulated-Use
Fingernail clipper
Question / Customer Statement Interpreted Need Weight Activity
Prompt
When usually use? In the morning at home
Keep in my shaving kit Reasonably Compact Must Store
How big is that? About 3x2x6, and I
have lot of things in it, it
is always full
Size of things is Very important. I look for Compsct size Must Storing
important? the smallest size of
everything
So I dig it out of my bag, Striking appearance Nice Prepare
and carry it to the sofa, for filing
where I usually clip my Lightweight Must
nails
Do you file? Yes, I file at an angle, File at an angle Must Files nails
with a vertical and tilted
motion

Example Frying pan Cont.
In the same interview, customer removed frying

pan and put traditional iron tawa on the stove
The reason is that she wanted to make traditional
Dosa
Frying pan with deep sides will prevent Dosas ejection
from the pan seamlessly
Latent need of customer not expressed in the
original interview
Could be an opportunity to make flat Non-stick
pans targeted at Dosa Making

Organizing and Prioritizing Customer
Needs
Grouping the Needs
Affinity Diagram Method
Customer Sort Method
Need Importance
Interview Data Method
Questionnaire Method
Customer Use Pattern

Affinity Diagram Method
----------------
-----------------
-----------------
-----------------
------------------ write on Cards
------------------
-----------------
-----------------
------------------
------------------
------------------
------------------ Group

Organizing the needs into a hierarchy
Preceding steps should generate 50-300 need
statements
Should be summarized
Write each need statement
Eliminate redundant statements
Group the statements according to the similarity of the
needs they express
For each group , choose a label
Create super groups combining two to five groups
Review and edit the organized needs statements

Establish the relative importance
Some priority to be attached to those needs

collected
Ranking needs to be done
Can be done internally
Or a group of customers can be invited to rank them ,
this being the most preferred

A typical needs ranking survey
For each of following characteristics, please indicate on a scale of 1 to 5 on how
important the feature is to you
1. Feature is undesirable, I will not have in the product

2. Feature is not important, I would not mind
3. Feature would be nice to have, but is not necessary
4. Feature is highly desirable, still I will buy the product without it
5. Feature is critical , absence of which I will not consider buying it
Product: Television Fill the box
Remote control will not break even if it is dropped

Low consumption of power when on standby mode
Has games in the module that can be used
By inserting a duplicate sim can be used as emergency phone
Outer frame color options available (Instead of usual black)

Customer Use Patterns
Nontrivial different activities

Different customer use patterns - capture
and represent different forms
Sequence

Activity Network
Transport in
Purchase Unpack
package
Throw Away Chain Keys
Prepare to
Prepare to Clip Store
File/Pick
Clip Nails Pick Nails File Nails
Return from Return from

Clipping File/Pick

Completed Activity Diagram
Transport in
Purchase Unpack
package
Prepare to
File/Pick

Clipping File/Pick

Reflect on the results and the process
Understand this is not exact science
Should apply knowledge and intuition
Questions to ask are
Are all important type of customers interacted with
Who is good participant , co-operative etc
What do we know now that we didnt know before?
Any surprise for us?
How might we improve the process in future efforts?

Do if you like: Assignment 2
Not an evaluation component (Voluntary)
Choose a product that constantly annoys you

Identify the needs, the developers of this product
missed from your perspective
Why do you think these needs were not met
Do you think the developers deliberately ignored
these needs
Share in our Discussion forum

Thank you

Lecture 5
Establishing
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Product Function
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Establishing Product Function

Contents
Functional Decomposition
Function Modeling Basics
Functions and Constraints
Modeling Process
Function Trees
FAST Method
Subtract and Operate Procedure
Function Structures
15 October 2016 MMZG541 Product Design BITS Pilani 3

Why Functional Decomposition
Form - previous experience design

Links - Customer needs concepts implicit
Minds Designers
Needs evaluation Generation
Customer needs Functional Descriptions
technologies satisfy FR

Advantages
Concentrates on What has to be achieved by a

new concept & not How it is to be achieved
Form independent expression of design task
Basis for organizing design team, tasks & process
Interfaces, modules
Creativity enhancement - Complexity
Abstraction - Biases
More acceptable solutions can be generated with
mapping Needs to Function & then to Form

Functional modeling basics
Function
Statement of clear, reproducible relationship between available
input & desired output of product, independent of any particular
form
Input Electricity and hand force, Output Ironing of clothes
Product Function
Intended overall function of product just an active verb & noun
Wash Clothes, Cut Beans, Cool Air, Heat Water
Sub function
Component of product function corresponding to subtasks
Abstraction
Process of ignoring what is particular or incidental & emphasizing
what is essential and general
Very old Myth!
While the story is not really true, at

least it brings out a lesson.
- Function is important i.e.,

Writing in outer space or
wherever.
- Not excessive concentration

needs to be placed on form (
This case being a Pen)
- What is needed though is to look

carefully the functionality and
find solutions to problem.

Spot cooling
Case : 100 Workers working in 5,000

Sq.m (Steel Forging mill)
Environment: Hot and humid
Problem: The temperature is unbearable

that it reduced the productivity. Required
to provide cooling.
Conventionally, air conditioners would

have been chosen- Which not only cools
people and also surrounding areas( Waste
of energy).
Solution: By concentrating on the function (Cooling of people) and not on form (existing
air conditioners) a new product Spot cooler was developed to achieve the function.
Advantages : Equipment size is of 1/5 th of conventional AC. Power consumption is
reduced by 1/10 th!

Black Box
Input Product Function Output
Intended form is unknown

Functions and Constraints
Constraints
Is a statement of clear criterion that must be
satisfied by a product & requires consideration of
entire product to determine the criterion value
Cost
Lightness
Functions are satisfied through operation of
product
Constraints are satisfied by properties of entire
product
cost, compactness, mass
Subsystems or System properties
Functional Modeling
Systematic process of transforming needs to a

clear specification of design task
Initiates conceptual design phase
Function Hierarchies (trees) or Function

Structures (task listing) used to model products
function

Functional Trees
Decompose the Prime function hierarchically

into sub functions
Fast & Simple to construct
Understanding the interactions between

expanded sub functions is vital
- FAST Method (top-down approach)
- Subtract & Operate Method (bottom-up approach)

Function Analysis System Technique (FAST)
Displays function in a logical sequence, Prioritize them and tests

their dependency
HOW-WHY analysis
Higher order function? Iron the clothes
Basic function? Heats the base of the iron box
Secondary function? - 3 types (Required, Aesthetic and unwanted)
Required (Heater assembly which converts electricity to heat)
Aesthetic (Styling of outer grip or handle etc.)
Unwanted (handles need to be insulated)
Critical path?- Higher order Basic function Required secondary function

Each right node in critical path must answer how the left node is
achieved, every left node should answer why right node is being
achieved

FAST METHOD

Iron box example
How
Why

Projector example

Coffee bean chopper example
Support Loads
Create Aesthetic
Reduce noise Compact System Appeal
Convert EE to Provide
Grind Coffee Chop Beans Actual Power
Rotation Electricity
Seal for Chopping Transmit Torque Connect Electricity
Contain Beans Dampen

Vibration
Hold Beans
Generate Noise
Accept Beans
Reduce Noise
Generate Noise
15 October 2016
Reduce Noise
MMZG541 Product Design BITS Pilani 17
Subtract and operate Method
Bottom-up approach to develop a function tree

Assumption: a form concept or actual product
exists, this concept/product is then reverse
engineered
Better way to figure out function of component;
removing it, operating system without it
conceptually
Starts by considering smallest isolatable
function of feature (which are not further
decomposable)
Procedure
Disassemble one component of assembly

Operate the system through its full range
Analyze the effect
Deduce the sub function of the missing
component
Replace the component and repeat the procedure
n times, n- being the number of components in
the assembly
Translate the collection of sub functions into a
function tree
Coffee Mill
Chamber
Slicing Seal
blade
Energy
System
Operator Grinder Ground Coffee
Coffee
Beans
Coffee Mill
Chamber Seal Slicing blade Shaft Armature
No defined way of No protection Contents will not be Slicing blade will Shaft does not spin
holding content against contents chopped not be attachable
splattering
No measurable No protection No resistance to Contents will not be Electricity is not
volume against spinning torque chopped transformed into
blade mechanical energy
No body to Safety issues will No resistance to
measure contents fail torque
No body to contain Chamber cannot be
contents closed
No body to hold the Power cant be
apparatus actuated because
electric circuit is not
closed
Aesthetic Impact noise will
appearance not be enclosed
reduced
Difficult to clean
undefined body
Pour out contents

Coffee mill function tree
Make Coffee
Grind
Input
Input Input Rotate Provide Chop Permit
On/Off Hold
Beans Power Shaft Coffee Beans Cleaning
Signal
Accept Indicate
Beans Amount
Accept Transmit Separate Contain

Support Contain Cut Contain
On/Off On/Off Blade from chop
Motor Noise Beans Chopping
Signal Signal hands noise
Convert Provide
Accept Switch Transmit Spin Spin Dispense
Electricity indication
Power Power Power Shaft Blade Coffee
Rotation of chopped

Function Structure
Meaningful & Compatible combination of sub

functions in to an overall function produces a
Function Structure
Sub functions should be expressed in terms of
measurable effects or mathematical
relationships
Sub functions are schematically networked
together to form an overall function structure

Function Structure modeling process
Phase 1
Develop Process descriptions as activity Diagrams
Phase 2
Formulate Sub functions through Task Listing
Phase 3
Aggregate sub functions into a refined Function
Structure
Phase 4
Validate the functional Decomposition
Phase 5
Establish & identify product architecture &
assembly
Phase 1 : Develop Process descriptions as activity
Diagrams
Process description in Activity Diagrams

eventually forming a Function Structure
Process description includes three phases;
Preparation
Execution
Conclusion comprising network of high level user
activity
Parallel activities will lead to device functions or
subsystems

Activity Diagram for fingernail clipper
Transport in
Purchase Unpack
package
Prepare to
File/Pick

Clipping File/Pick

Phase 2: Formulate Sub functions through Task Listing
Task Listing
Method of aggregating sub functions & comparison
of functional decomposition with needs
Flow
Qualitative phenomenon passing through & being
changed by sub functions
Eg: energy, material, information
Translating Needs to Flow
For every flow; sequence the sub functions &
operations
A System...
Is an entity that is connected to its environment by

means of inputs and outputs defined on its boundary,
It can be defined in terms of mechanical construction
(form) or by function, and
It can be decomposed into Sub-systems connected to
each other by means of inputs and outputs defined on
their respective boundaries
Inputs System Outputs
Input 1 Output 1
Input 2 Output 2
Input 3 Output 3

A System...
Energy Energy
Material Material
Information Information
Electricity Energy Losses - Heat

Clothes, detergent, water Washing clothes Clean clothes, drain water
How many wash, spin, dry Time taken, status etc.

Definitions
Systems / subsystems
Connected to environment by inputs and outputs
Any system can be decomposed into subsystems
Boundary interactions (Flows)
Inputs and outputs are categorized into Energy, material and
information
Both quality and quantity of these should be defined
Information (Signals etc)
Matter / Material
Anything as matter which enters the system
Energy
Without energy no matter or information processing could be done,
at the end energy should be conserved

An example

Common flows / Functions
Flows
Material
solid, liquid, gas, human
Energy
human force, human motion, chemical, electrical, electromagnetic,
hydraulic, magnetic, force, torque, linear motion, rotational motion
Information
tactile, olfactory (Smell sensing), auditory, taste, visual, control
Functions
guide, translate, rotate, transmit, import, export , support, stop,
connect, couple, mix, branch, refine, distribute, dissipate, separate,
remove, provide, store, supply, extract,
control, actuate, regulate, change, convert,
signal, sense, indicate, display, measure

Basic Function Structure: Black Box
Finger Nail Cutter
Finger force Sound, kinetic

Hand motion energy in nail
Remove Excess
Finger nail, Cut nail, Hands,
Hands
Length on Finger Debris
Long nail Nails
Hang nail Good appearing
Rough nail
Energy
Material
Information
Basic Function Structure: Coffee roaster
Coffee roaster
Electricity Heat , Noise
Green coffee Roasted coffee,

beans
Roast coffee beans Chaff
Roast level
Start signal Status -
Completed
Chaff is a thin skin which comes out of

Energy
coffee beans while roasting and
needs to be discarded.
Material
Information
Generic Function Structure
Sub Sub
function function
Sub
function
Overall
Function
Sub
function
Energy
Material
Information

Phase 3: Aggregate subfunctions into a refined
Function Structure
Sequence of sub functions is aggregated to

represent functions of entire product
Function Structure must satisfy two criteria:
Are sub functions Atomic (Lowest possible level);
can they be fulfilled by a single basic function?
Is the level of detail sufficient to address customer
needs?

Tracing inputs: Materials
Heating Beans and Agitating beans are shown parallel

Both actions have to be done simultaneously
Without agitation, the beans will burn
Tracing inputs: Energy

Tracing inputs: Information
Signal
completed

Phase 4: Validate the functional Decomposition
It is, Analysis of functional modeling

Verification steps :
All measure Flows between subfunctions are labeled
& checked according to their state of transformation
Customer Needs list is reviewed & sequence of
subfunctions identified

Validating: Coffee roaster
Completed

Phase 5: Establish & identify product architecture &
assembly
Define collections of functions (chunks) that will

form assembly in product
Clarify the interactions & interfaces between the
chunks
It provides Basis to Product team for:
Choosing between modular & integral architecture
Choosing parallel design task for product
development

Common Basis for Functional Modelling
Common vocabulary of functions & flows to improve

repeatability of function structure development
A level of detail that, when reached, stops the

decomposition process
Common representation to compare products across

domain
Common representation to create consistence

metrics & benchmarks for product
For empowering expressiveness of designers

Thank you

Lecture 6
Product Teardown
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus and Experimentation
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Product Tear Down &

Experimentation
Contents
Introduction
Teardown Process
Teardown Methods
Force Flow (Energy Flow Field) Diagrams
Measurement & Experimentation
Post Teardown Reporting
15 October 2016 MM ZG541 Product Design BITS Pilani 3

Introduction
Taking apart a product to understand it

How a company making the product succeeds
Purposes
dissection and analysis during reverse engineering
experience and knowledge for an individuals
personal database
competitive benchmarking

Teardown process
Benchmark against competition (or own product)

Observe the technology, architecture and
uncover the principles behind how it works
To analyze how
Product Functions are achieved
Components are assembled
Corporate and manufacturing strategies work

What do you do?
Purchase / Access competitors product

Tear it down
Costs
Functions
Plot trends against earlier teardown analysis
Check
Manufacturability
Environmental Issues
Recyclability
Maintenance /service aspects

Formal steps
1. List the Design Issues

2. Prepare for Product
Teardowns
3. Examine the Distribution
and Installation
4. Disassemble, Measure and
Analyze Data by Assemblies
5. Form a Bill of Materials

1. List the Design Issues
New project Unknown Needs

Redesign
What was difficult for them
What design problem did they solve that they are
proud of?
What related technologies were they interested in?
Quantity of parts per product unit Material
Dimensional measurements Colour / finish
Maximum, minimum, and average Primary functions
material thickness Geometric, spatial and parameter
Weight tolerances

2. Prepare for Product Teardowns
Tools required
Sensors and testing equipment for measurement
process
Camera, Videotaping
Multimeter, Hardness Tester
Optical Sensor, Flow meter, Dynamometer
Callipers, Strobe
Document (Written / Electronic)

3. Examine the Distribution & Installation
Do not overlook the means used to acquire

parts, contain them, distribute and market the
product.
Distribution and Packaging need to be examined
and reported to design team
quite expensive
Consumer installation instructions and
procedures should be examined
Costs
Effectiveness
Liability

4. Disassemble, Measure, & Analyze Data by
Assemblies
Disassembly Reverse Engineering

Coordinated with measurements and
experimentation
Take pictures and measurements on the whole
assembly
Take apart the assembly
Take pictures in an exploded view (and / or
produce a solid model assembly diagram
electronic exploded view)
Take measurements on the parts and
assemblies to complete the data sheets

4. Disassemble, Measure, & Analyze Data by
Assemblies: Precautions
Avoid destructive testing during the first iteration
Parts that are manufactured with insert moulds,
rivets, welds, plastic sonic welds, solder, integral
components (windings on motor, coil springs in
mechanical clocks) should be carefully
disassembled
Function
Destructive testing

5. Form a Bill of Materials
Fill a written form that details the product

Sequence of assembly photos and
exploded view CAD drawing
Additional data: assembly issues

Form a Bill of Materials

Teardown Methods

Force Flow (Energy Flow Field) Diagrams
Measurement and Experimentation

Subtract and operate procedure
Subtract and operate procedure (SOP)

Disassemble (Subtract) one component of assembly
Operate the system through its full range
Analyze the effect
Deduct the function of the missing component
Replace the component and repeat the procedure n
times ( n being number of components)
Result
What is basic functional component
Which ones do sub functions
Which ones are redundant
Subtract and operate procedure
Components that when

removed cause no change
in degree of freedom or
other factors of the design
are Type 1 (candidate for
elimination)
Those components cause

no change in degree of
freedom but do have other
effects due to their removal
are type 2 (can be
redesigned and eliminated)

Force Flow Diagrams
Force Flow Diagrams

SOP finds component functionality
Force flow focusses on component combinations
Traces the force flow(transfer) through the components
Identifies the relative motion between components with
a symbol R
Group those components who do not have relative
motion
Try and combine them subject to manufacturability
issues

Force Flow Diagrams
Identify the primary force (or energy) flows transmitted through a

product
Map the force (energy) flow from the external source through each
component of the product until the flow exists to ground. Split
Document the result in a force flow diagram, where the nodes are
compnents and the connections are forces (energy terms)
Analyse the diagram, labelling relative motion between components
with an R
Decompose the diagram into groups separated by Rs and box these
components.
Deduce the subfunctions and affected customer needs for each
group.
Develop creative, conceptual designs to combine the components in
each group
Repeat for each force (energy) flow.
An example
Motors have internal rotors and

Here the motor has internal
external stators.
stator and rotor rotates
The rotors have extended shaft which
outside with fan blades
connects to the fan blade. The force
attached to the rotor thus
flow shows there is no relative motion
eliminating shaft etc.,
between motor shaft and blade
making it more compact.
(therefore can be combined)
Paper Clip

Stapler
24 parts
How to redesign to reduce
number of parts?

Force Flow Diagram: Stapler

Grouping the like components outside R

Single insert mould stapler
Ananta Suresh and Kota (1995)

Measurement & Experimentation
Specifications and Benchmarking

Precise and measurable description of what
the product must accomplish

Experimental methods
Planning
Criteria of measurements
Current methods of selecting measurements
What is that we are looking for?
Why is that measured?
Does the measurement really answer any of the
questions (Design issues)?
What does the measurement tell us?

Methods
Select a Product Domain

Select relevant one when
benchmarking
Similar capacity , size,
industry standards
Determine the Most
Important Subfunctions
Determine Necessary
Measurements
Selection of the
Measurement Devices
Select a Product Domain
Electricity
Material Energy Transform
Solid Linear Force

Rotational Heat
Stun Gun Energy
Material Material
Energy Material
Transform Solid Liquid Solid
Pneumatic Vibration Solid Coffee Maker Stapler
Electric Iron Humidifier
Sandwich Maker
Material Material Signal Screwdriver
Electric Wok
Mixers
Air Solid Popcorn Maker
Bumble Ball
Vacuum Massage Device
Fan
Hair Dryer
Determine the most Important Subfunctions
Purpose is to set priorities for the measurement

effort
Assign customer needs to important functions of
the selected products
Weigh each function based on the importance
level of the customer needs
Higher weighing function becomes the focus
Customer Needs Weight
Easy to open 5 Importance Categorized Sub-Function
Easy to close 4 5+4+5 Import Human Force
Easy to access cooked food 5

Determine necessary Measurements
Remove Solid Units

Database Functions Depth of cut Cm
Study each subfunction Size of cut Cm
Metrics Removing rpm, N,
device energy N-m
Units, range, required accuracy Surface m
Metric Range Units Min. Accuracy roughness
Human Force Required 3.0 6.0 N 0.5

Magnitude of force 2:1 - 2.5:1 0.1:1
amplification
Mass of upper housing 0.45 0.75 Kg 0.025
Human force required 70 118 N 13.5
Human force required 20 25 N 2.5
Human force required 20 - 36 N 3

Selection of the Measurement Devices
Many issues
Non availability, nonexistent, costly
New instrument design
Indirect technique
Issues wrt. Catalogues
Use of different catalogs
Uncertainty of data
Range and accuracy options

Worksheet for choosing measurement tools
Related Functions
Measurement: Flow:
Units: Range:
Determine from actual products, by recording min. and max. measurements
Min. Accuracy: Range:
Determine accuracy from actual products by looking at resolution between products during benchmarking and target values
Measurands: Sketches:
Current Devices Range Accuracy Measurands Functions Cost

Device A
Design Issues:
Calibration Dynamic Recorder Safety Mass Size Ease of Use Reliability ND Other
A
B
Post-Teardown Reporting
Disassembly plan and BOM

Exploded views with Highlighted Features
Actual Product Function Structure

List of components for Black & Decker 2.4V Cordless Screwdriver


List of components for 3.6V Power Base cordless Screwdriver


Electric Wok

Product Function Structure: Electric Wok

Thank you

Lecture 7
Benchmarking and
BITS Pilani
Establishing Engineering Specifications
Pilani Campus
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Benchmarking &
Engineering Specifications
Contents
Benchmarking
Steps in Benchmarking
Engineering Specifications
House of Quality
Value Analysis

Benchmarking
Continuous and systematic process of identifying,

analysing, and adapting industries best practices
that will lead an organization to superior
performance
The continuous process of measuring products,
services & practices against toughest competitor or
those recognized as industry leaders - Xerox
Provides standard or point of reference & range that
can be used to judge quality, value or performance
Important step in establishing engineering
specifications
Case in benchmarking
Early benchmarking pioneer was Ford. Ford was losing sales to

Japanese and European car makers.
Don Peterson, then chairman of Ford, instructed his engineers and
designers to build a new car that combined the 400 features that Ford
customers said were the most important.
If Saab made the best seats, then Ford should copy Saab's seats.
If Toyota had the best fuel gauge and BMW had the best tyre and jack
storage system, then Ford should copy these features also.
Peterson went further:
he asked the engineers to 'better the best' where possible. When
finished, Peterson claimed that the highly successful new car (the
Taurus) had improved upon, not just copied, the best features found in
competing cars.

Difference
Benchmarking Competitor Research

Focuses on best practices Focuses on performance
measures
Strives for continuous Bandage or quick fix
improvement
Partnering to share information Considered corporate spying by
some
Needed to maintain a Simply a nice to have
competitive edge
Adapting based on customer Attempting to mirror another
needs after examination of the company/process
best

Benchmarking Steps
1. Form a list of design issues

2. Generate list of competitive products
3. Information search
4. Tear down multiple products in class
5. Benchmark by function
6. Establish Best-in-class competitors by function
7. Plot industry trends

Form a list of Design Issues &
Form a list of Competitive / Related Products
Cost, Performance etc.

Continually revise and update
Efficient exploration
Reduce wastage of time and resources
List all competitors & their product models
Portfolio, common platform
Segments, compromises, niche etc.
List
Company names
Product names
Information Search
Any printed article

Features, materials WWW
Company, mfg. loc.
Problems, customers Industry
Vendors
Market reception or Associations
share
Information
Corporate library Gathering
Products and related Market Consumer
products Research Reports
Databases magazines
Functions they perform
Targeted market Patents
segments
Design issues, products to teardown historical and market perspective
Teardown Multiple Products in Class
Intended bill of material for each product

a functional model for each product
exploded view of each product
function-to-form mapping of functions to
assembly

Benchmark by Function
Summarize the comparison by form

Benchmarking products by their functional
equivalence not by equivalent components
as any component in a product may not be functionally
similar to same component in another product
Indented assembly cost analysis
Function Form Diagrams

Establish best-in-class competitors by
Function
After listing comparative analysis of various

solution for a function; Highest performing solution
(best-in-class) & least expensive solution can
be called out
It sets up benchmarking limits of function
Function Form Diagrams

Plot Industry Trends
Arrange & transform the information for design or

redesign task
Categorization of market
approach where one categorizes product solution by
socioeconomic status of typical customer & also by
percentage of market
Benchmarking of technical solution
approach to compare how product performs using s-
curves
Benchmarking of competitors
similar to above & considers performance over time of a
entire portfolio of a company
Benchmarking Some pitfalls
Will provide lagging information

Generally will not uncover what the competition
will begin to devote its resources to.
Using the same plan as competition will not work

Specification Process
Specification for new product are quantitative,

measurable criteria that the product should be
designed to satisfy
Specification or quantity should have Units as well
as target value to establish required performance
Targets at pre concept phase are different from
refined targets at embodiment phase
Each specification should be measurable-
testable-verifiable at each stage of development
process not just at end of the process
Functional requirements and
Constraints
Functional requirements are statements of
specific performance of design; implies what the
device should do
Constraints are external factors that in some
way limit the selection of system or sub system
They are generally imposed by factors that are
outside designers control

Specification Sheet
Customer needs only cannot provide a complete

picture for design task
Some criteria (manufacturing, standards, ethics)
cant be perceived by customer but are important in
consideration
Specification sheet approach focuses on
specifications that are latent (safety, regulations,
environmental factors)
Each specification is designated as required
demand or a desirable wish
Frankes list can be used for identifying
specification

FRANKEs List
Specification Category Description

Geometry Dimensions, space requirements
Kinematics Type and direction of motion, velocity
Forces Direction and magnitude, frequency, energy type, efficiency, capacity, conversion
Material Properties of final product, flow of materials, design for manufacturing
Signals Input and output, display
Safety Protection issues
Ergonomics Comfort issues, human interface issues
Production Factory limitations, tolerances, wastage
Quality Control Possibilities for testing
Assembly Set by DFMA or special regulations or needs
Transport Packaging needs
Operation Environmental issues such as noise
Maintenance Servicing intervals, repair
Costs Manufacturing costs, materials costs
Schedules Time constraints

Procedure
Compile specification, arrange functional

requirement (FR)& constraints (C) in order
Determine each FR & C is wish or demand
Check for logical consistency of FR & C ; they
must be technically & economically feasible
Quantify whenever possible
Testing & verification of specification such as
Engineering Analysis; test of prototypes, check
for Engineering Drawings, failure mode analysis
Circulate specifications for amendments
Evaluate comments/ amendments
Specification Sheet: A Toy rocket

Quality Function Deployment
The basic goals of QFD are

increase customer satisfaction
reduce the cycle time of product development
increase competitiveness

QFD Methodology
QFD was originally designed to take voice of

customers and translate it into a set of product
and process parameters that can be deployed
through a four-phase process
Product planning
Parts/subsystem Deployment
Process planning
Production planning

QFD House of Quality
Interrelationships
Customer
importance
How to satisfy
ratings
customer wants
Competitive
assessment
What the Relationship
customer matrix
wants
Target values Weighted

rating
Technical
evaluation

House of Quality (HOQ)
It translates the customer needs into measurable

technical attributes
HOQ has two principal parts; horizontal portion
and vertical portion
The horizontal portion of HOQ contains
information relative to the customer and
The vertical portion of the HOQ contains technical
information that responds to the customer inputs

Construction of HOQ
Identify customer wants

Identify how the good/service will satisfy
customer wants
Relate customer wants to product hows
Identify relationships between the product hows
Develop importance ratings
Evaluate competing products
Compare performance to desirable technical
attributes

House of Quality Example
Your team has been charged with designing a

new camera
The first action is to construct a
House of Quality

Customer Requirements
Lightweight 3
Easy to use 4
Reliable 5
Easy to hold steady 2
Color correction 1

15 October 2016
Low electricity requirements
Aluminum components
Auto focus
Auto exposure
Paint pallet
Ergonomic design
MM ZG541 Product Design

BITS Pilani
28
Low electricity requirement
Aluminium components
Ergonomic Design
High relationship -5
Auto exposure
Paint Pallet
Auto focus
Medium relationship 3
Low relationship - 1
Lightweight 3
Easy to use 4
Reliable 5
Color corrections 1
Relationship matrix
Relationships between the things we
can do

High correlation
Aluminum components
Low correlation
Ergonomic design
Auto exposure
Paint pallet
Auto focus

Weighted Rating
High relationship -5
Medium relationship 3
Low relationship - 1
Lightweight 3
Easy to use 4
Reliable 5
Color corrections 1
Our importance ratings 22 9 27 27 32 25
22 = (3 x 1) +( 4 x 1) + (5 x 3)

How well do competing products
meet customer wants
Company A
Company B
Lightweight 3 G P
Easy to use 4 G P
Reliable 5 F G
Easy to hold steady 2 G P
Color corrections 1 P P
Our importance ratings 22 5

Specifications and Evaluation
Failure 1 per 10,000

Panel ranking
Target values
(Technical
2 circuits
2 to
attributes)
0.5 A
75%
Company A 0.7 60% yes 1 ok G
Technical
evaluation Company B 0.6 50% yes 2 ok F
Us 0.5 75% yes 2 ok G
Completed House of Quality
Aluminum components
Ergonomic design
Auto exposure
Company A
Company B
Paint pallet
Auto focus
Lightweight 3 G P
Easy to use 4 G P
Reliable 5 F G
Easy to hold steady 2 G P
Color correction 1 P P
Our importance ratings 22 9 27 27 32 25
Failure 1 per 10,000

Target values
Panel ranking
(Technical
attributes)
2 circuits
2 to
0.5 A
75%
Company A 0.7 60% yes 1 ok G
Technical
Company B 0.6 50% yes 2 ok F
evaluation
Us 0.5 75% yes 2 ok G

Another example: Washing Machine
A Design team is coming out with a new washing

machine
It deploys QFD into its design process
Customer interview is conducted
Addressing What is needed
Technical attributes collected
Addressing How to satisfy what is needed

Completed HoQ: Washing Machine

Example2: CD storage

Text book example

Some signals
An empty row signals that no Engineering Characteristics exist to

meet the Customer Requirements. ( Need 2)
An empty EC column signals that the characteristic is not pertinent to
customers. ( How 3)
A row without a strong relationship to any of the ECs highlights a
CR that will be difficult to achieve. ( Need 3)
An EC column with too many relationships signals that it is really a
cost, reliability, or safety item that must be always considered,
regardless of its ranking in the HOQ. ( How 1)
How 1 How 2 How 3 How 4 How 5 How 6
Need 1 9
Need 2
Need 3 3 3 3 1
Need 4 1 9
Need 5 9 3 3

Some signals
An HOQ displaying a diagonal matrix (1:1 correspondence of CRs to ECs)

signals that the ECs may not yet be expressed in the proper terms (rarely is a
quality requirement the result of a single technical characteristic).
How 1 How 2 How 3 How 4

Need 1 9
Need 2 9
Need 3 9
Need 4 9
The highest-ranking Engineering Characteristics from the HOQ are either constraints
or design variables whose values can be used as decision-making criteria for
evaluating candidate designs

House of Quality Sequence
Deploying resources through the

organization in response to customer
requirements
Quality
plan
Production
process
Production
Specific
process
components
House 4
components
Specific
Design
characteristics House 3
characteristics
Design
House 2
requirements
Customer
House 1

Value Engineering
Value Engineering is an organized effort to

attain optimum value in a product by
providing the necessary functions at the
minimum cost
VE can be perceived as the systematic
application of recognized techniques to
identify the function of a product or service
and provide those functions at the lowest
total cost
Ratio of performance to cost
Type of values
Use Value
Esteem Value
Exchange/Cost Value
Scrap Value
Place
Time
Person

How to add value?
Upgrading product performance

Improving product worth and product esteem
Improving quality at reduced cost
Cost prevention or cost avoidance, in addition to
cost reduction
Innovation and creativity
Preventing unnecessary use of resources

Simple tests to identify poor values
Can the design be changed to eliminate the part?
Can you purchase it at lower cost?
Does it need all its features?
Is there anything better for the intended use?
Can a usable part be made by a lower-cost method?
Can a standard part be used?
Is it made on proper tooling considering the quantities involved?
Are there any newly developed materials that can be used?
Can two or more parts be combined into one?
Can any specification be changed to effect cost reduction?

Thank you

Lecture 8
(Product (Portfolio) Architecture)

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus & Product Architecture
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
(Product (Portfolio)
Portfolio) Architecture)
Architecture)
&
Product architecture
Contents
Product Portfolio
Portfolio Architecture
Fixed Unshared
Platform
Massively Customizable
Methodology
Product Architecture
Integral
Modular
Methodology

Introduction
Product portfolio
Set of different product offerings
Unique
Common system
Something in between
System strategy for laying out components
and systems on multiple products
Example?

Portfolio Architecture Types

Fixed Unshared
Each product in a portfolio is unique and shares no

components with any other product member in portfolio
Very high volume products (Sockets, spanners, Screw
drivers)
Economies of scales exist to remain competitive
Application of DFA to reduce number of parts
Single level of performance
Single Offer Only one option to customer
230/50 Hz or 110 Volts / 60Hz
Can accept both electrical frequencies or voltages.

Robust Offer
But still a fixed portfolio

Platform
Products that share components, modules or

systems to meet market variety
Platform supported products are called the
variants

Platform Modular Family
Modular Family
Shares internal components such as bearings, shaft

size, terminals, end plates etc. though the final
product rating could be different
Cost reduced derivatives

Product line extensions
Enhanced products (With GPS
modules)

Platform Modular Generations
Modular Product
generations
support multiple products over period of time

outer shells vary -- Inner parts are same
market tastes change - outer cover is
changed to suit the requirement
CPU speed in desktop computer
mechanical or electronic controls

Platform Scalable Platform
Scalable platform
No common components
All look same
Except size is different
Common - production or development
activities
Functions are identical

Platform Consumable
Consumable platform
Isolation of consumable items
Oil filters, Printer cartridges, Air purifier modules

Modular Platform Standard
Standard Platform
Subset of a product system in a portfolio of products is a

platform that conforms to industry standards
Fasteners, screws, bolts, nuts
Operating systems

Platform Adjustable for Purchase
Adjustable for
Purchase
Setting remains fixed for the rest of the life

Dynamic change of settings not possible
Power supply settings
Configuration of memory
Size of bed in a machine tool
Number of turret stations
Mechanical controls or Electronic controls in refrigerator
Rotary or Reciprocating compressor in air conditioner

Mass customization
Features in basic platform that can be varied on desires

of individual customer
Customer special orders the platform with the
exact specifications he desires
Fabricate to fit Wheels, Colour, Seats
Make your own sandwich or Pizza or Coffee
Coffee Vending machines With Milk, Coffee, water
- Espresso / Cappuccino / milk / coffee / Hot water
Customer can change the specifications after

purchased
Steering / Seat adjustments
Adjustable to Use
Light intensity
Speed of the motor
Programmable logic controllers

Choosing an architecture type
Requested market How individual

variety from customers
different have variety in
Complex and critical customers their uses
Entire product design activity will
depend on the decision
Customer need variety model
Why different architectures exist ?
Seat Adjustment
Dont / Do
Keep adjusting
throughout the use
Right architecture
Customer based architecture selection

Decision flow chart

Platform architecture
Of the different product portfolio architectures

available (Fixed vs Platform vs Mass
customization models), the platform architecture
is the most cost effective approach
Can be shared and reused, gains economies of

scale

Choosing the platform architecture
List desired offerings

List design options for each offering
Determine platform options
Chart platform and design options against
evaluation criteria
Choose preferred combinations
Re evaluate candidates and Look for new options

List Design offerings
Exploration for market for Household and

commercial toaster appliances is done
2 slice, 4 slice household and 4 - slice

commercial models are required ( Based on the
decision flow chart method described earlier)

List Design options
Different layouts for each of members in product

family.
Which one is best ?

Determine Platform options
What could be shared among the three products
Electronic control board

Heating elements and reflectors
Sheet metal chassis and toast loading
mechanism

Platform and design Evaluation
Evaluation criteria
Material cost Family 4; Option C is reference
(Could be a competitor or own product)
Inventory cost All others are evaluated against this option
Visual appeal
Ergonomics

Choose preferred combinations
In above case Family 1, option C seems a preferred one.

Re evaluate candidates, Find out new options
Highest scoring column may not always be the one that

is best
Team consensus should be the goal
Even though some options marked have less scores,
still we can consider re evaluating them

Summary
Each customer need indicates a different type

Customer need variation across population and
across time determines how to architect a desired
portfolio
Platform architecture is most effective for offering
variety at reduced cost

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Product Architecture
Contents
Introduction
Types of architecture
Integral
Modular
Types of modularity
Function based
Manufacturing based
Basic Clustering Method

Introduction
Product Architecture is the assignment of functional

element of the product to physical building block of the
product
Define the basic physical building blocks by translating of
customer needs and business case into a realizable
product concept(s)
Developing product architecture is a key milestone for
any class of products
Key decisions on how the product will physically operate
are made at this stage
Develop a concept phase is what gets shaped up in
this stage
15-Oct-16 MM ZG541 Product Design BITS Pilani BITS Pilani, Pilani29Campus
Introduction
At basic level of product architecting, effective

layouts of components and subsystems are
created
The following questions are to be answered
during this stage:
How will the subsystems be divided and interfaced?
How will subsystems interact?
What alternative architectures exist?
Focus is on transforming product function to form
mapping customer needs to a functional model of a
product

Types of architecture
Integral architecture
Physical structures where all of the
subfunctions map to a single or very small
number of physical elements
Modular architecture
Integral physical product substructures that
have a one-to-one correspondence with a
subset of a products functional model

Integral Architecture
Single or very small no of physical

elements
No individual isolated components
Physical elements blend together at
their interfaces, which will have
complex interactions
Changes made to any component in
an integral architecture tends to
propagate to many, if not all other
elements
This architecture is applied on high-
volume products
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Integral Architecture
Advantages Disadvantages
Harder for competitors to Hinders change of design in
copy design production
Tighter coupling of team with Reduces the variety of
less interface problems devices that can be produced
Increases system Tooling cost may be higher,

performance intricate parts are involved
Possible reduction in system
cost

Modular Architecture
They accomplish an overall function

through the combination of distinct
building blocks or modules
Difficulties may be faced in initial stages
because compatibility of the modules in
first product needs to be established with
those in the subsequent products
Modular products make economic sense,
offer easier assembly and disassembly,
modification and reassembly
Modularity leads to standardization of
components and re-configurability of
devices
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Modular Architecture
Advantages Disadvantages
Improves device re- May make devices look too
configurability similar
Increases the device variety Makes imitation of device
and speed of introduction for easier by competitors
new devices
Improves maintainability and Reduces device performance
serviceability of device
Decouples development Modular design may be more
tasks (and manufacturing) to expensive than integral
some extent design
Types of Modularity
Function based modularity

Applied to the functionalities of a product and how these
functions are distributed
Slot modularity
Bus modularity
Sectional modularity
Mix modularity
Manufacturing based modularity
Relates more to the manufacturing techniques and assembly
operations associate with a product
Original Equipment Manufacturing (OEM) modules
Assembly modules
Sizable modules
Conceptual modules
Function based modularity

Slot Modularity
Examples of slot modularity

Same battery module
Each product has same

interface (Battery in this case)

Bus Modularity
Describes a device mostly the main component of the system,

that is equipped with a standard interface that accepts any
combination of different functioning modules
Examples are expansion slots on the mother board, Lighting
fixtures (where you can add more no of light modules)

Sectional Modularity
Exhibited by a chained inter-

connection of modules (called as
sections), each equipped with a an
identical interface
The modules can each individually
accomplish different product sub-
functions
Their recombination on the chain
interface permits different system
(product) functions
No one main module that can be
called a device; rather collection of
modules is the product
Mix Modularity
Combines several
standard components
together through web of
modules, not through
chain
Must be equipped with
at least two
complimentary
interfaces to create a
new device
Building blocks set is an
example
Manufacturing based modularity

OEM modules
Modules that an OEM (original

equipment manufacturer) can
supply at less expense than
could be developed in-house
Examples are power supplies

for computers
Tires for automobiles

Assembly Modules
Group of components
that solve related
functions but are
bundled to increase
assembly ease
Typically called as
Sub assemblies in
manufacturing
environment

Sizable Modules
Components that are exactly the same except for their

physical scale
Examples are cutters of different sizes

Conceptual Modules
Solve the same function (Plugging a hole for

example) but have different physical embodiment
(shapes)

Modular Design:
Basic Clustering Method
Translate customer needs into rough layouts of a
product
Steps
Create a Function Structure of the Product
Cluster the Elements into Module Chunks
Create a Rough Geometric Layout
Define Interactions and Detail Performance
Characteristics

Basic Clustering Method: Create a
Function Structure of the Product
Create a Function Structure of the Product
Input-Output diagram of what a product does
Materials, energies and signals enter from the
environment processed by the function structure
and leave the product as new flows
Blocks: sub functions; lines: different flows

Function structures
Signal Signal
Energy Dry the wet hair Energy
Material Material
(Air)

Basic Clustering Method: Cluster the
Elements into Module Chunks
Cluster the Elements into Module Chunks
Group the subfunctions into chunks (modules
or assemblies)
Simple interactions between modules should be
preferred (each chunk should be as independent
as possible)

Sub function structures

Clustering elements into chunks
Heater
cvc system
Fan system
Motor
system
Housing (Structure)

Block diagram of the product modules
Configuration design of product assemblies
Create a hierarchy of the product architecture from the
function structure chunks and map the hierarchy to a
2D or 3D sketch(es) of the product layout

Component hierarchy / 2D or 3D model
Product: Hair drier
Heater system Fan system Fan motor Housing
Main
Heater Fan Motor
switch
Support
Bracket Support Handle
brackets
Overload
Inlet nozzle Fan speed
protector

Component hierarchy / 2D or 3D model
Multiple configurations should be

developed
Ergonomic and aesthetic information
should be Included
3D modelling on Pro-E or Solid
works etc could be done for quick
review of the design.
Foam mockups, preliminary

analysis, rapid prototyping are
applicable at this stage

Define Interactions and Detail
Performance Characteristics
Interactions and interfaces between modules must
be defined
Material interactions: solids, liquids, or gases that flow
from one module to the next
Energy interactions: energies that must be transmitted or
shielded between modules
Information interactions: signal (tactile, acoustic, electrical,
visual etc.)
Spatial interactions: geometrical dimensions, degrees-of-
freedom, tolerances, and constraints that may be
maintained between modules
Develop a specification for each of these interactions;
the specification is used to develop component concepts
for the module
Example: Printer

Chunks
Electronics
INK System
Chassis
Paper Handling System

Layout

2 D map

Summary
Basic method for modular design
1. Create a function structure of the

product.
2. Cluster the sub functions into
module chunks
3. Create a rough geometric
layout(s)
4. Define interactions and detail
performance characteristics

Thank you

Lecture 9
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Generating Concepts
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Generating Concepts
Contents
Introduction
Hindrances to Creative Thinking
Different Concept Generation Methods
Brainstorming
Memory (Mind) Map
C-sketch / 6-3-5
Trigger word Technique
Morphological Chart

Introduction
Product concept is an approximate description of

technology
working principles
basic form (shape) of the product
usually expressed as a sketch or rough 3D model
Good concept
does not guarantee success!
Poor concept
guarantees commercial failure!
Introduction
One danger of concept generation process is

the bias of preconceived solutions
Another danger of concept generation is the
creation of ideas within in the vacuum of the
design teams experience
Decomposition or breaking down a problem in to
smaller parts is one of the principle to overcome
these dangers

Hindrances to Creative Thinking
It is important to recognize how mental blocks

interfere with creative thinking
A mental block is a mental wall that prevents the
problem solver from correctly perceiving a problem
or conceiving its solution
A mental block is an event that inhibits the
successful use of normal cognitive processes to
come to a solution

Types of Mental Blocks
Perceptual Blocks
Have to do with not properly defining the problem and not
recognizing the information needed to solve it
Emotional Blocks
Obstacles that are concerned with the psychological safety
of the individual
Cultural Blocks
These are due to thought process from living in a culture
Intellectual Blocks
They arise from a poor choice of the problem-solving
strategy or having inadequate background and knowledge
Environmental Blocks
These are blocks that are imposed by the immediate
physical or social environment

Perceptual Blocks
Stereotyping
Thinking conventionally or in a formulaic way about an
event, person, or way of doing something
Information overload
You become so overloaded with minute details that you
are unable to sort out the critical aspects of the problem
Not being able to see the forest for the trees
Limiting the problem unnecessarily
Broad statements of the problem help keep the mind
open to a wider range of ideas

Perceptual Blocks
Fixation
Peoples thinking can be influenced so greatly by their
previous experience or some other bias that they are
not able to sufficiently recognize alternative ideas
Priming or provision of cues

If the thinking process is started by giving examples or
solution cues, it is possible for thinking to stay within the
realm of solutions suggested by those initial starting
points

Emotional Blocks
Fear of risk taking

This is the fear of proposing an idea that is ultimately
found to be faulty
Unease with chaos
People in general, and many engineers in particular, are
uncomfortable with highly unstructured situations
Inability or unwillingness to incubate new
ideas
In our busy lives, we often dont take the time to let
ideas lie dormant so they can incubate properly
Motivation
People differ considerably in their motivation to seek
creative solutions to challenging problems
Cultural Blocks
People acquire a set of thought patterns from living in a

culture
experienced an educational system that has valued knowledge and
suppressed our childhood proclivity to ask why & how
Certain industries are tradition bound and are reluctant to
change, even though profitability is decreasing
New management with a different thought is needed to get them
back on the road to profitability
Countries even differ in their attitudes toward creative
problem solutions (political, educational & business culture)
In many countries it is a shameful disgrace for a business leader to
take his company into bankruptcy, while in others it is a mark of
creative entrepreneurship and normal risk-taking

Intellectual Blocks
Poor choice of problem-solving language or

problem representation
It is important to make a conscious decision concerning
the language for your creative problem solving
Memory block
Memory holds strategies and tactics for finding
problems as well as solutions themselves
Insufficient knowledge base
Generally, ideas are generated from a persons
education and experience
Incorrect information
It is obvious that using incorrect information can lead to
poor results
Environmental Blocks
Physical environment
This is a very personal factor in its effect on creativity
Criticism
Nonsupportive remarks about your ideas can be
personally hurtful and harmful to your creativity
Important for the team to maintain an atmosphere of
support and trust

Methods of concept generation
Intuitive methods
These methods focus on the combination of obtaining
knowledge of possible technologies with the
generation of ideas from the minds of the designers.
This is undirected and free-wheeling
Directed methods
These methods add direction to the search of the
solutions by using physical insights and documented
design principles

Brainstorming
Synectecs
15-Oct-16
6-3-5
Gallery
Method
Methods
Progressive
C-sketch
Group Only
Story
Boarding
Intuitive
Affinity
Sequential
Method
Morphological
Analysis
Trigger Word
Technique
Group or
Checklists
Individual
Product Design MMZG541

TIPS (TRIZ)
Axiomatic Principles
Concept Generation Methods
BITS Pilani
Physical
Effects
Solution
Design
Catalogs
Principles
Inversion
Directed
Formal Concept Generation Methods
Forward Steps
15
Factorization &
Combinations
Improving Creativity
The creativity methods are aimed at improving

the following characteristics of the problem
solver:
Sensitivity: The ability to recognize that a
problem exists
Fluency: The ability to produce a large
number of alternative solutions
Flexibility: The ability to develop a wide range
of approaches to a problem
Originality: The ability to produce original
solutions to a problem

Concept generation process

Example implementation
Traditional condenser and Microchannel all aluminum coil

evaporators used in air conditioners adapted recently by automobile
(Copper tube and aluminum fins) industry
Heat transfer High (20% higher)
Internal Volume - 40-50 % low
Refrigerant reduction 35-40%

Techniques for Idea Generation
To help make search for ideas more efficient

Brainstorming
Memory map
C-sketch / 6-3-5
Synectics
Morphological Analysis

Brainstorming
A group ideation technique

Group:
Leader plus 5-15 members from diverse fields.
Made up of equals
Leader: first outlines the problem, invites ideas from
members. (S)he never leads in the expression of ideas.
(S)he sees that the rules are observed and a free and
easy atmosphere prevails
Procedure: The ideas are displayed, listed and passed
on to members for further suggestions, if any. Then they
are submitted for evaluation to another group of experts.
The whole session up to 45 minutes

Brainstorming
Rules to be observed during the session:

Members must shed their inhibitions: avoid rejecting
ideas as absurd, stupid, embarrassing or false
Members must not criticize ideas generated (killer
phrases forbidden)
Members encouraged to freely change, develop further
or combine other ideas
All ideas to be recorded and displayed, and practicality
of ideas is ignored
The wilder the idea, the better it is (easier to tone down
wilder ideas than to improve mediocre ideas)

Brainstorming
Team members will piggyback and leapfrog each

other
Piggybacking creates building block ideas to the words,
body language, statements and concepts stated by
team members
Leapfrogging results in divergent or discontinuous
jumps in responses
Disadvantages
right idea may not come at right time
group conventions may sidetrack / inhibits original ideas
certain member may dominate the discussion

Brainstorming: Case Study
To separate unripe (green) tomatoes from ripe tomatoes quickly & automatically
We separate them by colour. A colour meter ought to be practical
Emissivity or reflectivity green one ought to have a higher reflectivity
Hardness. We squeeze them easy or poke them X-Ray size of seeds, or something like
Electrical conductivity that
Electrical resistance Odour, smell
Magnetism! Sound can you hear a tomato?
Size. Wont the green ones be smaller? Can a tomato hear?
Weight. The ripe ones will be heavier Heat infrared radiation
Size and weight together ought to correlate Thermal conductivity
Size and weight is density
Ability of a juggler to juggle them
Specific volume They must be mostly water
Just let a woman look at them push a
and have the specific volume of water
button
Do they float or sink?
Statistically check only every other one
May be thats it separate them by density
Just shake the hopper ripe ones will rise
by whether they float or sink in water
or fall
Would not have to be water could be anything
Blow air through as you shake
Non toxic
Saltwater Use random numbers let 3s and 7s be
ripe
Specific heat
Memory (Mind) maps
One of the effective way to record the results of

brainstorming session as it is happens is by memory mind
mapping
The facilitator starts with a clean sheet of paper, writes the
problem statement in the middle of the paper as two words
and draws a box around it
Then the ideas generated to solve the problem is then
recorded quickly, with circle around it
Each new idea to solve problem is connected to the
original problem statement
The memory map servers as an effective visual
documentation of the brainstorming session

Memory map procedure
Conduct either a free-for-all or an orderly (around

the room) process for the idea suggestions,
directed by the facilitator
Record all this ideas as they stated, but none are
judged at this point (even as to practicality)
Detail suggestions far enough for emergence of
the specific solution idea
Wrap session in about 35-45 min
After the session is completed, judge the results
with experts on the same group

Memory map of detecting a golf ball

C-Sketch /6-3-5 method
The drawbacks of the traditional brainstorming:

idea generation may dominated by a small no of team
members or by zealous facilitator,
brainstorming always relies on an oral means of
communication
Alternative methods to address these deficiencies are

known as c-sketch (Collaborative sketching) and 6-3-5
methods also known as brain writing
C-sketch focus on the sketches as the media for creating
the concept. The 6-3-5 method recommends sketch with
the limited use of the key words and short descriptions

6-3-5 method : Rules
The team members are arranged around the table usually the
round to provide the continuity
Ideally the group of 6 generally may range from 3 - 8 members is
formed and each one writes for the 3 ideas for the product
function, architecture or overall configuration under consideration
After developing solution principles for each product function, the
procedure is repeated to aggregate the principle into the
integrated concept variants
Passing of the papers through one cycle is known as a round.
The method encourage the 5 rounds to refine and combine ideas
There should be no verbal communication until the round is
completed. By that no one member will dominate the discussion
The focus should be on the advancement of the ideas not the
criticism
6-3-5 method: Procedure
Arrange the team members around a table

Each member writes three(3) ideas for the primary product
functions. The ideas are expressed in clearly distinguished
areas of the paper, usually on oversized white media
After t minutes of work on concepts, members pass their
ideas to the person on their right
For the next t minutes, team member modifies the ideas on
the paper, with the option of adding an entirely new concept,
not contained on their original idea sheet
Passing of the ideas sheets continues until a members
original sheet returns and the round ends. With sufficient time
intervals between round the five round are repeated
Post process, ideas are accumulated and summarized
6-3-5 method: Power Screwdriver

6-3-5 method: Power Screwdriver

Synectics
Problems are solved by Analogy

Recognition of design under study and a previously
solved problem
Direct analogy:
Searches closest physical analogy
Vibrations faced in a new design vs How this was solved in
older models?
Fantasy analogy:
Far fetched ideas not limited by todays limitations and
laws of nature.
Personal analogy:
if we are the product, what we will do?
A systematic method for assembly of the overall

alternatives and continued idea creation is known as
morphological analysis or charting
Morphology means study of shape and form
Steps
Consider each product function in the functional
model and each module of the architecture
List the function or module as rows of the matrix
In the first column of the matrix, enter the current
solution to the function or module, if the product
exists

Apply concept generation methods and record the

concepts in the columns of the matrix for each
function
Map the range the solutions per each function to a
classification scheme, such as energy domains.
Judge if the solutions are too focused or cover a good
breadth. If the solutions are too focused, carry out
further sessions of the intuitive and directed concept
generation
When good breadth of ideas and technologies are
realized in the morphological matrix, combine the
ideas into diverse concept variants that seek to
satisfy the entire product specification
Morphological Analysis: Chart
Problem: Design a manual propulsion system for a small boat

Design Alternative ideas
parameters
Input rotating oscillating reciprocating
motion
Input one Both One foot Both feet Hand &foot
source hand hands
Input Hand pedals lever treadmill
device crank
Output fin screw propeller Paddle jet
device wheel
Mechanism gears Belt Chain & linkage pump
pulley sprocket
Operator sitting standing reclining kneeling
position
Morphological Analysis: Chart
Problem: Design a manual propulsion system for a small boat

Design Alternative ideas
parameters
Input rotating oscillating reciprocating
motion
Input one Both One foot Both feet Hand &foot
source hand hands
Input Hand pedals lever treadmill
device crank
Output fin screw propeller Paddle jet
device wheel
Mechanism gears Belt Chain & linkage pump
pulley sprocket
Operator sitting standing reclining kneeling
position
Morphological Chart
Problem: Mechanical ventilation unit

Summary
One should be aware of mental blocks and take

necessary precautions to remove them while solving
problems.
Intuitive and directed methods available for coming
up with creative solutions
Practice will be needed to use the creative methods
for solutions

Thank you

Lecture 10
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Concept Selection
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Concept Selection
Contents
Estimation
Measurement Scales
Concept selection process
Pugh Concept Selection Charts
Example

Estimating Technical Feasibility
Any person can cultivate a good estimating ability

Depends on familiarity with dimensional units and
familiarity with the different values along the dimensions
Many do have the problems in estimating and the
estimates can vary by orders of magnitude
Some estimations use perceived units such as meter(m),
Kilograms (Kg), Temperature (K) and they are easy to
estimate.
Others such as Energy (watts or joules) and pressure
(Kpa) etc are derived and little intuitive in nature.
In such situations, it is better to compare it to familiar
examples to us and see if the same makes sense?

Estimation
There are basic steps to estimating: imagine, model, compare and

judge
Imagine the concept to estimate. Imagine the points along the
energy, material and information flows through the concept where
one might measure the change in input, output or capacity of
concept
Construct a very simple model that relates the capacity or flow
through a concept to known quantities
Use the concept and the model to provide a comparison with
known quantity
Judge whether the estimated quantity compares with a known
quantity
When estimating on preliminary concept, it is noted that estimate is
generally accurate only to certain order of magnitude
Estimation
Preliminary conceptual estimates are generally

accurate only to certain order of magnitude
Eliminate concepts that are not technically
feasible
Out of bounds of feasibility are eliminated
Retain concepts that require the well structured
design to resolve into a winning preliminary
concept to expend further resources on

Decision Methods
Steps are:
Evaluate each alternative with respect to each criterion
Aggregate determined values into overall score
Compare overall scores to determine best alternative
Ordinal (qualitative) methods:
require ranking alternatives worst best
Cardinal (quantitative) methods:
quantify measure on an interval scale
New product profiles and datum (Pugh) methods
Which assume decision makers can aggregate partial
evaluations intuitively

Measurement Scales
Rating a design parameter among several

alternative designs is a measurement
Nominal scale is a named category or identifier
like thick or thin, red or black, or yes or no.
The only comparison that can be made is
whether the categories are the same or not
Variables that are measured on a nominal
scale are called categorical variables

Measurement Scales
Ordinal scale is a measurement scale in

which the items are placed in rank order
The ordinal scale says nothing about how far
apart the elements are from each other
Pairwise comparison
Number of possible comparisons = n (n-1) / 2,
n-number of criteria

Measurement Scales
On an interval scale of measurement, differences

between arbitrary pairs of values can be meaningfully
compared, but the zero point on the scale is arbitrary
To determine how much worse A is compared with D
Addition and subtraction are possible, but not
division and multiplication. Central tendency can be
determined with the mean, median, or mode
For example, we could distribute the results from the
previous example along a 1 to 10 scale to create an
interval scale

Measurement Scales
Ratio scale is an interval scale in which a zero

value is used to anchor the scale
Each data point is expressed in cardinal
numbers (2, 2.5, etc.) and is ordered with
respect to an absolute point
All arithmetic operations are allowed
A ratio scale is needed to establish meaningful
weighting factors
Most technical parameters in engineering
design, like weight, force, and velocity, are
measured on a ratio scale

Comparing scales
Ref: http://rchsbowman.wordpress.com/2009/08/12/statistics-notes-data-classification/
Remember
The goal of concept selection is not to

Select the best concept.
The goal of concept selection is to

Develop the best concept.
So remember to combine and refine the

concepts to develop better ones!

Caveats
Beware of the best "average" product.

Perform concept selection for each different customer
group and compare results.
Check sensitivity of selection to the importance
weightings and ratings.
May want to use all of detailed requirements in final
stages of selection.
Note features which can be applied to other
concepts.

Concept Selection Process
The selection process is a five step process and

iterations:
Forming consensus on the criteria
Forming consensus on the alternative
Ranking alternatives
Evaluating alternative
Attacking the negatives

1. Forming consensus on the criteria
The first step is to establish evaluation criteria on which the concept

selection will be based
To establish criteria definitions design team should start with one
member articulating the proposed list of evaluation criteria developed
from customer needs and engineering specification
As this list is formed, other team members should chime in with more
criteria, until a set of criteria on board that everyone agrees could be
legitimate criteria
Cost, Easy to manufacture, Easy to clean, Maintainability, safety etc.
Refine each criterion into a common definition

consistent with previous metrics
scope of the criteria
This process can help with the problem of failure to consider all
ramifications of decisions
Quick reference to the team members
2. Forming consensus on the alternative
Different alternatives need to be understood on a

common basis
Team members voice the alternatives that are given
labels, and these alternatives should be those that
proceed from concept generation
Alternatives needs to be refined to a level where every
team member will understand it
Each alternative is given a commonly understood
definition, and articulation of what will be needed to
engineer the concept into a final product

2. Forming consensus on the alternative

3. Ranking Alternatives
The next step is to rank each clearly defined alternative

on each clearly defined criterion
There are different ranking schemes that can be used,

depending upon the quality of the information available
The ranking is completed using the decision matrix
To rank the alternatives a scale is used such as (-,s,+)

where a(-) is worse than (s) is worse that (+)

4. Evaluating Alternatives
Once the ranking is completed for each criterion, the

evaluations should be collected into a over all summary
rankings on each alternative
Humans cannot process all rankings simultaneously when
comparing two alternatives
The criteria ranking needs to be aggregated into one or
more ranks for simpler ordering of alternatives into a best
to worst ranking that can be understood
An ordering of all the alternatives form overall worst to the
overall best should be completed

5. Attacking the negatives
The alternatives that rate poorly should be taken off chart

and that rate favorably must be closely examined
In particular, the alternatives that rate high overall but have
a few low scores should be closely scrutinized.
(attacking the negatives)
For the alternatives such as negative ranked criteria,
design team should
Clearly state the what is causing the negative effect
Apply the theory of innovative problem solving
Require out of box thinking
Attacking negatives is very effective at the earlier period of
product concept selection phase

Pugh concept selection charts
The above discussed process can be applied with decision

making tools as developed by Pugh
These tools known as Pugh charts, use minimal evaluation
scale and three overall ranking matrices (-,s,+)
Pugh charts are the most effective known tools for
preliminary concept selection when there is minimal
information quality available

Pugh concept
Alternatives Evaluation criteria

Pugh concept
Select Datum
Next step is to establish the evaluation scale
The team should select one alternative (a existing
product with the same company or a competitive
product) that will be ranked as (s) (or 0) on every
criterion and be called datum
The datum is the alternative to which every other
concept will be compared

Pugh Chart

Pugh concept
Ranking and Assessment

Having selected a datum all the alternatives are
evaluated on each criterion, one criterion at a time
relative to the datum
If team agrees that this alternative performs less than
datum then it is assigned (-) rank, if equal (S) rank and if
better than datum it is assigned (+) rank
Sometimes (--) denoting much worse and (++) much
better are also used.
When a convergence among team is not readily
apparent, then the design team should simple rate the
alternative with (s) or a (?) and in overall rating analysis
treat as (s)
Pugh concept
Alternative rank Ordering

with the alternative rated on every criterion, the rating
should be combined into overall scores that can be used to
order the alternatives from best to worst
To do this simple average summation of the ranks is not
adequate
Three scores must be presented
Average (of all negatives and positives)
Sum of negatives
Sum of positives
These three overall score should be considered when

progressing to the next round of attacking negatives and
reevaluation
++ (Much better)
- - (Much worse)

Pugh concept
Attacking the Negatives

Having assessed the alternatives on the criteria, the
lower average-rated alternatives should be discarded
from further consideration and relegated to side
Then the highly average rated alternative should be
scrutinized
The specific concept-generation activity will lead to new
alternatives and thus the need for another round of
ranking and evaluation

Pugh concept
Iteration and solution

This process of evaluation, refinement and
attacking the negative should be repeated
until the team converges on wining
combination

Sample Pugh Chart

Example: Coffee Chopper

Criteria and Evaluation

The better/worse method
One evaluation procedure commonly used is the

better/worse method
First we select an arbitrary alternative from x to from
the beginning of list{x0} indexed by j
For other alternative we start at the bottom of the list
and move up through the list asking
Is design xi as good as or better than design xj in
Once xi is no longer better than xj ,then insert xj into the list
at that point. The set of possible ranks for any evaluation is
S={better, same, worse}
The alternative at the head of the list is better than the rest for
the criteria and is therefore recommended
The better/worse method
C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1
C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C3 C3 C3
C3 C3 C3 C3 C3 C2 C2 C2
C4 C5 C5 C5 C5 C5 C5 C5
C5 C4 C4 C4 C4 C4 C4 C4
C1, C2 , C3 , C4, C5 are alternative concepts

A Critique Of Design Evaluation Schemes
There are many possible concept selection approaches.

A good criterion to judge these method is by the level of
information quality available at the time of decision
At the conceptual design phase information quality may

be low but as the process progresses the quality of
information will become better
There are many decision making process such as AHP,

goal programming, utility theory, probability methods and
fuzzy sets all have various advocates for various design
decision making problems

Thank you

Lecture 11
Concept Embodiment &

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Product Metrics
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Concept embodiment &

Product Metrics
Concept Embodiment

Contents
Overview and Context

Refining geometry and
layout
Product Embodiment
process
Embodiment checklist
System modeling
Mechanical embodiment
principles
FMEA
Summary

Overview and context
Embodiment
a tangible or visible form of an idea, quality, or feeling
Concept embodiment is perhaps the task most
identified with an engineer in the product
development process
During this stage the engineer carry out many
activities
Choice of components, interfaces, materials, geometry,
fasteners, connectors etc
To make these choices, an engineer must
understand a product as a system, one that
interacts with its environment
Overview and context
Continued
These methods range from mathematical and
empirical modeling of a products performance to
the life cycle issues of service and
environmental impact
The framework provides a context for
implementing the concept embodiment and has
proven more effective than others in educational
resources
When studying this framework, it is important to
understand the intrinsic complexity and
nonlinearity of the process
PD Stages and Information
The first stage includes customer needs

analysis, functional modeling, and the product-
architectural layout
The next stage of the process, concepts are
developed as the line drawing and high level
geometric descriptions. The focus is on the
operational principles of the product
The concept embodiment stage seeks to resolve
the focus of the product to a singular crisp
description. This process involves number of
decisions

Original Original
Concept realization
Evolved Evolved
Concept product
realization

Refining Geometry And
Layout
In the context of creating a robust product or family

of products, two issues drive concept embodiment
Refining a products geometry and architecture
System modeling toward detail design
These two issues pertain to four design scenarios:
original design, adaptive design where a significant
new technology is introduced, adaptive design
where a simple subsystem is modified, or parametric
design
The intent of this methods is to guide the
transformation of a concept sketch to refined
geometry and material choices

General Process Of Product
Embodiment
Ideally the result of the concept development is a
single concept, or product family, with one chosen
alternative for each subsystem In reality, one usually
ends up with one of three situations
a single concept with functional choices that are not set
because they are not primary
a family or platform of the products with single choices for
each member of family and,
two or three alternative concepts that might need further
refinement before a choice is made
For the first two cases, embodiment design may
progress unhindered, provided the product concept
is truly feasible. In the third case, however, the
alternative concepts must be developed in parallel
until a reasonable decision is made
Embodiment continued
Embodiment design, moves the process iteratively
toward a definitive form including
Geometric layout
Material composition
Quality and manufacturability issues
Economics
Challenge in embodiment design is that the
parameters in the subsystems can become highly
coupled, that is changes in one parameter affect the
others
This process is generally iterative, a change is made
in a variable or subsystem and the effects are
determined. If they are in right direction, another
change in the same direction is attempted
The general idea is to iteratively refine the
geometry and layout of a product from an
abstract form to a concrete one. Figure in the
next slide illustrates a process of this idea
The process begins by considering the product
specifications. Using customer needs and these
specifications, the critical needs are identified
that will drive the embodiment of the product
After choosing the driving specifications, an
overall layout of the product is drawn to the
scale based on the concept drawing
Through these drawings, the following items are

illustrated
Maximum dimensions of the product
Clearance between relative subsystems
Installation paths
General arrangement of components relative to one another
Once rough scale sketches are completed, the
main function carriers of the functional model
and product concept are identified
Based on these results preliminary alternative
layouts of the remaining main function carriers
are developed
Using functional model and product architecture layout,
rough layouts should be developed for the remaining
function carriers. In addition, auxiliary functions should
be identified that are needed for the current layout
With the rough layouts developed for the main,
supporting, and auxiliary, functions, these layouts must
now be detailed, ensuring the capabilities of all
subassembly interfaces
The embodiment process concludes with the testing of
the physical prototypes and the design of appropriate
tooling. The product layout is updated on the basis of
these testing results and the final documentations is
prepared for manufacturing
Embodiment Checklist
To support the general embodiment process a second

basic method is the application of an embodiment
checklist
Such a checklist provides a systematic approach to apply
proven design principles during product development
This checklist is created from the generic design principles
of the ensuring robustness, clarity, simplicity, and the
safety in a product
Robustness is the design principle that seeks to minimize
the variability in the performance of the product under all
expected environmental and user conditions. This principle
provides a basis for understanding the impact of noise on a
products performance
Embodiment Checklist
Continued
Clarity is the basic principle that all functions should be
unambiguously specified, in form, parameters, manufacturing,
and assembly. Unintended functions should not be present in
a product
The design principle of simplicity on the other hand is the
minimization of the information content within a product
design
The remaining generic design principle is safety. Its purpose
is to minimize the risks created by the use of a product. As
such this principle seeks to ensure that a product has the
desired strength, reliability, environmental impact, ergonomics
and accident prevention measures
Based on these principles an embodiment checklist is
formulated by considering the range of the possible
engineering specifications applied to commercial products

Advanced Methods
Systems Modeling
Embodiment Principles
Alignment of forces
3-2-1 alignment
Deflection Reduction and the Abbe Principle
Forces in Members
Vibration Reduction
FMEA Method

Advanced Methods: System
Modeling
Systems models are the representations of a product
that predict the products performance under varying
input conditions
Systems Modeling
Functional models represent high level systems models
of a product which takes the material, energy and
signal as input and convert into the desired output
These models need to be extended to facilitate design-
parameters and manufacturing decisions during concept
embodiment
Mathematical methods and physical prototypes are the
means to perform this extension

Modeling Continued
Virtual and physical modeling of a product provide in-

depth insights into its operation and possible
improvements
Three tasks are needed to develop virtual or
mathematical model
Beginning with customer need engineering specification
the critical product components are identified
High level model
After identifying the physical principles and assumptions
for each customer need, a balance relationship is
created to document a high level physical model

Modeling Continued
Balance relationships
The last task in formulating mathematical models for a
product is to convert the balance relationships into a set of
mathematical equations
Physical prototype models
In some cases, cycle time, economic, or product-
complexity considerations may prevent the development
of mathematical model
The creation of a physical prototype can be used as an
alternative modeling approach
The intent here is to create a bench-top or other
experiment for a customer need, focusing on the effected
product components and variables

Mechanical Embodiment
Principles: Alignment of forces
Five design principles are presented as follows
Alignment of forces
To properly design forces in a mechanical assembly,
one should distinguish three forces that act on any
moving part
Weight
Frictional force
Applied force (load)
To design an exceptional system of movement in
machine, one should consider subassemblies that
move relative to one another as a distinct moving
parts

Principles Continued
To do this one should do the following

On an isometric sketch of each moving part, determine
and draw on the sketch the centre of the mass. This
location is where the weight acts as a single force down,
and the internal force act in the opposite direction to the
motion
On each moving part, draw each applied force. Then
determine the centroid of the applied forces and the vector
sum of the applied forces. The vector sum of the forces
act as a single force at the applied force centroid
On each moving part, draw each frictional force. then
determine the centroid of the frictional forces and the
vector sum of the frictional forces the vector sum of the
forces acts as single force at the frictional force centroid
Principles Continued
Redesign the force
locations so that all
the centers of force-
weight / inertia,
applied, and
frictional are on the
top of each other. If
they are not, the part
will bind as it moves.
Be sure to consider
the variation of the
force values as the
devices operated.

3-2-1 Alignment
To reduce and eliminate these problem of proper

interfacing, all part and subsystem interfaces should be
mechanically designed with sound principles. Any
mechanical interface can be broken into two aspects
how it is positioned and how it is restrained and
positioning is independent of restraining.
The best approach to positioning is to design all parts
with 3-2-1alignment scheme
Every part that must be rigidly attached into an assembly
has 3 perpendicular positioning surfaces defined on the
part. On one plane, three points are defined as a
alignment points - they contact the greater assembly
the part fits within
3-2-1 Alignment Continued
On a perpendicular plane,2 more
points are selected as alignment
points. Finally on the third
perpendicular plane,1point is
selected as alignment point
This configuration of three planes
defines the position and orientation
of the part in the garter assembly
and it is ready to be fastened into
place
A 3-2-1 alignment scheme is
beneficial in that it leaves no
uncertainty in how parts or modules
interface the greater assembly
When 3-2-1 alignment process is
not used it is for one of two
reasons. Either design process is
sloppy or the part is over
constrained
Vibration Reduction
Another common mechanical embodiment design

problem is vibration either mechanical or acoustic
There are three basic approaches to reducing vibrations
Reduce the source
Change the transmission
Reduce the transmission
To execute these approaches, one should map the

vibration loads though the device, from the source point,
through the parts to the point of the vibration problem
The first approach is to reduce the source
One should observe the actual sources of vibration and its plane of motion and
examine where that is being restrained

Vibration Reduction
Continued
The second approach to vibration reduction is to change
the natural frequency of the source or transmitting parts
Changes made in shape to non-planner and non-
cylindrical shapes can greatly stiffen a part, thereby
increasing its natural frequency, perhaps to a regime
where the vibrations cause no problems
The last approach is one often applied; it calls for the
insertion of dampeners within the travel path of the
noise from its source to its area of concern
One approach is to insert such vibration isolators at the part
attachment points
Another approach is to dampen the transmitting parts rather than
the transmitting joints

FMEA Method: Linking Fault
States To System Modeling
The foundation of robust product design is built

on the combined concept of customer quality
and engineers quality
Customers quality is to minimize the
performance variation of the product for all
environmental and user conditions
Engineering quality is to ensure that the product
functions as it is intended, without falling short of
a customers implicit expectation. It may be
termed as expected quality of a product

FMEA Method: Linking Fault States
To System Modeling Continued
The embodiment checklist focus on expected

quality. A more advanced and complementary
technique is known as FMEA
It is the analytical tool used by the product
development team to identify, define, and
eliminate, to the extent possible, known or
potential failure modes of the product
FMEA begins at the initiation of the products
business case and continues throughout the life
of the product

FMEA supports the product development process in

reducing the risk of failure by
Aiding in the objective evaluation of the design requirements
and design alternatives
Aiding in the initial design for manufacturing and assembly
requirements
Increasing the probability that the potential failure modes and
their effects on system operation have been considered in the
design/development process
Providing additional information to aid in planning of through and
efficient design improvements and development testing
Providing an open issue format for recommending and
tracking risk reducing action
Providing further references to aid in analyzing field concerns,
evaluating design changes, and developing advanced
designs
Three basic elements of FMEA

Failure modes: entails identification
Failure effects: entails ramifications
Failure criticality: measures relative importance of a given failure
state.
The FMEA process is as follows
List each subassembly and component number, along with the
basic function or functional chain of the components
Identify and list the potential failures for each product
components
List possible causes or mechanisms of the failure modes
List the potential effects of the failure, including impact on the
environment, property, or hazards to human users

Rate the likelihood of occurrence (O) of the failure, the

rating should be on the scale of 1-10 as given by
1 - no effect
2/3 - low (few failure)
4/5/6 - moderate (occasional failures)
7/8 - high (repeated failure)
9/10 - very high
Estimate the potential severity (S) of the failure and its
effect. Scale of 1-10 is used
1 - no effect
2 - very minor (noticed by discriminating customer)
3 - minors (noticed by average customer)
4/5/6 - moderate (customers are annoyed)
7/8 - high (customers are dissatisfied)
9/10 - very high and hazardous

8 b. for Severity of Failure

8 c. Rating of Occurrence of Failure

List current or expected design controls/tests for

detecting (D) the failure before the product is released.
scale of 1-10 is used
1 - almost certain
2 - high
3 - moderate
4/5/6 - moderate most customers are annoyed
7/8 - low
9/10 - very remote to absolute uncertainty
Calculate the risk priority number (RPN) = (S) x (O) x (D)
Develop recommended actions for the failure modes,
assign, responsibilities to appropriate parties and team
members, an set a schedule for implementing the
actions

8 d. Rating of Detection of Failure

Implement the corrective actions, update the S-O-D

ratings, and calculate the PRN for the updated design
The results of this FMEA process may be documented
with the template provided

FMEA entails a deliberative, thoughtful and sincere

process of satisfying the engineering quality of a
product
It produces the living document
It systematically provides a means to satisfy our
ethical responsibilities that a product will be safe and
effective in all reasonable operational models
This is the design FMEA is discussed other types
also exists such as a process FMEA
This type of FMEA redirects the focus to failure
modes caused by or within manufacturing and
assembly operations

Summary
Concept embodiment, the stage of the product

development where concepts are transformed
into physical realizations
Concept embodiment is a highly nonlinear,

iterative, and complex process
It requires sound engineering skills ranging from

modeling and experimentation to the
manufacturing, assembly and tooling design

Modelling of Product
Metrics

Model preparation
Map or relate the customer need weights to the product functions

Customer requirement Need Sub function
weight Supply air
- Should dry the wet hair 9 Convey the flow
Transfer heat to air
- Easy to hold and use- 7
Provide handle
Should be safe 5
Insulate the heater
Easy to store 2
Minimize the heat loss
Less power consumption 1
Fold the handle
Increase efficiency
Accept command ON/ OFF

Model preparation
Identify the functions that relate most strongly to the customer

needs
Customer requirement Need Sub function
weight Supply air
- Should dry the wet hair 9 Convey the flow
Transfer heat to air
- Easy to hold and use- 7 Provide handle
Should be safe 5 Insulate the heat
Easy to store 2 Minimize the heat loss
Less power consumption 1 Fold the handle
Increase efficiency
Accept command ON/ OFF

Model preparation
Choose the metrics (As an example 3 sub - functions)
Supply air unit

Volume of air M3/min
Transfer heat to air unit

Initial temperature of air C
Outlet temperature of air C
Time required to heat up the air min
Insulate the heat unit

Thermal conductivity of enclosure (k) W/mK

Model preparation
Identify target values (As an example 3 sub - functions)
Supply air unit Target value
Volume of air M3/min 4
Transfer heat to air unit Target value

Initial temperature of air C 27
Outlet temperature of air C 60
Time required to heat up the Seconds 2-3
air
Insulate the heat unit Target value

Thermal conductivity of enclosure (k) W/mK 0.020
Surface temperature of the enclosure C < 30
Target values are based on benchmarking results / calculations

Testing the concepts (Surface temperature of
the enclosure from the previous slide)
Solution of this model will
Mathematical modelling tell you the temperature
at the surface of the
equipment
Equipment 25C
side Human side
Heater + Fingers +
Fan + Hand etc
100C
Controls
Physical prototyping
15-Oct-1615-Oct-16 Product Design MMZG541 BITS Pilani 46 46
Construct the boundary and balance
relationship
Equipment Human side

side
Fingers +
Heater + Hand etc
Fan +
Controls
15-Oct-16 Product Design

ProductMMZG541
Design MMZG541
BITS Pilani
BITS Pilani 47 47
Computational model
By applying heat balance

i.e , Heat in = Heat out
11 0,
= = 22 ,
, - is the solution needed for finding out temperature

Surface. We can use numerical models etc to
Arrive at the solution.
( The surface temperature of the surface should be sufficiently low for safe operation)
15-Oct-1615-Oct-16 Product Design MMZG541 BITS Pilani 48 48
Final Steps
Interrogate (Validate ) the model

Extreme limits etc are to be checked
Finally physical tests are to be conducted
Display and use the model

We must found out different design
configurations which gives the optimized design
These configurations have to be validated
again using DFM, DFA , DFE
15-Oct-1615-Oct-16 Product Design

ProductMMZG541
Design MMZG541
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Thank you

Lecture 12
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Physical Prototypes
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Physical Prototypes
Contents
Introduction
Prototypes and Design process
Rapid Prototyping
Different Techniques

Introduction
Product should really function the way it is

expected to work
Prototypes are physical models of the product

that are tested in some way to validate the
design decisions that have been made up to that
point in the design process
Various forms are used in different ways

throughout the design process

Prototype
Physical instantiation of a product, meant to be

used to help resolve one or more issues during
the product development
Communicates the visual layout and a products
look and feel
Exploration, optimization and validation
Fabrication, assembly issues
Visually inspected, tactilely experienced, tested,
modelled, varied and simply observed as a 3D
entity.

Choices of modelling and simulation
Analytical methods (Simulations)
Physical methods (Prototypes)
Objective:
Minimize the product development cycle while
delivering a quality product that satisfies the
customer needs over varying conditions of use.

Questions to be asked when considering
Prototypes
Should the product development team build a

prototype(s) at a certain time?
What is the purpose(s) of the prototyping efforts?
What are the possible forms of the prototype?
What simplifications can be made that are
independent of the prototypes purpose?
What types of tests will be applied to the prototypes?
What is the risk of constructing prototypes or
continuing without them?

Types of Prototypes
Physical
prototype alpha beta

prototype prototype
final
product
mechanism
linked to circuit
Focused simulation Comprehensive
simulation
of circuits
not
generally
feasible
equations
modeling supports
Analytical
Physical vs. Analytical
Physical Prototypes Analytical Prototypes

Tangible approximation of Mathematical model of the
the product product
Exhibit unmodeled Exhibit behavior arising from
behavior explicitly modeled
phenomena. (not always
anticipated)
Behavior may be an artifact An artifact of the analytical
of the approximation method
Best for communication Allow more experimental
freedom than physical
models
Focused vs. Comprehensive
Focused Prototypes Comprehensive Prototypes

Implement one or a few Implement many or all
attributes of the product attributes of the product
Answer specific Offer opportunities for

questions about the rigorous testing
product design
Generally several are Best for milestones and

required integration

Analytical models
Simulation of system models (CFD, FEA etc.)

Faster to do, sometimes inexpensive
Limitations
Accuracy of models due to theoretical
limitations , may poorly estimate the actual
product behavior
Empirical relationships in many fields such as
heat transfer, fluid mechanics are used

Physical models
Unexpected phenomena and effects are always

discovered in the physical usage of the product
Paper and virtual models hide many mysteries of
how a product will actually perform
Limitations
It is not practical to build a large number of physical
prototypes
May be very expensive
Large delays in development cycle

Trade - offs
Technical risk
High
Software,
Aeroplanes,
consumer
Automobiles
products
Low Cost of prototype High
Pen, Pencil, Buildings,

stapler Ships
Low

Trade - offs
Technical risk
High
Mix of
More of
Prototype /
prototype
Analytical
validation
models
Low Cost of prototype High
More of
Prototype analytical
simulation
Low

Prototype & Model Testing throughout
the Design Process
Phase Zero
Product Concept Model / Industrial Design
Conceptual Design
Proof-of Concept Prototype
Embodiment Design
Alpha-Prototype Testing / Experimental Prototype
Detail Design
Beta-Prototype Testing
Manufacturing
Preproduction Prototype Testing

the Design Process
Phase Zero: Product Concept Model
A full-scale or reduced-scale model
Technical designers & industrial designers
Appearance to gauge customer reaction
Glitzy models and pass around
Look and feel of the product
Simple materials: foam or foam core
Many options quickly
Renderings / Drawings
Mock-up: look a like with no working
internal components

the Design Process
Conceptual Design: Proof-of Concept Prototype
Performing the functions satisfying needs and
specifications
Succession of proof-of-concept models
Showing that the concept will deliver the needed
function
Some physical and others through rough sketches
Readily available materials
Whether the imagined physics of the concept on paper
indeed actually happen, and what any unforeseen physics
might be.

the Design Process
Experimental Prototypes
Model a subsystem of a product while converging to a
target performance of the subsystem
Real products physics
Embodiment Design: Alpha-Prototypes
Testing product prototypes
Parts are made to the final design drawing with same
material as the product but not using the same
manufacturing processes as the production-run parts
Parts that should be made of castings or forgings will
be made by machining as the tooling is still under
design
the Design Process
Detail Design: Beta-Prototypes
Full-size functional product with the same materials
may not use actual production processes
Proof-of-process prototype
Customers are enlisted to help run these tests
Failure modes and effects are analyzed by
undertaking the extreme operational range
Results are used to make any remaining changes in
the product, complete the production planning and try
out the production tooling

the Design Process
Manufacturing: Preproduction Prototypes
First several thousand of units of production from the
actual tooling, production line and using the assigned
production workers
Represents the product that will be shipped and sold to
the customer
Tests are made to verify and document the quality of the
design, production and assembly processes

Uses of Prototypes
Communication (Flexible product choices)

demonstration of product for feedback
e.g., 3D physical models of style or function
Learning (costly iterations)
answering questions about performance or feasibility
e.g., proof-of-concept model
Integration (parallel activities)
combination of sub-systems into system model
e.g., alpha or beta test models
Milestones (freedom and care in allocating resources)
goal for development teams schedule
e.g., first testable hardware

Pitfalls of Prototypes
Delaying time-to-market
Unnecessarily detailed or complex prototypes
Schedules that do not allow for prototype test results
to be integrated into the final product
They help verify the product but they have a high
cost in money and time
Trade-off between the number of prototypes built
and tested and the cost and length of the product
development cycle
Strong trend toward replacing physical prototypes
with virtual prototypes (economical and faster)
Materials for Prototypes
Wood and Wood Products
availability, workability, simple tools, sizes
Plastics
Variety, Properties
Metals
Industry specific, full-scale functional components
(tooling), consumer durables (off the shelf
components)
Adhesives
Helps in fastening items within a prototype
Other Materials
Clay, machining wax, foam, rubber, paper, cloth
Issues with selecting materials
Cost
Minimise, without sacrificing prototype goals
Availability
Readily available materials
Ability to accept changes
Materials should accommodate modifications in
dimensions, surface requirements etc.
Ease of use and forming capability
Special tools, safety equipment, fixtures etc. should
be avoided
Scalable Properties
Valid material properties must be chosen to satisfy the
prototype use and level of approximation
Processes for Prototypes
Epoxy molding
CNC machining
Cast metal molding
Machined aluminium molding
Injection molding
Vacuum forming
Silicon rubber (RTV) molding
Electronic breadboarding
Mechanical breadboarding
Rapid prototyping
Rapid Prototyping
Is a technology that produces prototypes directly

from computer-aided design (CAD) models in a
fraction of the time required to make them by
machining or molding methods
Solid freeform fabrication
Used to check form, fit and function
Check function of kinematic motion but not
strong enough to be used for testing strength

Rapid Prototyping

Rapid Prototyping
1. Create a CAD model of the design

2. Convert the CAD model to STL format
(Standard Tessellation Language)
3. Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers

4. Construct the model one layer atop another
5. Clean and finish the model

Rapid Prototyping
R. Noorani, Rapid Prototyping, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2006, p. 37.

Stereolithography
This process uses a

UV laser beam to build
up layers of solid
polymer by scanning
on the surface of a
bath of photosensitive
polymer
Where the laser strikes
the liquid polymer it
rapidly polymerizes
and forms a solid
networked polymer
Stereolithography
The Stereolithography process begins with the conversion of
customer 3D CAD Data into an STL file. Proprietary software is used to
slice the model into a series of fine layers, with support structures added
as necessary. The STL file is then sent to print on the Stereolithography
machine.
Using a UV laser bream the first cross section of the STL file is traced
out onto a platform, placed within the vat of photo-curable resin the
resin cures/hardens as it comes into contact with the laser.

Stereolithography
Once the first layer has been

completed the platform is lowered
by 0.05 0.15 mm with a fresh layer
of resin covering the build surface.
The next layer is then traced out,
curing and bonding the resin to the
layer below.
The stereolithography
process repeats layer by layer until
the model and any support
structures are fully grown in the
resin. Once complete the platform is
raised, allowing excess resin to
drain away before the model is Source: https://www.protocam.com/
removed from the platform.
Selective Laser Sintering
This process was

developed to use
stronger, higher-melting-
temperature materials
than polymers in the RP
process
Any powder that can be
fused together by
sintering can be used
Thermoset polymer
particles, or metal
particles coated with
plastic to facilitate
bonding
Fused Deposition Modeling
This process is an example of several
liquid-state deposition processes used
to make prototypes
A continuous filament of thermoplastic
polymer is heated and extruded
through nozzle and it rapidly solidifies
and again new material is deposited
over earlier material and bonding
takes place.
Strong and tough engineered
polymers like ABS and polycarbonate
are used
Produces better mechanical
properties parts than
stereolithography
3D Printing
The process is based on the principle of the inkjet printer

3D Printing
Source: https://www.createitreal.com/
Example Prototypes
Injection Molded Part Paper Prototype Made by LOM
Plastic Prototype Made by FDM

Summary
Necessity of constricting physical prototypes vs desire to

minimise the cycle time and cost.
Choosing type of prototype and uses will enhance the
likelihood of product success.
Variety of materials and processes available for
prototyping. We nee to understand the range to be
effective and efficient in use of those.
Rapid prototyping offers novel opportunities for prototype
fabrication and testing
Virtual prototyping is gaining importance

Thank you

Lecture 13
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Product Development Economics
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Product Development
Economics
Contents
Introduction
Categories of costs
Cost Estimation
Break-Even Analysis
Net present Value

Introduction
What price
customer is
willing to pay
What does
What do
the
customers
competitor
want
offer
New
Product
Pricing

Introduction
An engineering design is not complete until we

have a good idea of the cost required to build the
design or manufacture the product
Understanding the elements that make up cost is
vital because competition between companies and
between nations is fiercer than ever
Decisions made in the design process commit 70
to 80 percent of the cost of a product
It is in the conceptual and embodiment design
stages that a majority of the costs are locked into
the product

Why should Economic Analysis be
performed?
Go/no-go milestones
Should we try to develop a product to address this
market opportunity?
Should we proceed with the implementation of a
selected concept?
Should we launch the product we have developed?
Operational design and development decisions
Should we spend 1000000 rupees amount to hire an
outside firm to develop this component in order to
save 2 months of development time?
Should we launch the product in 4 months at a unit
cost of 250 rupees or wait until 6 months when we
can reduce the cost to 200 rupees
Ways of using Cost Estimates
Provide information to establish the selling price

of a product or a quotation for a good or service
Determine the most economical method,
process, or material for manufacturing a product
Become a basis for a cost-reduction program
Determine standards of production performance
that may be used to control costs
Provide input concerning the profitability of a new
product

Make-Buy Decision
One of the uses of a detailed cost evaluation methods is

to decide whether it is less costly to manufacture a part
in-house than to purchase it from an outside supplier
The parts that go into a product fall into three categories
related to whether they should be made in-house or
purchased from suppliers
Parts for which there is no in-house process capability
obviously need to be purchased from suppliers
Parts that are critical to the quality of the product, involve
proprietary manufacturing methods or materials should be
made in-house
The majority of parts do not fall into either of the previous
categories and the decision will usually be based on cost
Advantages of Outsourcing
Lower cost of manufacture provides lower prime costs

(materials and labor), especially with overseas
suppliers
Suppliers can provide special expertise in design and
manufacturing that the product developer may not have
Outsourcing provides increased manufacturing
flexibility due to reduction in fixed costs. This lowers the
breakeven point for a product
Manufacturing in a foreign country may result in access
to a foreign market for the product
9
Disadvantages of Outsourcing
Outsourcing results in a loss of in-house design and

manufacturing knowledge that is transferred to the supplier, and
maybe to your competitors
It is more difficult to improve design for manufacture when in-
house manufacturing capability is gone
Possible unsatisfactory quality
In offshoring the supply chain is much longer. There is always a
danger of delays in supply due to delay in gaining entry into port,
strikes on the docks, and severe weather in transit
Also, offshoring may present such issues as currency exchange,
communication in a different language and business culture, and
the added expense in coordinating with an external supplier
Offshoring reduces job opportunities for local people
10
Categories of Costs: Variable and Fixed
We can divide all costs into two broad categories

Product costs (variable cost)
vary with each unit of product made. Material cost
and labor cost are good examples
Period costs (fixed cost)
derive their name from the fact that they occur over
a period of time regardless of the amount (volume)
of product that is made or sold

Examples of Variable Costs
Materials
Direct labor
Direct production supervision
Maintenance costs
Quality-control staff
Intellectual property licenses
Packaging and storage costs
Scrap losses and spoilage

Examples of Fixed Costs
1. Indirect plant cost
Investment costs
Depreciation on capital investment
Interest on capital investment and inventory
Overhead costs (burden)
Supervisors not directly associated with a specific product
or process
Utilities and telecommunications
2. Management and administrative expenses
Share of cost of corporate executive staff
Legal and auditing services
3. Selling expenses
Sales force
Delivery and warehouse costs
Characterization of Costs: Direct and Indirect
Another way of categorizing costs is by

Direct Cost
directly associated with a particular unit of product that
is manufactured
Indirect Cost
cannot be easily identified with any particular
product

General & Administrative Expenses
Fixed costs such as

marketing and sales costs
legal expense
security costs
Financial staff expense
administrative
These costs are often lumped into an overall
category known as G&A expenses

Steps to determine Cost to Manufacture
Determine the material costs
Since the cost of material makes up 50 to 60 percent of the cost
of many products, this is a good place to start
Prepare the operations route sheet
The route sheet is a sequenced list of all operations required to
produce the part
Determine the time required to carry out each operation
Whenever a new part is first made on a machine, there must be
a setup period during which old tooling is taken out and new
tooling is installed and adjusted
Convert time to cost
The times for each element in each operation are added to find
the total time to complete each operation of the process. This
time is multiplied by labor cost (Rs. /hr)

Terminology
The chief cost elements of direct material, direct labor,
and any other direct expenses determine the prime cost
Prime cost + indirect Manufacturing costs such as light,
power, maintenance, supplies, and factory indirect labor
comprise the factory cost
The manufacturing cost is made up of the factory cost +
general fixed expenses such as depreciation,
engineering, taxes, office staff, and purchasing
The total cost is the manufacturing cost + the sales
expense such as Advts, Tours, Seminars, Gifts etc
The selling price is established by adding a profit to the
total cost
Elements of Cost establishing Selling Price

Product profit model
Sales Turnover = Number of units sold x sales price
Cost of sales = Number of units sold x unit cost
Gross margin = Sales Cost of sales
Operating expenses = Tooling + Marketing +

Overheads + Engineering cost + General
administration costs + Misc
Operating profit = Gross margin Operating

expenses

Profit Improvement
Four strategies commonly used to achieve

increased profits are
Increase prices
Increase sales
Reduce cost
Improve Productivity

Questions
Can we do without the part?

Does the part do more than required?
Does the part cost more than it is worth?
Is there something that does the job better?
Is there a less costly way to make the part?
Can a standard item be used in place of the part?
Can an outside supplier provide the part at less
cost without affecting quality or deliver schedule?

Break-Even Analysis
Technique for evaluating process and equipment

alternatives
Objective is to find the point in monetary terms

(Rs.) and units at which cost equals revenue
Requires estimation of fixed costs, variable

costs, and revenue

Break-Even Analysis
Fixed costs are costs that continue even if

no units are produced
Depreciation, taxes, debt, mortgage payments
Variable costs are costs that vary with the
volume of units produced
Labor, materials, portion of utilities
Contribution is the difference between selling
price and variable cost

Break-Even Analysis
Assumptions
Costs and revenue are linear functions
with respect to quantity
Generally not the case in the real world
We actually know these costs
Very difficult to accomplish
There is no time value of money

Break-Even Analysis

Total revenue line
900
800
Break-even point Total cost line
700 Total cost = Total revenue
600
Cost
500
400 Variable cost
300
200
100 Fixed cost

| | | | | | | | | | | |
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Volume (units per period)
Break-Even Analysis
BEPx = break-even point in x = number of units

units produced
BEP = break-even point in TR = total revenue = Px
monetary units F = fixed costs
P = price per unit (after V = variable cost per unit
all discounts) TC = total costs = F + Vx
Break-even point occurs when
Total Revenue = Total Cost F

or BEPx =
P-V
Px = F + Vx

Break-Even Analysis
BEPx = break-even point in x = number of units

units produced
BEP = break-even point in TR = total revenue = Px
monetary units F = fixed costs
P = price per unit (after V = variable cost per unit
all discounts) TC = total costs = F + Vx
BEP = BEPx P
F Profit = TR - TC
= P
P-V = Px - (F + Vx)
F
= = Px - F - Vx
(P - V)/P
F = (P - V)x - F
=
1 - V/P
Example 1
McDonalds wants to determine the

minimum monetary volume and unit
volume needed at its new facility to break
even. Fixed costs are 10000, direct
labour is 1.5 per unit and material is .75
per unit. The selling price is 4 per unit.

Example 1
Fixed costs = 10,000 Material = .75/unit

Direct labor = 1.50/unit Selling price = 4.00 per unit
F 10,000
BEP = =
1 - (V/P) 1 - [(1.50 + .75)/(4.00)]
BEP is in monetary terms

Example 1
Fixed costs = 10,000 Material = .75/unit

Direct labor = 1.50/unit Selling price = 4.00 per unit
F 10,000
BEP = =
1 - (V/P) 1 - [(1.50 + .75)/(4.00)]
10,000
= = 22,857.14
.4375
F 10,000
BEPx = = = 5,714
P-V 4.00 - (1.50 + .75)

Break-Even Example
50,000
Revenue
40,000
Break-even
point
Rupee units
30,000 Total
costs
20,000
Fixed costs
10,000

| | | | | |
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
Units

Example 2
Ford is considering producing a gear assembly
that it now purchases from Shanti gears. Shanti
charges 400 per unit and annual quantity is
3000 units. Ford estimates that it will cost
1500000 to set up the process and then 182
per unit for labor and materials.
Draw a graph illustrating the crossover (or

indifference) point
What should be the minimum quantity that Ford
needs to produce to justify the investment.

Example 2
By manufacturing instead of purchasing the gear assembly Ford
saves Rs. 218 / assembly (400 - 182).
However it needs to invest 15,00,000 to set up the facility.
To recover 15,00,000 it needs to produce

15,00,000/ (218) = 6,881 units.
Break even point
4000000
3500000
3000000
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Purchasing cost Mfg cost

Example 3
A firm is upgrading their CAD software.
The high-performance (HP) software rents for 3000 per month
per workstation. The standard-performance (SP) software rents
for 2000 per month per workstation.
The productivity figures that the firm has suggest that the HP
software is faster for their kind of design.
Therefore, with the HP software they will need five engineers
and with the SP software they will need six. This translates into
a variable cost of 200 per drawing for the HP system and 240
per drawing for the SP system.
At their projected volume of 80 drawings per month, which

system should they rent?

Example 3
HP software total cost =

(5)(3,000) + 200x
SP software total cost =
(6)(2,000) + 240x
15,000 + 200x = 12,000 + 240x
3,000 = 40x
x = 75 (Breakeven Volume)
Since the projected volume of 80 is above the

breakeven volume, they should rent the HP software
Strategy-Driven Investment
Businesses are responsible for return-on-

investment (ROI)
Analyzing different alternatives should

include capital investment, variable cost,
cash flows, and net present value

Net present value (NPV)
In inflationary (prices going up in future)

environments:
Todays money worth is much higher than its worth in
the future
Rs.10,000 today is not of same value after 5 years
It is important for business managers to analyze if
the investments are done today, what will be its
future worth
Once you know what an investment will bring as
cash in future, you can estimate the Present
worth of the cash
Net Present Value (NPV)
A means of determining the discounted value of a
series of future cash receipts
F
P=
(1 + i)N
where F = future value

P = present value
i = interest rate
N = number of years

Net Present Value (NPV)
F While this
P= works fine, it is
(1 + i)N
cumbersome
for larger
where F = future value values of N
P = present value
i = interest rate
N = number of years

NPV Using Factors
F
P= = FX
(1 + i)N
Where X = a factor from Table defined as = 1/(1 + i)N and
F = future value
Year 5% 6% 7% 8% 10%
1 .952 .943 .935 .926 .909
2 .907 .890 .873 .857 .826
3 .864 .840 .816 .794 .751
4 .823 .792 .763 .735 .683
5 .784 .747 .713 .681 .621

Example
A personal investment of Rs.10,000 is made in a bond, which

promises to pay Rs.12,000 at the end of 5 years. It is estimated
that the erosion of money value (inflation) is 8 % per annum.
Will this investment be good?
In the future(after 5 years) we will get Rs.12,000.

We need to calculate NPV of 12,000.
Looking at charts, the multiplier is 0.681
NPV = 12,000 x 0.681 = 8,172
Rs. 12,000 after 5 years will be worth only Rs. 8,172
which is less than Rs.10,000.
Therefore investing in the bond is not a good idea.

Present Value of an Annuity
An annuity is an investment which generates uniform equal payments
typically every year
S = RX
where X = factor from Table
S = present value of a series of uniform annual
receipts
R = receipts that are received every year of the life
of the investment
Year 5% 6% 7% 10%
1 .952 .943 .935 .909
2 1.859 1.833 1.808 1.736
3 2.723 2.676 2.624 2.487
4 4.329 3.465 3.387 3.170
5 5.076 4.212 4.100 3.791

Present Value of an Annuity
A clinic is thinking of investing in a sophisticated new piece of medical

equipment worth 5,00,000. It will generate 1,25,000 per year in
receipts for 5 years. 5 years is its useful life. Determine the present value
of this cash flow; assume an interest rate of 6%
125,000 in receipts per for 5 years

Interest rate = 6%
From Table
X = 4.212
S = RX
S = 125,000(4.212) = 5,26,375
The present value of future receipt from the equipment is 5,26,375 , where
as investment is 5,00,000. Should be OK to invest though the gain is only
26,375
MM ZG541 Product Design BITS Pilani
15-Oct-16 44
Present Value with different Future
Receipts
Quality plastics is considering two different investment alternatives.

Investment A has an initial cost of 25000 and Investment B has an initial
cost of 26000. Both investments have a useful life of 4 years. The rate
of interest is 8%. The cash flows for these investments and the interest
rates are given in the following table
Investment As Investment Bs Present Value

Year
Cash Flow Cash Flow Factor at 8%
10,000 9,000 1 .926
9,000 9,000 2 .857
8,000 9,000 3 .794
7,000 9,000 4 .735

Present Value With Different Future
Receipts
Investment As Investment Bs
Year
Present Values Present Values
1 9,260 = (.926)(10,000) 8,334 = (.926)(9,000)
2 7,713 = (.857)(9,000) 7,713 = (.857)(9,000)
3 6,352 = (.794)(8,000) 7,146 = (.794)(9,000)
4 5,145 = (.735)(7,000) 6,615 = (.735)(9,000)
Totals 28,470 29,808
Minus initial
-25,000 -26,000
investment
Net present
3,470 3,808
value
Investment B is better as its net present values are higher

Thank you

Lecture 14
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Design for manufacturing

(DFM)
Contents
Manufacturing - Design
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Process Selection
DFM guidelines
15-Oct-16 MM ZG 541 Product Design BITS Pilani 3

Role of Manufacturing in Design
Producing the design is a critical link in the chain of
events that starts with a creative idea and ends with a
successful product in the marketplace
There is confusion of terminology concerning the
engineering function called manufacturing
A serious problem facing manufacturing companies
has been the tendency to separate the design and
manufacturing functions into different organizational
units
The need to break down barriers between design and
manufacturing is widely recognized today

Design for Manufacture (DFM)
DFM studies are concerned about the impact of

design decisions on the manufacturing of a product
Objectives of DFM
Identification of product concepts that are
inherently easy to manufacture
Focus on component design for ease of
manufacturing
Integrate product design, process design and
manufacturability

Benefits of DFM
Transition of design quickly into production

Minimum cost
Minimum efforts
Desired quality

Types of Manufacturing processes
Primary Processes
Take raw materials and create a shape
Secondary Processes
Modify shape by adding features such as keyways,
screw threads, and grooves
Finishing Processes
Produce the final appearance and feel of a product by
processes such as coating, painting, or polishing

Manufacturing system types
Engineering Design, Dieter G. E. and Schmidt L. C., Mc. GrawHill, New Delhi 2013, page: 568
Manufacturing Process selection
The factors that influence the selection of a
process to make a part are
Material
Quantity of parts required
Complexity- shape, size, features
Quality of part
Cost to manufacture
Availability, lead time, and delivery schedule

Influence of materials
Material selection restricts the applicable
processes
Steel , aluminium alloys can be purchased at
variety of metallurgical + pre-coated conditions
Galvanized Iron + Powder painting Good corrosion resistance
CRCA (Cold rolled close annealed) + zinc Phosphatising +
Painting also can be considered for corrosion resistance
Complex shape parts needs to be evaluated, to
select the raw material form

Typical batch size
Shape
Process vs Shapes

Required quality of the part
Defects
Surface finish
Dimensional accuracy and tolerance

Different manufacturing Processes
Quantity of parts
Sand casting Pressure die casting

Availability, lead time and delivery
It is possible that some manufacturing

equipment will be custom made to the
process and not readily available as shelf life
item
Some tools manufacturing might take more
than 6 months after finalizing the specification
Careful scheduling in design cycle is
mandatory to mesh with manufacturing cycle

DFM guidelines
Minimize total number of parts
o Eliminating parts results in great savings
Standardize components
o Costs are minimized and quality is enhanced when
standard commercially available components are used
in design
Use common parts across product lines
o It is good business sense to use parts in more than
one product
Standardize design features
o Standardizing on design features like drilled hole
sizes, screw thread types, and bend radii minimizes
the number of tools that must be maintained in the tool
room
DFM guidelines
Aim to keep designs functional and simple
o Achieving functionality is paramount, but dont specify
more performance than is needed
Design parts to be multifunctional
o A good way to minimize part count is to design such
that parts can fulfil more than one function, leading to
integral architecture
Design parts for ease of fabrication
o The least costly material that satisfies the functional
requirements should be chosen. Make the part in
such a way that it is easier to locate, orient during
fabrication
Avoid excessively tight tolerances
o Tolerances must be set with great care
Effects of tight tolerances
DFM guidelines
Minimize secondary and finishing operations

o Minimize secondary operation such as heat treatment,
machining, and joining and avoid finishing operations
Utilize the special characteristics of processes
o Be alert to the special design features that many
processes provide (Coloured plastic components can
be done during moulding whereas metallic
components require post painting)

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Design for Assembly

(DFA)
Contents
Introduction
Objectives
DFA Guidelines
DFA Methods / Techniques
Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA Method

DFA : Introduction
Cost reduction, improved quality with higher production
rate have always been major concerns for industries
Initially researchers concentrated more on
manufacturing processes for achieving above until they
recognized the major potential lies in assembly of
product
Earlier days scale of production was limited by
availability of trained craftsman which was primary
need for assembly
DFA emerged as solution to both assembly of parts at
higher rate(automation) & reduction in cost (good
product design)
Objective of DFA
Main objective of DFA is to identify product

concepts that are easy to assemble & to favor
product components that are inherently easy to
grasp, feed, join & assemble by manual or by
automated means
As design team conceptualize alternative solutions

it should give serious consideration to ease of
assembly during production, use & disposal

Benefits of DFA
Fewer parts
Fewer fasteners
Reduced weight
Fewer opportunities for defect
Improved reliability
Less maintenance
Fewer manufacturing operations
Less tooling
Fewer CAD models

DFA Guidelines
Minimize number and type of parts
Minimize assembly surfaces
Design for top-down assembly or use gravity
Maximize part symmetry or exaggerate asymmetry
Design parts for ease of handling/feeding
Improve assembly access and unrestricted vision
Modularize the design
Maximize part compliance
Avoid separate fasteners
Design parts to be self aligning
Eliminate adjustments

DFA Guidelines
Minimize number and type of parts
Criteria for essential part (Or theoretical part)
Part must exhibit motion relative to another part
Its material should be different from all other parts
fundamentally
Maintenance of the product requires disassembly of this part
Fasteners or parts just used to connect another part is
candidate for elimination

DFA Guidelines
Minimize assembly surfaces
Use sub assemblies
Sub
assembly

DFA Guidelines
Mistake proof the design and assembly
Design for top-down assembly or use gravity

DFA Guidelines
Design all components for end to end
symmetry

DFA Guidelines
Design all components for symmetry about
their axes of insertion

DFA Guidelines
Design parts for ease of handling/feeding

DFA Guidelines
Improve assembly access and unrestricted
vision

DFA Guidelines
Modularize the design

DFA Guidelines
Design parts to be self aligning

DFA Guidelines
Maximize part compliance by providing
chamfers etc.
Avoid separate fasteners

DFA Guidelines
Eliminate adjustments

Boothroyd-Dewhurst DFA Method
Simplify of products by reducing number of parts
Three fundamental reasons for existence of
separate parts
The part moves relative to all other parts already
assembled
The part is of different material from those already
assembled
The part allows assembly or disassembly of parts
already assembled
Number of critical parts
Theoretical minimum number of parts for the designs as all
others can be merged or removed with these critical parts
Procedure
Determine the assembly sequence
The assembly time for each component / part is
then obtained by adding the handling time of that
part to its insertion time
Once the components and the assembly time for
each are known, total assembly time and assembly
cost for the existing design is evaluated
The next step is aimed at reducing the parts count
by eliminating or combining some parts, thus
finding theoretically needed parts

Procedure
Proposed design efficiency metric
Design Efficiency = (3* Nm) / Actual total assembly

time
Where Nm is the theoretical minimum number of parts
Assumption : total ideal assembly time 3 seconds
Design is improved by reviewing the worksheet and

eliminating components that have relatively high
handling and insertion times

Formulae
Theoretical minimum assembly time(MAT) = 3 * Theoretical
Minimum Number of Parts (NM)
Theoretical Minimum Number of Parts (NM) = critical parts
Assembly Time (TM) = Total handling insertion time for all the
parts

Design Efficiency/Index =

Design efficiency = 3 * ( )

(Number three comes from the assumption that an ideal part

takes three seconds for an operation viz. 1.5 seconds for
handling & 1.5 seconds for insertion)
Example
Example: Analysis
Example: Analysis
- Base is an essential part

- Standoff rods - ?????
- End plate is vital
function
- Motor is important
- Set screws, fasteners
can be minimized

Example: Improvement
Example: Analysis
Original complicated assembly

Some thoughts

Some thoughts
All of the Boothryod-Dewhurst evaluation

mechanisms are centered on establishing the time
of handling & inserting component parts
Decreasing the parts count could result in the
manufacture and use of complex components.
Since assembly cost is normally 5% of total cost,
the final product could be easy to assemble but
expensive to manufacture
Boothroyd-Dewhurst have commercially available
software - www.dfma.com
Thank you

Lecture 15
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Contents
Introduction
Product Life Cycle
Eco-Design Strategies
MET Matrix
Life Cycle Assessment
DFE Rules and Guidelines

Concerned?????

Environmental concerns
Environmental concerns Linkage to manufacturing processes

1. Global climate change Greenhouse gas emissions from direct and indirect energy
use, landfill gases etc
2. Human organism damage Emission of toxins, carcinogens, etc including use of heavy
metals, acids, solvents, coal burning
3. Water availability and quality Water usage and discharges - Cooling and cleaning use in
particular
4. Depletion of fossil fuel resources Electricity and direct fossil fuel usage e.g Power and heating
requirements, reducing agents
5. Loss of biodiversity Land use, water usage, acid deposition,, thermal pollution
6. Stratospheric ozone depletion Emission of CFCs, HCFCs, Refrigerants, use in foaming

operation
7. Land use patterns Land approporiated for mining, growing of bio-materials,
manufacturing, waste disposal
8. Depletion of non-fossil fuel resources Materials usage and waste
9. Acid disposition Sulfur and NO2 emissions from smelting and fossil fuels

DFE is an approach to design where all the

environmental impacts of a product are considered
over entire products life (Dewberry and Goggin, 1996)
DFE considers the environmental aspects in each

stage of the product development process, striving
to achieve products that have the lowest possible
environmental impact throughout their entire life
cycle

It is a combination of several design-related topics,

including disassembly, recovery, recyclability,
regulatory compliance, disposition, health and safety
impact, and hazardous material minimization
Design for Environment is the systematic consideration
of design performance with respect to environmental,
health and safety objectives over the full product and
process life cycle
DFE covers all life cycle phases including material
extraction, manufacturing, transportation, usage and
end-of-life phases
Material Flows
Natural Systems
Waste = Food
Industrial Systems
Raw Manufacturing 6% Product 80% of products

Materials Process discarded after
94% Waste single use
(Paul Hawken, Factor 4, 1997)

Design for Environment: Why
Products make substantial impact on the
environment
Ratio of product to waste mass 1:20
Products for global market need to be eco-friendly
Strict environmental laws in most of countries
Product design can play a crucial role
80-90% products impact on environment is committed
during design stages
Need methods for estimating and reducing
environmental impact during design

What is total materials cycle?
Reproduced from Materials and Mans Needs, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1974
What is Eco-design ?
An eco-designed product is a product that has been designed to limit its

environmental impact throughout its lifecycle using a multi-criteria approach:
taking into account its impact on the atmosphere, water, energy
consumption, use of non-renewable resources
Extract Disassembly
Produce Reuse /
M P D U AU Recycle/
Distribute
Dispose
Manufacture Package Install

Assembly Transport Use
Maintain

Life Cycle Design
You can design products that are functional,

cost-effective
and
environmentally friendly!
by
Design for the whole life cycle!

Eco design considerations
1. Reduce the number of different materials and choosing
the most appropriate materials
2. Reduce the environmental impact of the production phase
3. Optimize the distribution phase (Transportation etc.)
4. Reduce the environmental impact of the use phase (say
Less energy consumption)
5. Extend the useful lifespan of the product
6. Simplify the disassembly of the product
7. Product design for reuse and reuse
8. Product design for recycling

Eco design strategies

Eco design Tools
Material, Energy , Toxicity (MET) Matrix

AT&Ts Environmentally Responsible Product
Matrix
Life Cycle Assessment / Analysis

MET MATRIX
A MET matrix can be used in the idea generation stage or in the

concept development stage as a tool to analyse the products
impact on the environment.
The tool helps to uncover areas where the product might be

improved to become more sustainable or environmentally
friendly.
The MET matrix can also be used as an analysis tool in the first
stage of a design process, analysing existing products (from
competitors) to obtain a competitive advantage.

MET MATRIX

MET MATRIX
Where does it start

A product idea, product concept, or existing product
Expected outcome
A good understanding of the products impact on the
environment in terms of materials used, energy
consumption and toxic emissions.
new insights into how the product might be improved

MET MATRIX
Possible procedure
Define what exactly belongs to the product system being studied and
what does not. For eco-design, it is essential not to focus on the physical
product only, but to consider also the consumables which are necessary
for manufacturing the product.
Functional analysis
A functional analysis starts with a discussion of the products
functionality, its weak and strong aspects the products actual lifetime
and its energy consumption.
The product is then taken to bits, the weights of the various sub-
assemblies and components are measured, the type and amount of
materials and components used are listed, and the connections
between them identified.
Typical electricity Raw material

Typical Toxicity Worldwide supply

MET MATRIX

MET matrix Example1
Chemical detector product
The above figures are for 1000 pcs of product

CO2e Carbon di oxide equivalent
MET matrix Example2
Veromatic professional coffee machine
Items requiring
attention
Life Cycle Assessment / Analysis
Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) is a method in which the

energy and raw material consumption, different types
of emissions and other important factors related to a
specific product are being measured, analyzed and
summoned over the products entire life cycle from an
environmental point of view

Framework for performing LCA
Source: ISO 14040

Stages in LCA
1. Goal definition
The basis and scope of the evaluation are defined
2. Inventory Analysis
Create a process tree in which all processes from raw material
extraction through waste treatment are mapped out and
connected and mass and energy balances are closed (all emissions
and consumptions are accounted for)
3. Impact Assessment
Emissions and consumptions are translated into environmental
effects. These environmental effects are grouped and weighted
4. Improvement Assessment/Interpretation
Areas for improvement are identified
Goal and Scope Definition
Decide upon the purpose of study

To meet regulations imposed by countries?
Working to meet standards certification?
Identify the system boundaries
What is the purpose of the product?
Comparison to similar functional systems
Television and Mobile phones are different functional systems,
however the Outer cover material (Say plastic in both cases)
can be studied to compare the environmental impact.

Inventory Analysis
Determine the inputs and outputs of all the

processes in terms of energy & material
Sketch the process tree showing all the events in
the product life cycle and also show the
interrelations
Collect information regarding raw materials used
for each Step

Inventory Analysis

Impact Assessment

Interpretation
To identify areas for improvement

Life-cycle processes/events with large impacts (i.e., high
numerical values) are clearly the most obvious things
Process for which large improvements are made with
minimum expenditure and risk (ABC analysis)

Typical automobile energy

Vacuum Cleaner 1

Vacuum Cleaner 2

Summary of Data Collection
List of Products VC1 VC2

Part count 76 66
Type of material count 7 9
Process type count 14 14
Sl. No. Description Weight Material Details Process Details
(gm)
Lower Shell Hot rolled extra deep Shearing, Blanking, Deep

1 1585.000 draw Drawing, Piercing
Discharge Tube
2 10.170 T 0.5 copper tube
Suction Tube
3 14.320 T 0.5 copper tube
Terminal SS Plus glass fill

4 18.950 fused Blanking, forming, fusing
Suspension pin spring
5 Bush 28.890 Plastic Injection Moulding

Progress

Impact assessment
VC1 VC2
Material
VC1 VC2
Assembly
VC1 VC2
Improvement Assessment
On resources impact of
copper is most, next worst
materials being nickel and
plastic
On eco-system quality
impact of lead is most, next
worst materials being nickel
and copper
On human health impact of
nickel is most, next worst
materials being copper and
aluminium
The overall impact is most
from Nickel, next worst
materials being copper, Lead
and aluminium
Challenges in LCA
Complexity and effort required is more

Lack of unanimous data about most of the
processes in product life cycle
Lack of standardization resulting in various
interpretations
Different views on what is environmentally correct

10 rules of DFE
Do not use toxic substances, and use closed loops when
possible
Minimize energy and material consumption in production
and transportation by striving for efficiencies
Minimize energy and resource consumption in the use
stage, especially for products with their most significant
environmental aspects in the use stage
Promote maintenance, especially for system dependent
products
Promote long life, especially for products with their most
significant environmental impacts outside the use stage
Use structural features and high quality materials, to
minimize weight; these should not interfere with flexibility,
impact strength or functional properties
10 rules of DFE
Use better materials, surface treatments or structural

arrangements to protect products from dirt, corrosion and
wear.
Arrange in advance for upgrading, repair and recycling,
through good access, labeling, modules and breakpoints,
and provide good manuals.
Promote upgrading, repair and recycle by using few,
simple, recycled, unblended materials, and do not use
alloys.
Use the minimum joining elements possible, using screws,
adhesives, welding, snap fits, geometric locking, etc.
according to Life Cycle guidelines.

Material Selection Guidelines
Avoid regulated and restricted materials
Minimize the number of different types of material
For attached parts, standardize on the same or a compatible
material, eliminate incompatible materials
Mark the material on all parts
Use recycled material
Use material that can be recycled, typically ones as pure as
possible(no additives)
Avoid composite materials
Use high strength to weight materials on moving parts
Use low-alloy metals that are more recyclable than high alloy ones
If the same base metal can be used, different metals can be
fastened
Hazardous parts should be clearly marked and easily removed
Labeling and Finishing Guidelines
Ensure compatibility of ink where printing is required on

parts
Eliminates incompatible paints on parts- use label
imprints or even inserts
Use unplanted metals that are recyclable than plated
Use electronic part documentation

Fastening Guidelines
Minimize the number of fasteners

Minimize the numbers of fastener removal tools needed
Fastener should be easy to remove
Fastening point should be easy to access
Snap fit should be obviously located and fable to be torn apart using
standards tools
Try to use fastener of material compatible with parts connected
If two parts cannot be compatible, make them easy to separate
Eliminate adhesives unless compatible with both parts joined
Minimize the number and length of interconnecting wires or cable used
Connections can be designed to break as an alternative to removing
fasteners

Thank you

Lecture 16
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Industrial Design
Srinivas Kota
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Industrial Design
Contents
History
Industrial design (ID)
Goals of industrial design
Importance of industrial design
Industrial design process
Assessing the quality of industrial design

History
Early European designers believed that a product should

be designed from the inside out form should follow
function
In US, it is different in 1930s products were designed
with nonfunctional aerodynamic shapes in an attempt to
create product appeal
By the 1970s heightened competition in the market place
forced companies to search for ways to improve and
differentiate their products.
Companies accepted the notion that the role of ID
needed to go beyond mere shape and appearance

Industrial Design
Industrial Design
systematic Labour to create, fashion, execute, or construct

according to plan: devise, contrive
especially for some useful purpose to conceive and plan out in the mind
or the creation of something of value to have as a purpose: intend
to devise for a specific function or end

Three Design Challenges
People Business
desirable
viable

Technical
feasible

Source: IDEO
Science / Art
Engineering
Design

Industrial Design
the professional service of creating and

developing concepts and specifications that
optimise the function, value and appearance
of products and systems for the mutual
benefit of both user and manufacturer
[Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA)]

Goals of industrial design
Dreyfuss (1967) introduced five critical

goals
Utility: safe, easy to use and intuitive

Appearance: form, line, proportion
and colour
Ease of maintenance: how they are to
be maintained and repaired
Low costs: form & feature have large
impact on tool and prod costs
Communication: should communicate
the corporate design philosophy and
mission
Percentage of product development budget
30
spent on industrial design (%)
20
10
0
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Total Expenditures on Industrial Design ($) thousands
Importance of Industrial
Design to a Product
Ergonomic Needs
How important is ease of use?
How important is ease of maintenance?
How many user interactions are required for the products
functions?
How novel are the user interaction needs?
What are the safety issues?
Aesthetic Needs
Is visual product differentiation required?
How important are pride of ownership, image, and fashion?
Will an aesthetic product motivate the team?

Aesthetics
Disturbing or soothing? Interesting or not interesting?

Associate
Moleama
Takate

Associate
Moleama
Takate

Aesthetic
vase
Mouse
Water bottle
Submersible pump
Bus handle
Ergonomic Functional
How much important aesthetics is for the particular product

o not making things beautiful
o force beautification
Due to several reasons our perception
may be different from actual
Trust your senses( eyes)
The pink squares are the same color in the upper part and in the lower part of the "X
Conclusion: If you want to make both the colors same , make it visually rather than going by
pantone no
The diagonal lines are parallel

The rows are all parallel

In design VISUAL LANGUAGE is the tool for communication
Source Destination
Designer User
Medium
Product
instruction
idea Message image
Content
thought

Designer Users
Encode and send a Receive the entire
message message
What message? Decode its meaning
Why to send? React
How to send?
Signs are very powerful. Designers can play with signs to make
people buy products
Designers must know the psychology, knowledge and attitude of

the intended users
Impact of Industrial Design
Is Industrial Design worth the investment?

The costs of ID include direct cost, manufacturing cost, and
time cost
Direct Cost: Cost of ID services. Number of designers used, duration of the
project and number of models required plus material costs and others
Manufacturing Cost: it is the expense incurred to implement the product
details created through ID. Surface finishes, stylized shapes, rich colors etc
Time Cost: it is the penalty associated with extended lead time. Multiple
design iterations and prototypes necessary which need more time and have
economic cost
The benefits of using ID include increased product appeal and
greater customer satisfaction through additional or better
features, strong brand identity, and product differentiation
Price premium
Increased market share

How does ID establish a Corporate Identity?
A companys identity emerges primarily through what
people see. Advertising, logos, signage, uniforms,
buildings, packaging and product designs all
contribute to creating corporate identity

Industrial Design Process
Phases
1. Investigation of customer needs
2. Conceptualization
3. Preliminary refinement
4. Further refinement and final concept selection
5. Control drawings
6. Coordination with engineering, manufacturing
and vendors

1. Investigation of customer needs

Industrial designers are skilled at recognizing issues
involving user interactions, ID involvement is crucial in
the needs phase
Allows industrial designer to gain an intimate
understanding of the interactions between the user
and the product

2. Conceptualization
Industrial designers
concentrate upon creating
the products form and user
interfaces
Industrial designer makes
simple sketches, known as
thumbnail sketches
It is beneficial to tightly
coordinate the efforts of
industrial designers and
engineers throughout the
concept development phase
so that these iterations can
be accomplished more
quickly
3. Preliminary refinement
Build models of the most
promising concepts using foam or
foam-core board in full scale (soft
models)
These models allow the team to
express and visualize product
concepts in three dimensions
Evaluation is done by designers,
engineers, marketing personnel
and potential customers by
touching, feeling and modifying
the models
Complex designs require more
number of models
4. Further refinement and
final concept selection
Designers switch from soft models to hard
models and information-intensive drawings
known as renderings
Often used for colour studies and for testing
customers reception to the proposed
products features and functionality
Final models are called hard models still
technically nonfunctional yet but close
replicas of the final design with a very
realistic look and feel
These models are made of wood, dense
foam, plastic or metal, painted and textured
and have some working features like
buttons that push or sliders that move

5. Control drawings
These document functionality, features, sizes,
colours, surface finishes and key dimensions
These are not detailed part drawings but can be
used to manufacture final design models and other
prototypes
These will be given to detailed part designers for
completion

6. Coordination with engineering, manufacturing

and vendors
Designers must continue working with engineering and
manufacturing personnel in the subsequent PD process
Some provide services to select and manage outside
vendors of materials, tooling, components and
assembly functions

Computer aided industrial design tools (CAID) are useful
for designers to generate, display, and rapidly modify
three dimensional designs on a high-resolution monitor

Management of the industrial
design process
Timing of ID effort depends upon the nature of
the product being designed
It may be explained better by classing the

products as technology driven products and
user driven products

design process : Technology
Technology driven products
Core benefit is based on technology or its ability to
accomplish a specific technical task
It might still have important aesthetic or ergonomic
requirements but customers buy this product primarily
for its technical performance (eg., hard disk)
The role of ID is often limited to packaging the core
technology
Determining the products external appearance and
ensuring that the product communicates its
technological capabilities and modes of interaction to
the user
design process : User
User driven products
Core benefit is derived from the functionality of its
interface and/or its aesthetic appeal
High degree of user interaction for these products
User interfaces must be safe, easy to use and easy to
maintain
External appearance is important to differentiate the
product and to create pride of ownership (eg., office
chair)
The role of engineering may still be important to
determine any technical features of the product, how
every since the technology is already established, the
development team focuses on the user aspects of the
product
Super Computer
Technology Driven Products User Driven Products

Most products fall somewhere along the continuum
Classification can be dynamic
changes with time initially the focus can be technology later on when the
technology is standardized focus will shift to industrial design to maintain the
differentiation
Timing of industrial design
involvement
Product Development
Concept Development Process
Concept Detail
Identification System
Generation Concept Design, Production
Planning of customer Level
and Testing Testing and Ramp-up
needs Design
selection Refinement
Technology driven Products

Industrial
Design Process
User driven Products

Product Type of Product
Development
Activity Technology Driven User Driven
Identification of ID typically has no involvement ID works closely with marketing to identify

Customer customer needs. IDs participate in focus
Needs groups or one-on-one customer interviews
Concept ID works with marketing and engineering to ensure ID generates multiple concepts according
generation and that human factors and user interface issues are to the ID process flow described earlier
selection addressed. Safety and maintenance issues are
often of primary importance
Concept Testing ID helps engineering to create prototypes, which ID leads in the creation of models to be
are shown to customers for feedback tested with customers by marketing
System-Level ID typically has little involvement ID narrows down the concepts and refines
Design the most promising approaches
Detail Design, ID is responsible for packaging the product once ID selects a final concept, then
Testing, and most of the engineering details have been coordinates with engineering,
Refinement addressed. ID receives product specifications and manufacturing, and marketing to finalize
constraints from engineering and marketing the design

Assessing the Quality of
Industrial Design
Assessing the quality of ID is an inherently subjective task
It can be qualitatively determined whether ID has
accomplished its goals by considering each aspect of the
product that is influenced by ID
Five Categories for evaluation products
Quality of the User Interface
Emotional Appeal
Ability to Maintain and Repair the Product
Appropriate Use of Resources
Product Differentiation

Quality of the User Interface
How easy the product is to use

Interface quality is related to the products appearance,
feel, and modes of interaction
Do the features of the product effectively communicate their operation to
the user?
Is the products use intuitive?
Are all features safe?
Have all potential users and uses of the product been identified?
Examples of product-specific questions include:
Is the grip comfortable?
Does the tuning knob turn easily and smoothly?
Is the power switch easy to locate?
Is the display easy to read and understand?

Emotional Appeal
Overall consumer appeal of the product

Appeal is achieved in part through appearance, feel,
sound, and smell
Is the product attractive? Is it exciting?
Does the product express quality?
What images come to mind when viewing it?
Does the product inspire pride of ownership?
Does the product evoke feelings of pride among development team and
sales staff?
How does the car door sound when slammed?
Does the hand tool feel solid and sturdy?
Does the coffee maker look good on the kitchen counter?

Ability to maintain and repair
the product
Ease of product maintenance and repair
Maintenance and repair should be considered along
with the other user interactions
Is the maintenance of the product obvious? Is it easy?
Do product features effectively communicate disassembly and assembly
procedures?
How easy and obvious is it to clear a paper jam in the copier?
How difficult is it to disassemble and clean the food processor?
How difficult is it to change the batteries in the Walkman, a remote
controller, a wristwatch?

Appropriate Use of Resources
How well resources were used in satisfying the

customer needs (expenditure on ID and other
functions)
A poorly designed product will affect tooling,
manufacturing processes, assembly processes and
the like
How well were resources used to satisfy the customer requirements?
Is the material selection appropriate (in terms of cost and quality)?
Is the product over or under designed (does it have features that are
unnecessary or neglected)?
Were environmental / ecological factors considered?

Product Differentiation
Products uniqueness and consistency with the

corporate identity (arises predominantly from
appearance)
Will a customer who sees the product in a store be able to single it out
because of its appearance?
Will it be remembered by a consumer who has seen it in an
advertisement?
Will it be recognized when seen on the street?
Does the product fit with or enhance the corporate identity?

Summary
The primary mission of ID is to design the aspects of a
product that relate to the user: aesthetics and ergonomics
Most products can benefit in some way or another from ID.
The more a product is looked at or used by people, the
more it will depend on good ID for its success
For products that are characterized by high degree of user
interaction and the need for aesthetic appeal, ID should be
involved throughout the product development process
Early involvement of industrial designers will ensure that
critical aesthetic and user requirements will not be
overlooked or ignored by the technical staff
When a products success relies more on technology, ID
can be integrated into the development process later
Active involvement of ID on the PD team can help to
promote good communication between functional groups.
Such communication facilitates coordination and ultimately
translates into higher-quality products

Product Design Lecture Notes

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Product Design Lecture Notes

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Product Design (MM ZG541)

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Product development teams

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Identifying the customer needs

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Prototype and model basics

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Economic analysis process

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Life Cycle Assessment

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Need for industrial design

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EC-1 15% (3 Quizs)

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Economic success of most firms depends on their

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Modern Product attributes desired by customers

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Firestone ( US Tyre manufacturer ) had 70 years of tyre

In 1988, they were sold to Bridgestone, Japanese tyre

Engineered, discrete, physical products

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Design and Development

Research and Development

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Research and development

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Design and development

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R&D activity identifies the

Product development intelligently

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Few successful original designs occur over time

Refrigeration ,air conditioning industry used to work on harmful

Development of Zero ozone depleting HFCs(Hydro flouro

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Adapting a known system to a changed task

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Extension of product platforms

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All the design concepts discussed are basically redesign

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Product development is a process

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Understand Develop a Implement

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- Target specifications are set

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Till last two stages, product existed only in paper, in this