Engineering

Greenhouse gas measurement,

reporting and management
CHE 3163
Sustainable Processing I

1
 Learning objectives
To understand the types and sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs)
from anthropogenic (human-caused) sources and how these impact on
the GHG balance in the atmosphere;
To appreciate the amounts of GHG emissions from key countries,
industries and activities;
To understand the classifications of GHG emissions into Direct and
Indirect Emissions and to consider organisational and operational
boundaries;
To be aware of some institutional and legal structures driving the need
for GHG measurement and reporting.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 2

 Learning objectives continued
To become familiar with terminology used in greenhouse gas
measurement, reporting and management;
To be able to calculate GHG emissions from the combustion of fuels
(solid, liquid);

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 3

 Why is this lecture in this unit?
The industries in which process / chemical engineers work are directly
or indirectly responsible for a large proportion of anthropogenic (human-
caused) GHG emissions.
Economic and political realities mean these emissions need to be
measured and managed by businesses operating in the process
industries.
GHG management falls into the area of sustainable development
(environmental, economic and social).

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 4

 What this lecture is not
This is not a lecture on climate science or its predictive value;
If you are interested the School of Geography and Environmental
Science runs undergraduate programs on climate science;

This is not a lecture on the politics of responding to human-induced

climate change;
The faculty of Arts teaches units on politics in general and climate
politics in particular;

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 5

What are greenhouse gases?

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 6

 What are greenhouse gases?
Chemical compounds which when present in the atmosphere enhance
the greenhouse effect. Allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely.
When sunlight strikes Earths surface it is reflected back towards space
mostly as infra-red radiation (heat).
Greenhouse gases absorb infra-red radiation, trapping heat in the
atmosphere. Most molecules in atmosphere (N2, O2) are transparent to
infra-red and do not participate in greenhouse effect.
Vital to keeping surface temperatures in range suitable for life.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 7

 What are greenhouse gases (GHGs)
Chemical compounds which when present in the atmosphere enhance
the greenhouse effect. Allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely.
When sunlight strikes Earths surface it is reflected back towards space
mostly as infra-red radiation (heat).
Greenhouse gases absorb infra-red radiation, trapping heat in the
atmosphere. Most molecules in atmosphere (N2, O2) are transparent to
infra-red and do not participate in greenhouse effect.
Vital to keeping surface temperatures in range suitable for life.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 8

 What are greenhouse gases (GHGs)
Key naturally-occurring greenhouse gases are:
Water (H2O) (special case) aerosol (clouds), vapour, liquid, ice
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) (synthetic gas)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) (synthetic gas)
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) (synthetic gas)
NB - sometimes CO2-equivalent emissions erroneously referred to as carbon emissions.

The bolded gases or groups of gases are the so-called Kyoto gases -
those GHG emissions covered by targets for emissions reduction set
under the Kyoto Protocol in 1997.
The synthetic GHGs (HFCs, PFCs, SF6) do not exist in nature and their
concentrations in the atmosphere are entirely due to anthropogenic
sources.
Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 9
 Why do anthropogenic human-caused GHGs matter?

Humans have
been emitting
large quantities of
GHGs (especially
carbon dioxide)
since the
industrial
revolution (18th
century) and the
rate of emissions
is accelerating.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 10

 Why do anthropogenic human-caused GHGs matter?

Scientists have observed a trend of rising surface temperatures, rising

sea levels, increased acidification of the oceans, significant localised
changes in precipitation cause droughts/floods/storms, etc.
These changes have been attributed to increased GHG
concentrations in the atmosphere as a result of anthropogenic GHG
emissions.
As a result there are significant social and political pressures to reduce
GHG emissions. This is leading to initiatives like mandatory reporting
of GHG emissions and carbon pricing (taxes, emissions trading).
Process engineers often work in industries which produce large
amounts of greenhouse gases. As such it can fall to us to measure
and report these emissions, as well as determine how emissions may
be abated (reduced)

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 11

Sources and sinks of
greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 12

 Sources and sinks of greenhouse gases
The amount of elemental carbon (including in carbon dioxide, methane,
fossil fuels, biomass etc.) in the environment is regulated by the natural
carbon cycle.
Sources of GHGs are those activities that result in increased levels of
GHGs in our environment much of it in the atmosphere but also some
in the aquatic environment.
So-called anthropogenic (human-caused) sources have been made on
the natural carbon cycle as a result of burning fossil fuels, land use
changes, industrial processes, fugitive emissions, and so on.
Some carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere finds its way to natural
sinks where the carbon is locked up in a stable form e.g. in biomass
through photosynthesis, in ocean sediment, in solution in the oceans,
etc.
Net effect of anthropogenic GHG emissions is increased atmospheric
GHG concentrations. i.e. Source rates > Sink rates.
Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 13
 Sources and sinks of greenhouse gases
Source: IPCC 4 th

Assessment
The amount of elemental carbon (including in carbon dioxide, methane
Report (2007)
etc.) in the environment is regulated by the natural carbon cycle.

NB Black figures represent pre-industrial fluxes.

Red figures represent anthropogenic fluxes / changes since the Industrial Revolution

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 14

 Anthropogenic sources of GHGs
Combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil, peat, etc.)
Converts carbon stored in the ground into CO2 emissions to the
atmosphere. Also produces smaller amounts of methane (CH4)
and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions.
Fugitive emissions of CO2 and methane from coal mining, oil and gas
exploration, natural gas transmission and distribution, transport of
captured or manufactured carbon dioxide.
Direct releases or leaks of CO2/CH4 from previous inventories
stored in the ground or from human-made piping or containment
systems. Also includes venting of CO2 and methane as part of
natural gas production (some raw natural gas high in CO2).
Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF). Due to breakdown
of dead vegetation to CO2/CH4 and also breakdown of nitrogen-based
fertilisers to for nitrous oxide (N2O).

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 15

 Anthropogenic sources of GHGs
Industrial processes that produce GHGs as a byproduct (not through
combustion), for example
Clinker (cement) production - e.g. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Aluminium smelting - 2Al2O3 + 3C + electricity 4Al + 3CO2
Hydrogen production from natural gas - CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
followed by CO + H2O CO2 + H2
Nitric acid production (HNO3) - produces waste N2O as byproduct
Leakage of synthetic GHGs into the atmosphere
E.g. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) historically was used as insulating
gas in electricity sector. Very high global warming potential
(23,900).
Waste sector - e.g. breakdown of solid wastes in landfills to produce
methane and CO2

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 16

Global anthropogenic GHG emissions by
source and by gas type

Source: IPCC AR4 Synthesis Report (2007)

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 17

How are GHG emissions
being addressed?

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 18

 GHG reduction: agreements and
mechanisms
To reduce the risks associate with climate change a number of
international agreements and mechanisms have been established in
order to;
International agreements between countries on what those targets
are (e.g. Kyoto Protocol in 1997). Set targets for countries/regions
to reduce GHG emissions.
Ongoing series of conferences attempting to set new targets to
replace Kyoto.
In order to implement national targets, national or regional based
policies are being used to drive down GHG emissions (e.g. carbon
pricing, renewable energy support).

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 19

 GHG reduction: agreements and
mechanisms
In Australia the main approach has been the Clean Energy Act (2011)
(also known as the Carbon Tax), which is an emissions trading scheme
with a 3-year fixed-price period (2012-2015). It requires larger emitters
to pay a price for their GHG emissions. In 2012/13 the carbon price is
$23 / tonne of CO2-equivalent.
Also have Renewable Energy Target providing support for renewable
energy to displace fossil fuel electricity generation
In order to support carbon pricing and verify compliance with
international agreements (such as Kyoto) countries must put in place
requirements for emitters to measure and report their GHG emissions.
If there was no measurement then it would not be possible to know if
emissions were going down or if agreements were being kept.
The measurement and reporting of GHG emissions is sometimes
referred to as greenhouse gas accounting

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 20

Greenhouse gas inventories
and boundaries

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 21

 Greenhouse gas inventories and
standards
A greenhouse gas emissions inventory is a full account of the
greenhouse gas emissions produced by an organisation or facility for a
given period of time (usually 1 year).
A number of standards/approaches exist to assist in preparing inventories:
The Greenhouse Gas Protocol, produced by the World Resources
Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD), is a tool organisations can use to
understand and quantify GHG emissions.
An international standard, ISO 14064-1 (Specification with Guidance
at the Organisation Level for Quantification and Reporting of
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Removals) was released based on
the GHG Protocol.
In Australia for official government reporting organisations must use
the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting (Measurement)
Determination. Reported under the NGER Scheme (NGERS)
Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 22
 Greenhouse gas inventories
Key concepts of GHG inventories:
Sources - emissions typically broken up into those from particular
sources. Most standards provide specific categories: e.g.
Combustion emissions from petrol for transport
Fugitive emissions from natural gas exploration
Emissions from companys landfill
All greenhouse gas types stated - e.g. combustion of fossil fuels
produces CO2, CH4 and N2O. Quantities of all 3 gases are reported
separately for this source.
Organisational boundary - If facilities are owned/operated by joint
ventures, an organisation may have part-shares of emissions from a
given facility. Should its share be based on its % ownership? Under
the NGERS its based on Operational Control - meaning the
person/company who decides how the facility operates and is
directly managed is fully responsible for the emissions from that
facility.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 23

 Greenhouse gas inventories
Operational boundary - which emissions are included and which are
not? For e.g. emissions directly produced by a boiler on a companys
site are probably included, but what about emissions from aircraft
associated with business travel?
We can divide emissions into direct and indirect emissions to make it
clear whats in and whats out and where the boundaries lie:
Scope 1 emissions - direct emissions from a facility.
Scope 2 emissions - emissions produced off-site for the supply of
electricity, heating or cooling to the facility. These are indirect emissions
- they are a direct result of the activities of my facility but occur at
facilities at another location.
Scope 3 emissions - all other indirect emissions - e.g. air travel and car
travel necessary for facility operation but occurring elsewhere.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 24

 Source:
Australian
Department of
Climate
Change (2008)
- National
Greenhouse
and Energy
Reporting
Guidelines

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 25

Greenhouse gas
measurement and
calculations

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 26

 Global warming potentials and CO2
equivalence
In order to allow comparison of emissions of all six types of (Kyoto)
GHGs, a concept known as global warming potential (GWP) is used.
GWP is defined as the cumulative radiative forcing both direct and
indirect effects integrated over a period of time from the emission of a
unit mass of gas relative to some reference gas (IPCC 1996)
GWPs are a quantified measure of the globally averaged radiative
forcing (warming) impacts of a particular greenhouse gas, relative to the
radiative forcing impact of one tonne of CO2.
Hence by definition the GWP of CO2 is 1 (one).
GWP is applied to units of mass of GHG (not volumes).
By accounting convention the Kyoto Protocol GWP values over a
selected 100 year timeframe are used. This is for consistent accounting
over time, even though science has been refined since the mid 1990s.
Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 27
Global warming potentials and CO2
equivalence

1st row
IPCC AR4 (2007) values
2nd row
IPCC SAR (1996) values. Red values represent Kyoto Protocol agreed values (100 year timeframe)
Red values are also stipulated in ISO 14064-1
The red values are the standard GHG accounting GWPs used worldwide.
Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 28
 Global warming potentials and CO2
equivalence
Calculating GWP for emissions of multiple GHGs:
Each GHG quantity (tonnes) is multiplied by that gass GWP
(Kyoto standard values shown in red) to arrive at a CO2-
equivalent (CO2-e) value for each gas.
These can then be added together to give a single CO2-
equivalent GHG emissions figure for the facility.

E.g A facility emits 100 tonnes of CO2, 5 tonnes of methane, and 1

tonne of SF6 during a reporting year. What are the total GHG emissions
for the year (in CO2-e)?
For CO2: Emissions x GWP = 100 x 1 = 100 t CO2-e
For Methane: Emissions x GWP = 5 x 21 = 105 t CO2-e
For SF6: Emissions x GWP = 1 x 23,900 = 23,900 t CO2-e

Total GHG emissions = 100 + 105 + 23,900 = 24,105 t CO2-e

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 29
 Calculating GHG emissions from the
combustion of fuels
As this is an introductory lecture we will only focus on measurement and
estimation of combustion emissions. These represent the majority of all
GHG emissions globally.
Other methods exist for estimating fugitive emissions, industrial
emissions, waste emissions and so on. We wont cover those here.
The combustion of carbon-containing fuels results in the release of three
key GHGs:
1. carbon dioxide (CO2)
2. methane (CH4).
3. nitrous oxide (N2O)

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 30

 Calculating GHG emissions from the
combustion of fuels
The typical formula used to estimate E (GHG emissions of gas type (j) from the combustion of a fuel (i) in
ij
tonnes CO2-e) is:

where
Qi = quantity of fuel in tonnes (solid), kilolitres (liquid) or Sm3 (gaseous)
ECi = Energy content of the fuel (typically GJ per tonne/kL/Sm3). This is typically the higher heating value
(HHV).
EFijoxec = Emissions of GHG j from combustion of fuel i in kg of CO2-equivalent per GJ of fuel energy. The
EC in the subscript refers to the fact that the emissions are per unit of energy content of the fuel. This is
distinct from emissions being given per unit mass of the fuel.
Note - OX represents that the oxidation factor (percentage of carbon in fuel combusted, allows for some fuel
to be uncombusted) is included in this factor.
Note - EC represents that this emissions factor is on an Energy Content basis (i.e. is per GJ of energy, not per
tonne/Sm3/kL of fuel)
It therefore assumes a typical oxidation factor (typically 98-99% for solids, 99% for liquids and 99.5% for
gases) and takes this into account in the EF figure.
The 1000 in the denominator converts kg of emissions in the EF into tonnes of emissions in Eij.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 31

Method
1 EC
and EF
values
Source (link):
NGER
(Measurement)
Determination 2012,
Schedule 1

(NB - for reference

only, you dont
need to memorise
these)

32
 Method 1 for calculating GHG emissions
from the combustion of fuels
Method 1 - using default factors for emissions per tonne (solid fuel), kilolitres (liquid
fuel) or Sm3 (gaseous fuel). These factors are provided from sources like the GHG
protocol (Global), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, Global) or
the NGER (Measurement) Determination (Australia)

E.g. 1000 tonnes of lignite (brown coal) are burnt in a power station. Looking up
this fuel in the NGER (Measurement) Determination (Schedule 1, Part 1) we obtain:
EC = 10.2 GJ / tonne of fuel. EFCO2 = 92.7 kg CO2-e / GJ.
EFCH4 = 0.01 kg CO2-e / GJ. EFN2O = 0.4 kg CO2-e / GJ.
(Note that CH4 and N2O emission factors already have GWPs included).
And Qi = 1000 tonnes (from this example).

So ECO2 = 1000 x 10.2 x 92.7 / 1000 = 945.54 t CO2-e

ECH4 = 1000 x 10.2 x 0.01 / 1000 = 0.102 t CO2-e
EN2O = 1000 x 10.2 x 0.4 /1000 = 4.08 t CO2-e
Etotal (CO2-e) = 945.54 + 0.102 + 4.08 = 949.722 t CO2-e

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 33

 Method 1 continued

Advantages of method 1:
Simple. Only one piece of activity data (i.e. measurement) is required
- fuel quantity. Can be measured directly by weighbridge / belt-weigher
/ flowmeter etc., or taken from supplier invoices.
Cheap.
Disadvantages:
For variable fuels like coal (range of possible carbon contents) it may
overestimate (commonly) or underestimate CO2 emissions.
For CH4 and N2O, emissions are a function of the combustion
technology as well as the fuel. Method 1 does not take this into
account. If youve used low NOx burners, for example, Method 1 may
overestimate your N2O emissions.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 34

 Method 2/3
Methods 2/3 more accurately estimate CO2 emissions (not CH4 or N2O) by sampling and
analysis of fuels for their carbon content.
Method 2 stipulates certain AS/ISO standards for fuel analysis and general guidelines for
fuel sampling.
Method 3 is identical to method 2 but it also stipulates certain AS/ISO standards for fuel
sampling.
What is the basis of Methods 2/3?
When fuel is combusted most elemental carbon in fuel is converted to CO2 (the fraction of
elemental carbon converted to CO2 is the oxidation factor - this is typically high, over
98%).
Oxidation factor can be a default value or estimated by measurement (estimation of OF
not covered in this subject).
Carbon content obtained by lab analysis of fuel samples
Benefits and costs
Much more accurate estimation of CO2 emissions from fuels with variable energy contents
and carbon contents.
As fuels must be sampled and analysed this is much more expensive than looking up EC
and EF factors in a table.
Hence there is a trade-off - higher accuracy is available from Methods 2/3 but at higher
cost.

Greenhouse gas measurement, reporting and management CHE3163 35

 Method 2/3 Calculations - solid and liquid fuels
The main emissions calculation formula is the same as for method 1
(where the GHG j is CO2 this time, for fuel i)

However in this case ECi and EFiCO2oxec are based on laboratory

analysis of the fuel instead of looked up in a table.
ECi is simply the Higher Heating Value (HHV) of the fuel in GJ/tonne
(solid fuel) or GJ/kL (liquid fuel)
EFiCO2oxec is calculated from the fuels elemental carbon mass fraction,
or carbon as received - Car (units in mass%)
Carbon as received is the mass fraction of carbon in the fuel as it is
supplied and used in the combustion process
Note: Method 2/3 for gaseous fuels not covered in this unit.
36
 Method 2/3 Calculations - solid and liquid fuels
Emissions factor on a mass basis (i.e. emissions per tonne of fuel)

Car is from fuel lab measurement (fuel carbon mass percent)

OF is oxidation factor. Typically:
Solid fuels, power generation OF = 0.99
Solid fuels, non-power generation OF = 0.98
Liquid fuels OF = 0.99

3.664 is MWCO2 / MWC (as for solid fuels)

37
 Method 2/3 continued
To convert the SOLID FUEL mass-based EF to the energy-based EF
(EFiCO2oxec) (kg CO2-e / GJ):

ECi is the same as for the fuel (i.e. GJ/tonne). Check for yourself that
units make sense.
To convert the LIQUID FUEL mass-based EF to the energy-based EF
(EFiCO2oxec) (t CO2-e / kL fuel):

EFi,CO2,oxec = EFiCO2,ox,kg (ECi / i)

ECi is in GJ/kL. i is fuel density in kg / kL (same as kg/m3)

38
 Example - Method 2 for coal
An electricity generation facility combusts 1200 tonnes of anthracite
(black coal). From sampling and analysis the following coal properties
are found:
Property Analysis
Carbon (ar) (wt%) 92.7
Moisture (wt%) 3.1
Energy content (GJ/t) 28.3

As its an electricity generation facility we take OF = 0.99

Emissions factor (mass basis) = (92.7 / 100) x 0.99 x 3.664 = 3.363 t
CO2-e / t fuel
Emissions factor (energy basis) = 3.363 / 28.3 x 1000 = 118.8 kg CO2-e
/ GJ
39
 Example - Method 2 for coal
So EF (mass basis) = 118.8 kg CO2-e / GJ
EC = 28.3 GJ / tonne
Qi = fuel quantity = 1200 tonnes
So total CO2 emissions are:
Eanthacite,CO2 = 1200 x 118.8 x 28.3 / 1000 = 4035 tonnes CO2-e

40
 Example - Method 2 for fuel oil (liquid)
A steam boiler combusts 18,100 kL of fuel oil. From sampling and
analysis the following fuel oil properties are found:
Property Analysis
Carbon (ar) (wt%) 88.1
Density (kg/m3) 850
Energy content (GJ/kL) 40.1

As its a liquid fuel we take OF = 0.99

Emissions factor (mass basis) = (88.2 / 100) x 0.99 x 3.664 = 3.199 t
CO2-e / t fuel
Emissions factor (energy basis) = 3.199 / (40.1 / 850) = 67.8 kg CO2-e /
GJ

41
 Example - Method 2 for fuel oil
So EF (mass basis) = 67.8 kg CO2-e / GJ
EC = 40.1 GJ / kL
Qi = fuel quantity = 18100 kL
So total CO2 emissions are:
Efuel oil,CO2 = 18100 x 67.8 x 40.1 / 1000 = 49222 tonnes CO2-e

42