Mousavi-R-lang in Farsi PDF

CNwt CQmi =
=Q u H xm = x@
u s v
QwBU=@a O}yW jQ@ w ? CavY x=oWv=O
|Q t C U t u @ R @ } W
= =@ =L = = | =v
160 Q=DWwv CU=Q} w
|vWwOv|wUwt O}aUO}U
s_mousavi@pwut.ac.ir
1391 Q =y@
? =] C Qyr t U i
y Q=DioV}B
1 R |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =@ |}=vW pw= pYi

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Ok t t 11
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |U w x = Q = Q
} v t v @ u @R = J 21
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R Q ?Y Q
Q= i=s v v R ] 31
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........=| y W 41
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x_i=L =}
QO < W= uO m h L w Q P CUQyi 'O =H}= 141
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 241
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............R QO =yxO=O 341
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ R = = u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O = 441
9 . . . . . . . . . . R =
u @ RQO =yxO=O R= |DtUk V}=tv 1441
10 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................ =yxO=O O}rwD 541
10 . . . . . . . . . . .. =yxO=O R= s_vt = x =@
| y r vO O =H}= 1541
11 . . . . . . . . . . .= yxO=O R= |iO=YD = x =@
| y r vO O =H}= 2541
12 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................. =yxO=O uDWwv O w

w u v= N 51
12 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . p= = } i R= yxO=O u v= N O w 151
hr=
12 . . . . . . .. . . . . . read.table O w wD u v= N Q UO 1151
13 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . p = |r =a uD = } i t D i } 2151
14 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . scan O w wD u v= N Q UO 3151
14 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p= = uD w } i |wQ yxO=O W v 251
15 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . p= =iD = uD w
} i R= xO O w pL U= @ W v w u v= N t 351
16 . . . . . . .. . . . . . .................... = =D =
yxO=O Q N U 61
17 . . . . . . .. . . . . . ................. = Q yQ=O @ 161
17 . . . . . . .. . . . . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1161
20 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . which() ` = @ D 2161
21 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 261
25 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . | l =D = O =W
W } Q N U x y t 1261
26 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. =}rt
u C T Q= a w } D t 2261
27 . . . . . . .. . . . . . |]N CqO =at x=oDUO pL 3261
28 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . xrt Ov x =a p
|= H J rO t L 4261
28 . . . . . . .. . . . . . ........... w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = 361
29 . . . . . . .. . . . . . w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O X= N = w 1361
29 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O O = =H}= 2361
30 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ factor() ` = @ D 461
31 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |= Q v tR | U | y = C}OwHwt 561
32 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .. =yCUQyi 661
32 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . C Qy =H U i O }= 1661
34 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . O l wD pw H } QO u U w Q]U P =
|Q= os v 761
35 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ . R =
u @ R QO u tR w = M} Q=D 71
35 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ....... = M u tR w }Q D= =@ =@ =Lt
C U 171
37 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . Excel = M = QO u tR w }Q D 1171
38 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ ...R = u @R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 81
38 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .... Q \ W 181
39 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ . . . . xkr L 281
44 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . apply ` w w = @= D xO= v N 1281
48 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . with ` = @ D 2281
48 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .... `@=wD 381
50 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . |Q =}DN= =@
w |Q H= u t oQ = w 1381
50 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2381
51 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 3381
52 . . . . . . .Q =
@Q m x W O h} QaD |}=DwO Qorta l} CN=U 4381
?
53 .......... w Q O xD w ` = Q} u u= N= i w x W W v @ D x NP 5381
54 ............................... R Q
|Q= i=s v | y = xDU@ 91
57 Q=Owtv sUQ swO pYi

57 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... |Q=O wtv `@=wD 12
59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . curve() ` = @ D 112
61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212
62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo | y = CtUk 312
63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... s y x@ C@Uv Q=O wtv OvJ C}aw 22
63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RH = t x QHvB OvJ O=H}= 122
64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =yQ=Owtv xOW R=@ = QHvB uDU@

| yx 222
64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xLiY l} |wQ = RHt Q=O wtv OvJ 322
65 . . . . . . . |w =Ut | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 1322
65 . . . . . . |w =Ut=v | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 2322
68 . . . . . . . . . .= yQ=O wtv u=mt u}}aD =@ xLiY s}UkD 3322
70 . . . . . . . . . .O L=w xLiY QO |r@k Q=O wtv |wQ Q@ O}OH Q=O wtv s}UQD 422
70 . . . . . . . . . ... . .... |HQ=N | y = s}_vD 1422
71 . . . . . . . . . ... . Q=O wtv l} | y = QDt=Q=B s}_vD 2422
72 . . . . . . . . . ... . . u} = K] ` w } B U @= D R= |=xQ B = 3422
85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . O} = x rwS | yQ=O wtv 4422
85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . Oa x = | )@ U | yQ=O wtv 5422
89 . . . . . . . . . ... . ........... =yQ=Owtv uO wtv xQ}NP 522
92 p=tDL= w Q=t swU pYi
92 . . . ...... ........................ |Q t= x}=B `@=wD 13
92 . . . ...... ................ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113
94 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . | =Y O | =tD = ` w iO D O= a= w r L= | y } R D 213
96 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Q wDU} s= o y 1213
97 . . . ...... ........... qT= C B m @ 2213
100 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . table() ` = @ D 3213
103 . . . ...... . . . . . . = Q =tD | =o ` =

p t v p L= r J @ D 4213
104 . . . qqplot() w qqline() qqnorm() |m} Q ` w

' i= o @= D 5213
106 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ecdf() ` = @ D 6213
108 . . . ...... . . . . . . = = =tD | =o ` = t o p L= r J @ D 7213
111 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | =Y Q} x wt iO D | o v v 313
G
112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =tD ` = l p L= @ D = QDt=Q=B
} | y Q
OQw @ 413
112 .......................... =
|Q t | yVwQ= 513
112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . txQ l w i ] wO w } u tR 1513
116 uw}UQoQ |=ypOt sQ=yJ pYi
116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |] w} N u Q =
U oQ | yp tO 14
116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... wQ =C w w p t i | y }O H t 114
118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... = O `w |R Up t @= D 214
123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O X}NW
p t D 1214
125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =v}t xr =
u ]= Y i 2214
126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv xLiY sUQ 3214
126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... u w}UQoQ QO x OWto =

| yxO=O 314
128 . . . . . . . . . . . xO=O l} = Q
| yxw o | yQ=O = wtv sUQ 1314
131 |YYND w |vi Q=Owtv OvJ s}UQD sHvB pYi

131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =tD p = P = s}UQD
L= | y e m 15
132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p@ = =tD P t o p L= =
e m 115
133 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Q O O P = s}
v=w= iC tC W e m Q
U D 215
135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |= x}W=L `@=wD =@ x=Qty uw}UQoQ s}UQD 315
135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .w D QO wD =
| yQ=O wtv s}UQD 415
137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv l} QO =yZQa QwLt wO s}UQD 515
138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv l} QO CQ= L Q xHQO wO s}UQD 615
139 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... u w}UQoQ xLiY s}UQD 715
140 `H=Qt
O
Q =Di V} o B
R
Q= i=s v "O Q wtv u=}@ R R Q x@ `H=Q
Q= i=s v u= D w |t xm OW=@ | Q}@aD u} QDRHwt O}=W h}YwD u}= '=v=wD =t= lJwm
=}vO QO Q}N= =
| yp U QO Q= i=s v= R Q u}= "CU= =yQ=Owtv s}UQD =
w |Q t
C U =@ =Lt Q |@U=vt Q=}U@ \}Lt
|= @ R
Cra u= wvax@ =Q Q} R pt=wa u= wD@ O}=W "CU= Q ?rH OwN x@
xO m =
=Q |O } R u= @ Q m Q = Q_v w xDi=} |}=RU@ C QyW
"O wtv <=YL= u
C QyW
" OvDUy =} =
u
u t L |y=oWv=O O=Qi= ,=@r=e w CU= u=o}=Q Q=Ri=sQv u}=
"Ovm|t Q=m w CU= ?Yv p@=k 1 =ywmU QFm = |wQ
|Q t
= hrDNt | y = xv}tR xm OwW|t ?Yv u
|wQ OQ t w 2000 R= Rw =HDt 2 Q=Ri=sQv xDU@ =
|O } R O= OaD
" OWN@|t lJwm Qy=_ x@ Q=Ri=sQv u}= x@ =Q |iQoW CQ k O E}L u}= R= w O Q}o|t Q@ QO =Q
w =w
u o v o | yn = q@ "CU= xOW Q=RoQ@ |irDNt |WRwt
= = =
| yx oQ m R R
Q= i=s v Q |iQat Qw_vt x@ uwvm =D Q
u= }= QO
x=o}=H QO l} Qy xm "CU= xOt

QO Q} QLD xDWQ x@ |}=yxwRH =} R = =}
w xw H ,v L= w ? m =D OvJ w CU= xO}OQo x}yD
" CU= QmWD w xHwD QwNQO OwN
sUQ x@ "CU= u @R= |UQ=i = Ovv=wN
u o |= @ Q R R
Q= i=s v Q |iQat Qw_vt x@ |mJwm VWwm Q=L 3 Q=DWwv
Q= kQ R |rrt r= u}@ C}=U |wQ |v=oty xO =iDU= Q =D w u}= '=yQwWm Q}=U
|= @ Q W v h a Q Q@ =v@ w R u=o}=Q C= OvDUt
1. platforms 2. package
SR P-TEX R Q = R} Q = =D
Q= i=s v @ v w O
L Q W v " v=xO wtv x}yD LaTeX R
Q= i=s v Q =@ Rx@ `H=Q w
=Q O N C= OvDUt u =yH QO u}irw-t R= |r}N "3
"CU= xOW |Q =ovhwQL
y
x@ OwN O Ca= @ OL
l v= QO xm CU= u
Q@ Qw]U u}= xOvQ=ov |aU "OW=@|t download p =@ k w CU= xDiQo
O Q_v
" }
QO xJ w ODi= pw@k xJ =D |OaU pwk x@ "O}=tv QDpt=m =
=Q u
'u tR Qw t Q
<=kDQ= w KqY= Q
|= @ |O =yvW}B w Q_v Q=y_= xvwo Qy R= x OvU} wv 'CU}v prN R= |r=N Q=L xR}Hw ,=trUt
"O wtv Oy=wN xO=iDU= w p =@kDU= u
|vWwOv|wUwt O}aUO}U
1391 Q =y@ QyD

u=
w
pw= pYi
R |U w x = Q = = | =v } v t v @ u @R @ } W
xtOkt 11
QwyWt R
|Q= i=s v Q xDU@ S-plus x}@ W Q =}U@ xm OW=@|t Q |W |=} Q |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R l}
|= o R R
Q= i=s v Q
Auckland x=oWv=O Q=t
Q
xw o QO 1995 p U R= = R xSw B " Q CU= xOW |L=Q] =
|Q t
C U =@ =Lt Q
|= @ w |Q t
=
Q
`w W " }O o ?O Q =NDv= Q
u
|= @ R = Cra u}ty x@
s v Ross Ihaka Robert Gentleman
w ==
u } k
\UwD
xv=@r]w=O w Ovm|t |Q=Oxov |rrtr=u}@ s}D l} =Q u=@ R u}= Q=L p=L QO "Ci=} |O=} R u}@]=Nt |Ow @ w R OW
%CU= Q} R KQW x@ R xSw B Q web xLi Y |v=Wv "O@=}|t xaUwD
http://www.r-project.org
|U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =QJ 21
\}Lt QO |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R x@ R=}v =QJ xm O}

|t V}B p=wU u}= "OwW xDN=OQB |QDW}@ C=}} RH x@ xm u}= R= p@k
R}v spss, sas, Minitab, statistica, |Q t
= hrDNt = R
| yQ= i=s v Q xm u}= ut w
'OQ=O O Hw |Q t
=
1
1391 ' |vWwOv|wUwt 2
"O wtv u= wva =Q Q} R w

OQ= t u= D w |t w
p= U u}= x@ MU=B |= @ " Q CU= T QDUO QO
x U =} x@aH l} =@ \ki w O}vm lQO |DUQO x@ =Q |Q t

= s}DQwor= O
w p t 'VwQ l} T U= = xm u}= |= @ Q
"Ov}mv Q=m
"O}W=@ xDW=O | QDW}@ pQDvm OwN |HwQN |wQ O}y=wN@ Qo =
package, extension R Q = x =Q
|Q= i=s v } w t v @ u DO N = w sD} Qwor= =} w |Q=t
O}OH |=yVwQ |=Q@ O}y=wN@ Qo =
"O}vmv xOvU@ |Q t
= l}Uqm =
| yVwQ x@ \ki w O}yO \U@ =Q
" CU= Q} R KQW x@ u=@ R u}= uU=Lt
w
3 Tmwv}r '2 Tm}vw} '1 RwOv} w = pt=a sDU}U
| y |wQ w OW=@|t R=@ uDt |=Q=O w CU= u=o}=Q R u @R =
"O W w |t =QH= 4 V=Dv}mt
"CU= |@ wN |rN=O | =tvy=Q |=Q=O R u @R =
"CU= |o}i=Qo x_Lqt p@=k | y = C}r@=k |=Q=O R u @R =
" CU= S-plus *

=*
|Q t
|Q =HD u* =@ R =@ |}=vW
xrRvt x@ u=@ R u}= =@ |}=vW
w CU= |v=w=Qi =
|Q t
xDN=UV}B `@=wD |=Q=O w CU= =
xO U u
| Q}oO=} "CU= | kw |v=@ R R = ' u @R
"O W w |t xi== u
x@ =
|O } R Q =}U@ =
| y package
"CN=U =Q Q@ Q=m Q_v w `@=wD
OQ t u= D w |t |oO=U x@ u=@ R u}= QO
"O wtv xO=iDU= u

R= R \}L t QO w CN=U package w |t
u= D R u @R= =@
"O}vm xHwD Q} R KQW x@ p=Ft u= wva x@ 'CU= x_Lqt p@=k u=@ R u}= <=kDQ= |v=w=Qi
version 2.6.2 (2008-02-08)

version 2.7.0 (2008-04-22)
version 2.7.1 (2008-06-23)
version 2.7.2 (2008-08-25)
version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20)
version 2.8.1 (2008-12-22)
version 2.9.0 (2009-04-17)
version 2.9.1 (2009-06-26)
version 2.9.2 (2009-08-24)
1. Windows 2. Unix 3. Linux 4. Macintosh
3 R |U w x = Q} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
version 2.10.0 (2009-10-26)

version 2.10.1 (2009-12-14)
version 2.11.0 (2010-04-22)
version 2.11.1 (2010-05-31)
version 2.12.0 (2010-10-15)
CU= xOW x=Q= |O q}t 2004 =
p U QO u
2.0.0 xNU v w |O q}t 2000 =
p U QO R u @R = 1.0.0 xNU v
"OO o Q |t x =@ Q OW xDio xm Qw]u=ty

RwQ @ , D t w
%CU= Q} R KQW x@ R =
u @R | y = C}OwOLt
OQ=O |@ wN C v = =mt= S-plus w u}=

OQ t QO CU}v Gui O=H}= u=mt= |=Q=O
"Ovm|tv |v=@}DWB =Q u
|Q =HD sDU}U l}
" CNwt
=Q u
u}t=Qi O}=@ 'u
=@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ w xO =iDU= |= @ Q
(.exe) | Q }= H= p}=i CQ Y w x@ w O W w |tv xtHQD '=QH= |= @ Q xm |vat u}O@ 'CU= QUit |=Q=O R u @R=
O |tv
" }
QO
Q=Ri=sQv ?Yv RQ] 31
?Yv u
|wQ |r=wDt l}rm Q=@ wO =@ w xO R C= R-2.7.0-win32.exe | Q p =
wtv 5 Owrv=O } U R= =Q }= H= } i = OD@=
Qo = "OQ}o|t Q=Qk R h L Q pmW x@ wm l =t Q w}B = desktop
u }
} W D ?Y pt
t m == T w |wQ v a u } B R= B "O W |t
Q= Okt l} xLiY u}= QO "OQ=O s v = R Console x w | = xLi O}v l}r = R Q
m O W t R @ |= Y ' m m Q @ wO h L |wQ
Q_v w
OQ t C =}rta w |t
u= D u
p@=kt QO xm OwW|t x_Lqt 6 > Ctqa u
R= TB w OQ=O O Hw w |D=L}wD
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ Ctqa Q}}eD x-wLv "O=O Q}}eD =Q Ctqa u}= u= Dw |t xD@r= "O=O s =Hv= =Q
> options(prompt="R > ")

R >
=y|W 41
xQ}NP s=v l} =@ <=}W= pmW x@ QDw}Bt=m p =ai x_i=L QO ::: w G}=Dv '`@=wD '=yQ}eDt 'OO o Q |t =QH= R |D kw
=} R
< W= < H u WO N = w xm `@=wD w |k]vt w |@Uv '|@=UL =yQorta R= xO =iDU= =@ =}
w < W= |wQ Q@ Q=m "OvwW|t
%R= CUDQ=@a C}=U |v=Wv "O Q}o Q=Qk =tW T QDUO QOO
QO | D } H | xNUv CU= umtt pta u}= u}L QO xm CU= |QwO } = x@ sRq "5
http://CRAN.R-project.org
6. prompt
"Ovm|t pta OvDUy

'hw L Q Ov=wD|t u
=yQDm =Q=m x}k@ Q
w OO o `w W Q a-z = A-Z} w hw L Q =@ O}=@ ,=tDL |W l} s=v QDm =Q=m u}rw=
u}=Q@=v@ "O W w |t p=k l}miD lJwm R
w nQ @ hw L Q u} R = @ O =
u @R " W @ _ \NQ} R w . x]kv 0-9 =
' s kQ=
"OQ=O O Hw Cw w =iD X x u}w @
x_i=L QO <=}W= uOQm hPL w CUQyi 'O=H}= 141
<; QDm w
J m w =yvt = Ctqa
| y R= u= D w |t Q=m u}= Q
|= @ "O W O w =H}= uO=O C@Uv Qorta =@ Ov=wD|t |W l}
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Owtv xO =iDU= R=
> n { 15<
skQ n | wDLt Q=vm "O}vR@ =Q Enter O}r m w xO wtv A}=D =Q nx m CU= |i=m O}vm xOy=Wt =Q n Q= Okt O}y=wN@ Qo =
=
A J u t i = Q l} `k=w QO Q wDUO u}= "OyO|t u =Wv =Q n| W QYva u}rw= xm OO o Q |t Qy=_ xWwQm pN=O 1
=}
< W= A J R= u= D = w |t p=Ft u= wvax@ "Ov=wN=Qi ,=L} QY =Q `@=D u}= O}=@ w
|OQ= t QO xD@r= "CU= print() |vt
Q
"O @ s v = `@=D l} =} w xkrL QO
> n
1] 15
xHwD O}=@ =t= "O wtv xO=iDU= R}v = Qorta R= |U} wvxt=vQ@ |=yu=@ R Q}=U Ovv=t u= D w |t uO=O C@Uv |= @ Q xD@r=
O
" W Oy=wN =
xQ W= =yT} QD=t EL@ QO 'u
xvwtv l} x@ xm '7 OQ=O | D Q `}Uw Q@ Q=m <; Ctqa xm CW=O
> n { 15 <
> n
1] 15
P |t
"OQ= o Cw =iD nQ @ wR lJwm hw L Q u}@ R =
u @R ' W O xDio xm Qw]u=ty
> x {1 <
> X { 10 <
> x
1] 1
> X
1] 10
"O=O C@Uv |W l} x@ =Q CQ a =@ l} u= D w |t
> n { 10+2 <
> n
1] 12
"O=O s=Hv= R}v |W R= xO =iDU= O
uw @ u= D w |t =Q |=} Q C =}rta xm O}vm xHwD
> (10+2) 5
1] 60
O
"OQ= v =Q C}Y=N u}= |w =UD Ctqa xm |DQwY QO 'O Q}o Q=Qk xO =iDU= w `@=D l} u=twoQ
OQ t u=wva x@ Ov=wD|t xm |vat u}O@ "7
=@ = xt=O=
=Q Q m R =
u @ R '| Oa@ = Q]U =} w Q]U
| y QO x=ov
w A}=D Q]U l} R= QDW}@
'O W QO Q_v OQ t Qw wDUO Qo =
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x xH}Dv w
'O W A}=D Q]U wO QO Q}N= p=Ft xm O}vm Q
Z i " yO O |t u=Wv + Ctqa
> (10+2)
+5
1] 60
"O}vm x_Lqt =Q | Qo}O p=Ft
> (10+2)*
+ 5/
+ 10 -
+1
1] 5
"OQ= vO |twRr C=Q wDUO |y=Dwm Cra x@ | Oa@ | y = Q]U x@ uDiQ 'Q}N= p=Ft wO QO
xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OOQo|tv O=H}= Q=Okt uw @ O |W ,qY= uwJ 'OwW|t pY=L =]N OW=@ xDW=Ov Q=Okt |W Qo =
"O}vm
> x {3 <
> x+y
Error: object 'y' not found
R u @R | y
= = QoW}=Q} w 241
QoW}=Q} w l} R= xm CU= ?U=vt w CU= xOvvmxDUN C=QwDUO lDlD |=QH= 'Ow@ |vqw] xt=vQ@ l} |=yO)m Qo =
O w |t s}UkD xDUO
" v W wO x@ =yQoW}=Q} w w |t O=H}=
"O W r O wUv = |}=yp}=i =yQoW}=Q} w
B @ QO "O W xO w =iDU=
l}rm R u wm}
R
|wQ 'Q= i=s v Q ?Yv xrLQt R= TB Q=m u}= Q CU=
|= @ " RGui O N w pN=O QoW}=Q} w l}
w xOR =Q New script xv R File wv xLi = wv
} o | t R= Y |q @ | t QO TBU w Q
w O W = H= Q= i=s v R Q =D xO wtv
u= D w |t u wv Cm= " O xD w R Untitled - R Editor
U= x W W v u
|q @ = xm OwW|t R=@ | } H OO xLiY
=yO)m Q Q
|= H= |= @ "O m = H= Q Q Oa@ w Owtv xQ}NP TBU w CWwv OvDUy xm =DOvJ Qy =Q OwN Q_v w
OQ t | y )
m = O
O}rm w xO wtv A}=D =Q Q} R QwDUO 'OQ=O O Hw w > Ctqa xm |}=H |va} R Console QO xm CU= |i=m
"O}vR@ =Q Enter
> source("le name")
=F
p t u= wva x@ "O wtv xi== R}v =Q Q}Ut TQO
O}=@ p}=i s=v Q@ xw qa x=ov
w@v
'O |Q H = xWwB QO p}=i Qo =
> source("E:/users/test.r")
R}v script OwN |wQ R= xm CU= |QwQ xDmv u}= Qm P "O}vm xHwD Q}Ut u=}@ |=Q@ / x@ \ Ctqa Q}}eD x@
w xDW=O xov =Q Ctrl O}r m w xO wtv ? =NDv= = O
=Q y )
m R= |WN@ w s =tD xm CU= |i=m "CU= =QH= p@=k xt=vQ@
Q Q
"OO o = H= xt=vQ@ =D O}vR@ =Q R O}r m
xm CU= |i=m Q=m u}= Q O}vm xQ}NP

|= @ " =Q =yv
O}v=wD|t OwN = O |DUQO
| y )
m R= u =v}t]= pwYL R= TB
u= D w |t xm OwW|t Qy=_ Save script as = x s v @ |=x QHvB x=ov
'O}vR@ =Q S O}rm w xDW=O xov =Q Ctrl O}rm
=Q Save O}r m w xO wtv XNW w script
t =Q O N s v = TBU 'O wtv ? =NDv= =Q x Q}NP |= @Q Q_v OQ t w Q}Ut
x Q}NP Q_v OQ t w Q}Ut | =ND = R O wU
QO @ v= s v w v B =@ p}=i l} QO =tW | y )
m= O ?}DQD u}= x@ xO wtv l}rm
R xLi = R
Y |q @ Q= @= Q= v R= w p}=i | wvt ? =NDv= =@ O}W=@ xDW=O R=}v u
x@ x=o Qy Oa@ x@ u}= R= "OO o Q |t
" O}vm R=@ =Q u
w O}vR@ =Q Open script xv R } o
qkDUt O}=@
, w OvDU}v Q=Ri=sQv pN=O xm OvDUy |}=yv
=yQoW}=Q} w u}= R= Q w_vt %|HQ=N = QoW}=Q} w
| y
=yQoW}=Q} w R= xDUO u}= u}@ R= " OvDUy |Q =HD =yv

R= |=xQ B w u = download
=o}=Q =yv
R= | a@ "OvwW
"Owtv =
xQ W= XEmacs RWinEdt Tinn-R x w |
w ' @ u= D t
x =ov
O
'OR = Y u
pN=O =Q R R
Q= i=s v u= D Q w |t u
?Yv R= TB w CU= u=o}=Q %8 Tinn-R QoW}=Q} w
Q
= H= =Q x W O xDWwv | y )= O
m u= D w |t w O W w |t s}UkD |w =Ut CtUk wO@ QDw}Bt=m xLiY OwN@OwN
"Owtv
"O wtv |] =Q Q} R pL=Qt O}=@ RWinEdt QoW Q }= } w R= xO =iDU= |= @ Q %RWinEdt QoW}=Q} w
" CU= |Q=HD Q=Ri=sQv u}= xm OwW|t u=Wv Q]=N xD@r= 'OQm ?Yv =Q WinEdt Q=Ri=sQv O}=@ =OD@= {
u
TBU w xO wtv download =QRWinEdt = x@
s v |= xDU@ =} w package O = } @ xrLQt u}= QO {
" CU= u=o}=Q =Pr w O =| R
W @ t R
|Q= i=s v | y Q = xDU@ <RH j i w xDU@ "O}vm ?Yv =Q
"O}vm =QH= Q=@m} Q

|= @ =Q Q} R QwDUO ' R R
Q= i=s v QOQ TBU {
> library ("RWinEdt")
w |t O=H}= QDw}Bt=m
"O W desktop |wQ RWinEdt u= wva CLD uwm}
l} '=QH= R= TB
q@k xm
, OR U = |t u=Wv Q]=N "O wtv =QH= w CWwv w QoW}=Q} w
j i QO u= D w |t =Q Q_v w
OQ t | y )
m = O {
O = O
" W @ x W R @ = RGui O = } @
w x QoW}=Q} w u}=
Q ] @ "O wtv ?Yv =Q QoW}=Q} w u}= u= D w |t R R
Q= i=s v Q ?Yv TB % RStudio QoW}=Q} w
CUOx@ Q CU=
|= @ " Matlab R
Q= i=s v Q x}@W QoW}=Q} w u}= \}Lt "OO o Q |t pYDt Rx = w
@ Q mO N
"O wtv xaH=Qt Q} R TQO

x@ w |t QoW}=Q} w u}=
u= D uOQw
http://www.rstudio.org/download/desktop
R QO =yxO=O 341
u}vJsy "OvwW|t XNWt | wDLt w s v= \UwD =yu

OwN xm Ovm|t Q=m =y|W =@ RO W x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty
%CU= C}YwYN wO |=Q=O =y|W s=tD "OO oQ |t u}at 9 C}YwYN =@ OQ=O Q= k Q |W QO xm w
xO=O ` v
9. attribute
'QDm =Q=m O
'|O a %OQ=O O Hw w mode |r Y= ` v Qw =yJ "Ovm|t XNWt =Q |W l} QY=va `wv % mode
=F
p t |= @ "OwQ Q |tv Q=mx@ data wOQ t QO xm OQ=O O Hw w R}v | Qo}O | y = mode xD@ r= " |k]vt w \rDNt
Q =
"O @ s v CQ a =@ =} `@=D R= u= D w |t
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q |W l} QY=va O=OaD % length w
p ]
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ uwvm =
> x {1 <
> mode(x)
1] "numeric"
> length(x)
1] 1
> A { "Auchland" compar { TRUE z { 1i
< < <
> mode(A) mode(compar) mode(z)

1] "character"
1] "logical"
1] "complex"
O w |t wQ@ wQ Q} R s=e}B =@ xvQow OwW xDWwv
" } W R
nQ @ hw L @ Q = O}=@ ,=tDL TRUE xS=w xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
R= V}@ Q]U l} QO xm O}y=wN@ Qo = =t= "O}
|t QwDUO l} Q]U Qy QO OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty %xHwD
=@ CQ Y w u}= Q}e Ow
QO ' v W = H O Qo}Om}
R= Ctqa =@ 'Q]U l} C=Q wDUO O}=@ x=ov
'OQ}o Q=Qk QwDUO l}
O
" W O}y=wN xH=wt =]N
Error: object "true" not found

w |t
"O W xO=O u =Wv 10 NA CQ Y w x@ xOW Owkit =
| yxO=O OQ t QO w mode C} Y wYN
O =@
=Q u
' W v O a Q= O Okt Qo = "OyO|t u=Wv -Inf Inf = w @ C@ wv x@ =Q 1 pFt 'u}at=v |OOa Q}O=kt R u=@ R
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ "OyO|t V}=tv 11 NaN =@
> x { 5/0 <
> x
1] Inf
> exp(x)
1] Inf
> exp({x)
1] 0
> x{x
1] NaN
" O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ "O}yO Q=Qk quotes wO } w = l} pN=O =Q u
xm CU= |i=m xDWQ O=H}= Q
|= @
> x { "This is a test."

<
> x
1] "This is a test."
> x { 'This is a test.'
<
10. Not Available 11. not a number

> x
1] "This is a test."
pN=O QO Qo = uwvm = "CU= quotes wO CQ Y w x@ pY=L 'O}vm pta quotes wO } w= l} =@ xJ xm O}vm xHwD
quotes l } R= Qo = =t= O
'OQ= v O Hw w |rmWt quotes wO R= xO =iDU= w
CQ Y QO ' CW=O OwHw hQ wDU=B
xDWQ
"O}}=tv =iDU= n
xO R= O}=@ w O}
|t V}B =]N w
'O W xO =iDU=
> x { "Ali's apple"

<
> x
1] "Ali's apple"
> x { 'Alin's apple'
<
> x
1] "Ali's apple"
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv pQDvm =Q |Q =Wa= s=kQ= O=OaD w |t
u= D digits QwDUO =@
> print(1/1:5, digits=2)

1] 1.00 0.50 0.33 0.25 0.20
O =@ wDUO Qy
" W v Q QO =yv
s}_vD Q
|= @ |R v =} Qo}O xm Owtv u}at |rm Qw]x@ =Q Q =Wa= =
sQ kQ= O= OaD u= D w |t xD@r=
"O Ww |t xO =iDU= options ` = @ D R= Q m = u}= Q
|= @
> options(digits = 3)
> print(1/1:5)
1] 1.000 0.500 0.333 0.250 0.200
l} R= V}@ xm O}W=@ p}=t xJv=vJ w Ovm|t =
A J =Q |W l} \ki print() ` = x O} @ D m W @ = xDW=O xHwD ,=vt
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Owtv xO =iD cat() ` =
U= @ D R= O}=@ Q
OO o A J = |W
> x { 1:10<
> cat('x=', x, '\n')

x= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Z} waD Q]U =} w \N CtQi u}= QDj}kO CQ a =@ x@ wNv sy x@ >
"OQ | H = xm CU= u}= Q '\n' CtUk
|= @
"O}vm pta Q} R CQ Y w x@ O}=@ OvwW =

A J = HO Q]U O
wO QO O= a= w x= CtUk xm O}y=wN@ Qo = Ovm|t
> x { 1:10
<
> cat('x=', '\n', x, '\n')

x=
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O
= = = 441
xO =iDU= u
R= R}v Q=DWwv u}= QO xm CU= xOW xO=O Q= k Q =yp=Ft QO xO =iDU= Q =
|= @ xO t
xO=O |O= OaD R =
u @ R QO
xO =iDU= =@ =Q =yu
pt=m CUQyi w |t xD@r=
u= D : : : trees Nile LakeHuron iris cars Ov =
w ' ' ' ' v t "O W w |t
" Ci=} R QO Q} R QwDUO R=
9 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> data()
O w Q
" v= N= i =Q u
x= Qty =
| yxO=O u= D w |t Q} R QwDUO =@ 'OW xO =iDU= package l } R= Qo = ,=vt
> library(gstat)
wtv x_Lqt Q} R QwDUO \UwD
"O =Q gstat xDU @ QO GQ Ovt =
| yxO=O CUQyi u= D w |t uwvm =
> data(package="gstat")
C=Q wDUO =@ =Q meuse.alt x w Q =
@ \ @ t | yxO=O 'x W O CUQyi =
| yxO=O |t=U= u=}t R= u= D w |t p=Ft u= wva x@
"Owtv x_Lqt Q} R
> data(meuse.alt)
> meuse.alt
R u=@ RQO =yxO=O R= |DtUk V}=tv 1441
u= Dw |t Q=m u}= Q
|= @ "O wtv xOy=Wt =Q =yv
R= |DtUk u= Dw |t '=yxO=O uO @ w |vqw] ?@U x@ =
C kw= R= |=xQ B QO =
"O wtv xO=iDU= tail() head() ` =
w @ D wO R=
= =F
| yxO=O p t |= @ "O W Q w |t xO=iDU= head() ` = @ D R= xO=O Q]U 6 x}rw= | y= Q]U uO=O u =Wv Q
|= @
"O Q}o Q_v QO R QO =Q trees

> data(trees)
> head(trees)
Girth Height Volume

1 8.3 70 10.3
2 8.6 65 10.3
3 8.8 63 10.2
4 10.5 72 16.4
5 10.7 81 18.8
6 10.8 83 19.7
"OO o Q O}k ,=L} QY Q_v w

OQ t O= OaD O}=@ 'OW=@ sRq Q]U 6 R= QDtm =} w Q]U 6 R= V}@ x@ Qo =
> head(trees, 8)
Girth Height Volume

1 8.3 70 10.3
2 8.6 65 10.3
3 8.8 63 10.2
4 10.5 72 16.4
5 10.7 81 18.8
6 10.8 83 19.7
7 11.0 66 15.6
8 11.0 75 18.2
trees = =F
| yxO=O p t |= @ "O W Q w |t xO=iDU= tail() `@=D R= xO=O Q]U 6 QN=w= |=yQ]U uO=O u=Wv |=Q@
"O Q}o Q_v QO R QO =Q
> tail(trees)
Girth Height Volume

26 17.3 81 55.4
27 17.5 82 55.7
28 17.9 80 58.3
29 18.0 80 51.5
30 18.0 80 51.0
31 20.6 87 77.0
" Ovm|t pta head() ` = @ D Ovv=t tail() ` =@ D ' Q]U 6 R= QDtm w QDW}@ | y= Q]U O= OaD E}L R=
=yxO=O O}rwD 541
"OvW=@|t Q} R KQW x@ xm 'OvDUy O}rwD p@=k CQ Y wOw x@ =yxO=O
=yxO=O R= s_vt |=yxr=@vO O=H}= 1541
O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q 30 = 1D =
| yxO=O , qFt 'K}LY O
O= a= R= s_vt xr=@vO
> x { 1:30
<
"OQ=O C} wrw= O
|O a | y = Qorta u}@ :
QO ' Qorta "CU= QYva 30 = x
@ |= }=Q
l} j i Qw wDUO xH}Dv
> 1:10-1
1] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
> 1:(10-1)
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
=F
%p t u= wva x@ "Ovm O}rwD =Q |k}kL O
O= a= R= |= r vO x =@ Ov=wD|t seq() ` = @ D
> seq(1, 5, 0.5)

1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
" yOO |t u=Wv =Q V}=Ri= u= R}t OOa u}twU w xr=@vO xtD=N OOa u}twO 'xr=@vO Q
`w W O a O u}rw= '`@=D u}= QO
"CWwv u= Dw |t u}vJsy
> seq(from=1, to=5, length=9)

1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
"CU= xOW s}UkD |w =Ut CtUk 9 x 5 = 1 u}
@ D @ xrY=i =Hv}= QO
combine ` = c() x @ D @ "OQw

QO xr=@vO l} CQ Y w x@ Q sy Q=vm
w O=O Q= k =Q Q_v w
OQ t O= a= u= D O w |t c() ` = @ D @=
"Ov} wo|t R}v
> c(1, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0)
1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
QY=va Q=QmD O= OaD = w
u
u t oQ
u}twO Q
w Q=O @ u
u t oQ
= w u}rw= xm OQ=O O Hw w rep() u= wva CLD | Qo}O `@=D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= = w
pw= u t oQ
> rep(1:4, 4)
1] 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
u}= QO "CU= = w
pw= u t oQ
Q=O @ Q QY=va O=OaD =@ Q@=Q@ u
QY=va O=OaD xm OW=@ Q=O @ Q Ov=wD|t R}v swO u t oQ
= w
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "Ovm|t u}at =Q pw= u=twoQ
QY=va Q=QmD O=OaD 'swO u=twoQ
Q=OQ@ QYva Qy Cr=L
> rep(1:4, c(2,2,2,2))

1] 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
"O}vm xHwD rep() ` = @ D R= Q} R =
xO U p t =F x@
> rep(' ', 3)

1] " " " " " "
=yxO=O R= |iO=YD |=yxr=@vO O=H}= 2541
R = Q| Q
u @ R "OO o t m P xQ @ = u}= QO |QYDNt KQW u}=Q@=v@ "CU= O}rwD p@=k |Q=t
|=y`} RwD \UwD xr=@vO `wv u}=
rfunc(n, w x CQ Y @ `@=wD u}= |twta pmW "CU= p=tDL= |r=oJ w sQH `@=wD R= |=x_Lqt p@=k O=OaD pt=W
O Oa n =
|O= a= O= D yu
QO " CU= xOW PN= |iO=YD |=vat x@ random xS=w R= r hQL xm CU= p1, p2, : : : )
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO|t u=Wv =Q `@=D |=yQDt=Q=B Q}O=kt p1, p2, Q
hw L "O W w O}rwD CU= Q=Qk xm CU=
> rnorm(1)
1] 1.358007
"CU= xOW O}rwD l} Q=}at h= QLv= w QiY u}ov=}t O =D
OQ= v U= p t v = Q |iO=YD OOa l} =Hv}= QO
=yxO=O uDWwv w uOv=wN 51
O N w C}ty= |Dkw ?r]t u}= XNq=@ "CU= u

QO =yxO=O GwQN w OwQw Q=Ri=sQv Qy |U=U= |=yVN@ R= |m}
syt u}= KQW Q=m xt=O= QO "OO o x Q Q}NP p}=i l} |wQ =} w O w
w O W x v= N p}=i l} =
R= yxO=O xm OyO|t u=Wv =Q
O
" t
Oy=wN
p}=i R= =yxO=O uOv=wN 151
"O wtv xO =iDU= VwQ wO R= u= D w |t Q=m u}= Q O w |t p}=i

|= @ " v= N |wQ R= =Q text |vDt =
| yxO=O R =
u @R
read.table uOv=wN QwDUO 1151
QO w cw }=QO QO , qFt w OW=@ data.txt |r = } i s v= Qo = "CU= read.table() ` = @ D xO =iDU= w

OQ t Q wDUO u}rw=
" Ovm|t pta Q} R CQ Yw x@ uOv=wN QwDUO x=ov
'OW=@ xOW xQ}NP test = x@
s v |= W Bx w
> mydata { read.table("c:/test/data.txt")

<
pt=a sDU}U QO xm |DQwY QO ' CU= xOW XNWt /

=@ p}=i TQO
=} w Q}Ut xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
nn wO R= O}=@ O}vm xO=iDU= n O=tv R= O}y=wN@ xJ=vJ "OOQo|t xO=iDU= n O=tv R= Q=m u}= |=Q@windows
w |t |U} wvR=@ Q}N=
"O W w x
CQ Y @ q @ p t u = =F wvm = Q
"O m xO =iDU=
> mydata { read.table("c:nntestnndata.txt")

<
w x CU= s=v |=Q=O u

Q}eDt Qy xm OwW|t p}mWD mydata s=v x@ =yxO=O R= |rwOH l} jwi QwDUO |=QH= =@
Q ] @ "
mydata$V1, mydata$V2, = w x = x | QD w | O} = V1, V2,

| yCQ Y @ yu
Q V}
@ U UO w O W t x t v Z i B
wD
Q O = | mydata, 1], mydata, 2], mydata"V1"], mydata"V2"], : : : =
UO " W @ t w } w
wt =iD w ?U
"O v xO w| x C =}D
U= u
R= OQ t =} wY p = read.table
L u= D t m U= |Q N= C Y N t W
C O Q} data.txt Q " w x |r = O}v x w Q

U= x W x NP =F x wv } R CQ Y @ } i " m H D }R p t @ u m=
Author: John Davis

Date: 18-05-2007
Some comments...
Col1, Col2, Col3, Col4
23, 45, A, John
34, 41, B, Jimmy
12, 99, B, Patrick
w |t xOv=wN=Qi
"O W R =
u @ R QO q L =
13 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> mydata { read.table("c:/test/data.txt", skip=3, sep=",", header=T)

<
> mydata
= w
u t oQ
w Ovm|t Qw@a CU= C =L}wD \ @ t w Q xm p}=i pw= Q]U xU R= skip = w
u t oQ
read.table() ` = @ D QO
T =Hv}= QO w CU= |k]vt `wv R= xm header = w

u t oQ
x Nq @ w Q = O}=tv|t P
h L =Q = u} w Q sep
yxO=O @ p o }w
"O}vm xHwD |HwQN x@ uwvm = "Ovm|t îL =Q =yxO=O |t=U= u}=Q@=v@ 'xOW Qm P C TRUE hiN x
U= t m
Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4

1 23 45 A John
2 34 41 B Jimmy
3 12 99 B Patrick
O w
u v= N x@ = |}=yvD x@
QO k R =
u @R " CU= xOW xQ}NP Excel R Q
Q= i=s v QO , q@k =yxO=O R= |Q =}U@ Q=L p=L QO
xU |}=yxO=O u}vJ uOv=wN |= @ " Q CU}v *.xlsx =} w *.xls = O wUB |va}

| y v Excel | y = p}=i s}kDUt
"OQ=O O Hw w pL x=Q
|vDt p}=i =yv

read.table() `@=D =@ TBU 'Owtv xQ}NP *.txt CtQi x@ Excel =
QO =Q yxO=O u= D w |t 1
O w
" v= N =Q *.txt
read.csv("p = } i TQO
w s v = ") `@=D =@ TBU 'Owtv xQ}NP *.csv CtQi x@ Excel QO =Q =yxO=O u=wD|t 2
O w
" v= N =Q =yv
O w |t
" v= N =Q Excel | y = p}=i ,=t}kDUt R =
u @ R 'u
R= xO =iDU= =@ xm x]w@ Qt package R= xO =iDU= 3
p}=i |rt=aD uDi=} 2151
u}= |HwQN "O@=}@ =Q u

w xO wtv wHDUH |rt=aD w x
CQ Y @ =Q =tW Q_v OQ t w p}=i Ov=wD|t le.choose() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OyO|t u=Wv =Q u

x@ \ @ tw Q Q}Ut w p}=i s=v `@=D
> le.choose()
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\debit.txt"
u
Q}Ut w p}=i s=v OwQw x@ |R v=} Qo}O 'OQ}o Q=Qk read.table() ` = = w
@ D u t oQ
u= wvax@ Q}N= `@=D Qo = uwvm =
"O=O s =Hv= =Q wHDUH pta O}=@ xt=vQ@ Q
|= H= Q @ = Qy QO =t= 'CU}v
> read.table(le.choose())
=Q p}=i OvJ TQO
= Ov=wD|t `@=D u}= "OQ=O s=v choose.les() xm OQ=O OwHw xO=wv=N u}ty R=
w s v | Qo}O `@=D
O}rm uDW=O xov =@ O}v=wD|t =tW w |t
"O W xO wWo Select les s v = x@ |=x QHvB `@=D u}= Q
|= H= @ " yO = O CUOx@
| y = p}=i s=v w TQO
x =ov
"O}vm l}rm =Q Open O}r m TBU w xO wtv ? =NDv= =Q O Nw Q_v w
OQ t | y = p}=i Ctrl
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OO o Q |t Qy=_ xOW ? =NDv=
> choose.les()
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\boise.txt" "D:\\R_les\\data\\airpass.txt"
`@=D |HwQN =yv
=
| yTQO
w airpass.txt boise.txt w =
| ys v = x@ p}=i wO O W w |t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
"OvDUy xOW xDio
=yv
R= = RHt Qw]x@ R w
sw r CQ Y QO w CW=O xov x = x@ ,qFt |W l} pN=O
s v u= D w |t =Q =yp}=i s=v w TQO
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv xO =iDU=
> x { choose.les()
<
> x
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\boise.txt" "D:\\R_les\\data\\airpass.txt"
> x1]
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\boise.txt"
> x2]
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\airpass.txt"
CU= Q_v Kt]t |}=yp}=i ,qFt O}vm Z i "OQ wtv QDr}i u=WOvwUB ?UL Q@ =Q =yv
w |t =yp}=i
u= D ? =NDv= QO
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO|t s=Hv= Q}N= `@=D QO QDr}i u=twoQ
=Q xi}_w u}= 'OW=@ txt =y v
OvwUB xm
> choose.les(lters = Filtersc("txt", "All"), ])
scan uOv=wN QwDUO 3151
R}v Q@ Q=m xr}Uw x@ Ov=wD|t `@=D u}= "Ovm|t xO =iDU= scan() = x@

s v | D Q u}}=B K]U `@=D R= read.table ` = @ D
xO =iDU= O
u
R= ' UQ |tv Q_v x@ ?U=vt read.table O Qmrta xm = =
C kw= R= |=xQ B QO w O W x v= N= i , w O w Q =t}kDUt
" CU= Q} R KQW x@ u
|twtta pmW "O W w |t
> scan(x, le=" ")
p}=i |wQ =yxO=O uDWwv 251
" OU} wv|t p}=i |wQ =Q =yxO=O write.table QwDUO
> write.table(x, le=" ")

xQ}NP u
QO =yxO=O xm CU= |r}=i s=v le=" " w
QO w O W x Q}NP CU= Q=Qk xm CU= |}=yxO=O x u
QO xm
" CU= xHwD QwNQO xm w
OQ=O O Hw u t oQ
= w OvJ write.table() ` = @ D QO "O Q}o|t Q=Qk OvwW|t
=yuwDU |t=U= QwO Cr=L u}= QO w CU= T Z i Q V}B CQwYx@ xm OQ=O O Hw w quote |k]v = w
t u t oQ
"OO o Q |t h L yP = uW}Dwm OwW quote=F x m |DQwY QO w O Q}o|t Q=Qk uW}Dwm =yh}OQ xQ =tW w
R= h}OQ Qy Q
|= @ w CU= CUQO T Z i Q V}B CQ Y @w x xm OQ=O O Hw w row.names |k]v = w
t u t oQ
"OO o Q |t P
h L y = h}OQ xQ=tW Q
OO o row.names=F x m |DQwY QO " yO O |t Q=Qk xQ =tW =yxO=O
15 R |U w x = Q } v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
w sy Q=vm =yxO=O uwDU OwWv xO =iDU= u

R= Qo = xm OQ=O O Hw xw Ovvm =OH =} sep = x@
s v | Qo}O u=twoQ
"O wtv xO =iDU= u= D w |t sep="\t" = w

u t oQ
R= Q m = u}= R= | Q}owrH Q
|= @ "O W w |t xDWwv p}=i QO ?DQt=v
"O Ww |t xDWwv p}=i QO ?DQt w sy R= u}at xrY=i l} =@ =yxO=O uwDU CQ Y w u}= QO
CtQi R= Q m= u}= Q O =
|= @ " W @ Excel Q
|= @ u v= N O w p@=k xm Owtv xQ}NP R =
u @ R QO |= v o @ =Q xw x p}=i l} u= D w |t
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ QwDUO |rm CQ Y "O Ww w |t xO =iDU= *.csv
> write.csv2(x, le=" .csv")

OQ=O O Hw w row.names |k]v = w
t u t oQ
, =vt "OW=@|t |HwQN p}=i |= @ Q =tW x=wNrO s=v xm O}vm xHwD
xm |DQwY QO " yO O |t Q=Qk xQ=tW =yxO=O R= h}OQ Qy Q
|= @ w CU= CUQO T Z i Q V}B CQ Y @w x xm
"CWwv u= D w |t |va} "OO oQ |t P
h L y = h}OQ xQ =tW OO o Q row.names=F
> write.csv2(x, le=" .csv", row.names=F)
p}=i R= xO=iDU= =@ uDWwv w uOv=wN pLt 351
u
x@ xm OQ=O O Hww |Qi V}B TQO
' p}=i l} |wQ Q@ uDWwv w p}=i l} |wQ R= u v= N |= @ O w R = Q u @ R QO
Q} R OQ tw x@ "O Ww |t xO =iDU= getwd() ` = @ D R= u

TQO
uOQw
CUOx@ Q Ov} wo
|= @ " working directory
"O}vm xHwD
> getwd()
1] "C:/Documents and Settings/shahin/My Documents"
w}=QO '=tW Q_v w
OQ t TQO
xm O}vm Q qFt
Z i, "O wtv xO =iDU= setwd() ` = @ D R= u= D w |t TQO
u}= Z} waD Q
|= @
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @ Qw x wDUO u}=Q@=v@ 'OW=@ R_les x W B ww D

> setwd("D:/R_les")
"O}vm pQDvm w
=Q O N O}OH TQO
getwd() Q wDUO =@ O}v=wD|t uwvm =
> getwd()
1] "D:/R_les"
u
u}=Q@=v@ 'OO o Q |tQ@ Z i Q V}B TQO
x@ O}OH TQO
" O}vm R=@ =Q R ,=OOHt w O} wW GQ N = R R= |Dkw =yDvt
"O}vm pta Q} R w x w
CQ Y @ O W Q= } B TQO
O= Z} waD xm u}= |= @ " Q CU= |Dkwt s}_vD
x@ \ @ t w Q 2.14.0 =
s kQ= xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD "OO o Q Qy=_ |=x QHvB =D 'O}vm CU=Q l}rm uwm}
Q@
s =Hv= =Q Q m = u R }= R= | Qo}O xNUv =@ =tW xm CU= |a}@] ,qt=m u}=Q@=v@ "CU= xO @ w R |Q H = xNUv
"Ovm|tv =i}= |Wkv xHwI}y x@ pta xH}Dv QO Qt= u}= =t= "O}yO
Q_v w
OQ t TQO
Start in: CQ a =@ p@=kt x@aH QO " O}vm l}rm =Qproperties xv R } o Q=L xQHvB QO
O Oy=wN O}OH TQO

=tW ZQi V}B TQO
?}DQD u}= x@ "
' W O} R ok O}r TB
v @ =Q m U w O}vm OQ=w =Q O Nw
"O}vm w
Z a =Q u
,=O OHt xm u
Qot
l} QO xm u}at xWwB l} x@ =tW =t= 'Ov=t@ |k=@ OwN w x@ O}OH

C k TQO
O}y=wN|t xm O}vm Z i u Q wvm =
"O}W=@ xDW=O s}kDUt |UQDUO xv=o =OH R}v TQO
u
x@ O}r}=t w O} Q=O QQmt xaH=Qt 'OQ=O Q= k Q |Y=N Q}Ut
"O}vm pta Q} R w x = u}=
CQ Y @ Q m Q
|= @
Ow
" } W R OQ=w = OD@=
? =NDv= =Q Change dir xv} Ro Q=L xQHvB QO TBU "O}vR@ File =@=Q CQ a xLiY |q @ |= wvt R=
"OO o Q |t R=@ Browse For Folder = s v x@ |=x QHvB x=ov

'O}vm
getwd() QwDUO R= Q}Ut ? =NDv= |DUQO R= u =v}t]= Q O}vm ?}kaD Q_v

|= @ " w xWwB =D
OQ t =Q O N w Q}Ut
O
" yO u =Wv =Q x W Q O =}DN= Q}Ut O}=@ O}vm xO =iDU=
x =ov
'O}vm ?=NDv= =Q Save Workspace xv} Ro TBU "O}vR@ =Q File =@ xLiY |q=@ |wvt
CQ a R=
w |t R=@
"O W Save image in = x@
s v |=x QHvB
"O}vR@ =Q Save O}r m 'u

QO | Q}}eD I}y O O
uw @ " yO |t u=Wv =Q x W Q O =}DN= Q}Ut u=ty Q=L xQHvB
OvwUB =Hv}= QO "O}vm|t xOy=Wt =Q u wm}

x=ov
"O} wQ@ u=DQ_v OQ t w xWwB x@ TBU "O}Ov@ R =Q
=@ w xO wtv ? =NDv= x=wNrO x@ sU= l} O}v=wD|t u}=Q@=v@ O w

"OQ= v O Hw u
|= @ Q |tU= =t= CU= RData
POT.RData xH}D v OW=@ POT Q_v OQwt sU= Qo = ,qFt "O}vm xi== =Q u
Rename VwQ R= xO=iDU=
"OO o Q |t
u}= R= " Desktop xLi

O}vm O=H}= OwN RwOv} w Y |wQ shortcut l} u
R= O}v=wD|t =tW u wvm =
xrt R xLi = H Y | y xDWwv Q]U u} QN
QO ,qw= " } W Ow R OQ=w shortcut
Previously saved workspace restored]
"O W w |t x_Lqt Q_v w
OQ t TQO
u =ty 'O}vm =QH= =Q getwd() QwDUO Qo = ,=}v=F "OO o Q |t Qy=_
=yxO=O Q=DN=U 61
"O wtv |Q= Oyov Q} R =

| yCQ Y w x@ =Q =yxO=O u= D w |t R =
u @ R QO
(vector) Q=O @ Q
(matrix) T Q = } D t
(array) x }=Q
(data frame) w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O =
(time series) | = Q
v tR | U | yxO=O =
(list) C U Qyi
17 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
w |t xDN=OQB =yu
"O W R= l} Qy RHt KQW x@ uwvm =

|=
=yQ=OQ@ 1 6 1
'OvDUy u=Um} `wv =@ xO=O OvJ pt=W xm CU= |W Q=OQ@ "OvDUy =yQ=OQ@ 'R u=@ R QO =yxO=O Q=DN=U u} QDxO=U
" CN=U =Q Q=OQ@ c() `@=D =@ u=wD|t OW x_Lqt R}v ,q@k xm Qw]v=ty "OvW=@|t ::: w |k]vt ,=t=tD =} w OOa ,=t=tD
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=kt x@
> x - c(10,5,3,6)
<
> x
1] 10 5 3 6
=} w
> y { c(x, 0.55, x, x)

<
> y
1] 10.00 5.00 3.00 6.00 0.55 10.00 5.00 3.00 6.00 10.00 5.00 3.00
13] 6.00
" O}vm xHwD | QDm =Q=m p=Ft l} x@ uwvm =
> pets { c("cat","dog","gerbil","terrapin")

<
> length(pets)
1] 4
O |t CUOx@ Q} R
" }
w x xDWQ Qy pw] =t=
CQ Y @ "OQ=O O Hww xDWQ Q=yJ xm OyO|t u=Wv length() ` = @ D
> pets { c("cat","dog","gerbil","terrapin")

<
> nchar(pets)
1] 3 3 6 8
=yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C=@U=Lt 1161
=Q x Q QYva Qy xx p=Ft

Q=O @ Q
|= @ "O W w |t s=Hv= V QYva Qy |wQ ,q wtat O =
|O a | yQ=O @ |wQ C U Q =@ =Lt
"Ovm|t `@ Qt
> x
1] 10 5 3 6
> z {x x<
> z
1] 100 25 9 36
"Owtv p=ta= x Q
Q=O @ |wQ =Q s}DQ=or `@=D ,qFt "O=O QF= Q l} QY=va
Q=O @ |wQ =Q `@=wD u= Dw |t
> log(x)
1] 2.302585 1.609438 1.098612 1.791759
QD|vqw] Q O x@ =D
Q=O @ xR= v= OO o Q |t Q=QmD QOkv
QDx=Dwm Q OvW=@v u=Um} pw]
Q=O @ ' Q
|=Q=O Q=O @ wO xm |Dr=L QO
O Q}o Q_v
" } QO =Q O aO l} Q =
w Q=O @ xO U p t "O W =F w
> sqrt(x) + 2
1] 5.162278 4.236068 3.732051 4.449490
`tH 2 OOa =@ Q QYva Qy TBU
Q=O @ Q
w OO o x Q w
Q=O @ p ] xR= v= O x@ =D CU= xOW Q=QmD Q=@ Q=yJ 2 O =Hv}=
O a QO
" OvW=@ Q=O @Q Ovwrta wO Qy xm xm O}vm xHwD |r=Ft x@ uwvm = "O W w |t
> x { c(1,2,3,4)
<
> y { c(1,2,3,4,5,6)
<
> z {x y
<
Warning message:
In x y : longer object length is not a multiple of shorter object length
> z
1] 1 4 9 16 5 12
Q=OQ@ Q} R O=H}=
"O wtv O=H}= Q Q

=Q Q=O @ } R l} w |t
u= D w
CQ Y wO x@
=F
p t " O}vm XNWt w
=Q O W ? =NDv= O}=@ xm Q =v
| Y a xQ =tW
> x { c(3,11,8,15,12)
<
> xc(2,4)]
1] 11 15
"O wtv P
h L =Q sRq Q}e QY=va u= D w |t QY=va xQ =tW |ivt O
O= a= R= xO =iDU= =@
> x { c(3,11,8,15,12)
<
> x-c(2,3)]
1] 3 15 12
"O}vm xHwD w |t s=Hv=
'O W u
|wQ C =}rta u= wva x@ xm |OQ= t w x@ "CU= Zw Qit Q} R w x
CQ Y @ x Q=O @Q
> x { c(1,3,6,10,15)
<
> x1]
1] 1
> x5]
1] 15
> length(x)
1] 5
> dim(x)
NULL
> nrow(x)
NULL
> ncol(x)
19 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
NULL
|vwDU Q=O @ Q l} xx m O}y=wN@ Qo = "CU}v O=a@= |=Q=O T} QD=t h qN Q@ Q O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
Q=O @ '
" O}vm xHwD Q} R | y )

m= O x@ "O wtv h} QaD T} QD=t l} w x
CQ Y @ =Q u
O}=@ Q
'OO o
> x { as.matrix(x)
<
> dim(x)
1] 5 1
=@ =yu
R =
u @ R QO CQ Y w u}= QO "OvW=@ xOW 12 Owkit |}=yxO=O =} xO=O xm CU= umtt =yxO=O Q
| U QO
=
u @R | =tvy=Q x@ O}=@ xm 'CU= Cw=iDt =yNA w
OQ t QO R` w pta
@= D |x wLv "OvwW|t xO=O u=Wv NA C q t a
"OO o Q |t Qm P p=Ft u= wva x@ `@=D xU =Hv}= QO "O wtv xaH=Qt
"Ovm|t pkDvt | UQ QN
x@ =Q NA =
| yxO=O order() ` = @ D 1
> x { c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> order(x)
1] 1 3 2 5 4
> xorder(x)]
1] 1 2 20 22 NA
"Ovm|t P w x w
h L O N @O N =Q NA =
| yxO=O sort() ` = @ D 2
> x - c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> sort(x)
1] 1 2 20 22
=
=Q Q m na.rm=T |DUO CQ Y @w x O}=@ w Ovm|tv pta j iw `@=D wO R= l}I}y pFt mean() ` = @ D 3
"O=O s =Hv=QU
> x { c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> mean(x)
1] NA
> mean(x, na.rm=T)
1] 11.25
"O wtv xO =iDU= R}v Q} R pL x=Q R= u= Dw |t xD@r=
> x { c(1,2,NA,3,4)
<
> y { x!is.na(x)]
<
> mean(y)
1] 2.5
"O m Q pta Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u= D w |t "O}vm Z aw -999 Okt =@
Q= =Q NA qF , t O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
> xis.na(x)] { -999 <
> x
1] 1 2 -999 3 4
12. missing data
"O Ww |t =yQ=OQ@ x@ w Q xm O}vm xHwD Q} R ?r=H p=Ft x@ uwvm =

\ @ t
> x { 0:10
<
> x
1] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
> sum(x)
1] 55
Qo = =t= w |t x@U=Lt
"O W sum() ` = @ D =@ =yv
`wtHt TBU w xO wtv Q=}DN= =Q 10 = 0 D O= a=O x Q}eD t
xm OUQ|t Q_v x@ Qt= =

|O @ QO " O}vm `tH sy =@ =Q xQ }O =kt R= |WN@ O}y=wN@
> sum(x 5) <
1] 5
" CU= xO wtv pta Q} R w x
CQ Y @ R = Q
u @R = }R " CU}v CUQO ?= H w xD@r= xm
> x 5<
1] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
x@ p}O@D =Q =yFALSE w 1 O x@ p}O@D
O a =Q =yTRUE w xDiQo Q_v QO =Q x<5 |k]v t CQ a =@ |va}
xr=Ut pL |=Q@ xQNq=@ =t= "CU= xOW x@U=Lt 5 OOa |va} =yTRUE `tH TBU "CU= xOwtv 0 OOa
"O wtv pta CQ Y @ w x O}=@
> sum(xx 5]) <
1] 10
cumsum() `@=D
u
QYva u}t=i w CU= |OwQw | yxO=O = x}rw= Q Q@=Q@
Q=O @ u
p ] w xm Ovm|t O=H}= =Q |Q=O @ Q cumsum() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= =

|OwQw | yxO=O pw= QYv i `t Q Q
a H @= @
> cumsum(rep(2,10))
1] 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
which() `@=D 2161
xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OO oQ |tQ@ which() ` = @ D \UwD u

T}Ov= OW Q=QkQ@ Q=O @Q l} QO |Y=N \ W Q Qo =
"O}vm
>vals { c(1,3,2,68,11,13,19,8,49,4)
<
>my_max - max(vals) <
>which_val { which(vals == my_max)

<
>cat(c("Max =", my_max, "Val#", which_val, "\n"))

Max = 68 Val# 4
O
" t
CUOx@ u
T}Ov= w QFm =OL QYva w = O
j i | y m |= H= @ O W Q = w |t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
21 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
=yT} QD=t 261
Q CU= u=Um}
|= @ " = w
| yxO=O ` v |=Q=O T} QD=t l} QY=va s=tD Q=O @Q Ovv=t "CU= Q=OQ@ \U@ T} QD=t `k=w QO
ncol = nc
} w u wDU O=OaD w nrow =} w nr Q]U O=OaD w c() ` = @ D QY=va Q CU= |i=m T} QD=t uDN=U
|= @
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "O wtv h} QaD
> A - matrix(c(1,2,3,4), nr=2, nc=2)

<
> A
,1] ,2]
1,] 1 3
2,] 2 4
=F
%p t "O Ww |t xO =iDU= Ai,j] O}vm =O}B CUO T} QD=t
R= ' R= x}
QO l} x@ xm O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
> A1,2]
1] 3
%p t "=F Ci=} CUO T} QD=t R= |v}at |vwDU =} Q]U x@ u= Dw |t
> A,1]
1] 1 2
> A2,]
1] 2 4
w x xH}Dv OwW xO=iDU= dim() uw}Uv=t}O `@=D R= Qo = w CU}v x}=Q
l} A,1] OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty
CQ Y @
" CU= Q} R
> dim(A,1])

NULL
O}OH OQ@ Q=m =@ p@k p=Ft x@ "OO Qov h LP x}=Q
C}Y=N =D Owtv xO =iDU= drop s v= x@ |v=twoQ
R= u= D w |t =t=
"O}vm xHwD
> A,1,drop=F]
,1]
1,] 1
2,] 2
> dim(A,1,drop=F])
1] 2 1
Q} R p=Ft x@ "OvwW|t xQ}NP Z i Q V}B |vwDU w x
CQ Y @ R =
u @ R QO T} QD=t QY=va xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
"O}vm xHwD
> xx { matrix(1:6,ncol=3) # Equivalently, enter matrix(1:6,nrow=2)

<
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
w |t
"O W xO=iDU= 13 |L}wD C qtH Q
uO=O Q= k |= @ Q R =
u @ R QO # Ctqa R= %xHwD
Q} R p=Ft x@ "Owtv xO=iDU= byrow=T =@

CQ a R= O}=@ OW=@ |Q]U pmW x@ uOW xQ}NP |xwLv xm O}y=wN@ Qo =
"O}vm xHwD
> xx { matrix(1:6, ncol=3, byrow=T)

<
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 2 3
2,] 4 5 6
"O}vm xHwD Q} R x}=Q
Q} R x@ uwvm =
> B { matrix(1:6, nr=2)

<
> B
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
> B,2:3]
,1] ,2]
1,] 3 5
2,] 4 6
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O}vm xO =iDU= as.vector ` = @ D R= O}
QO Q
Q=O @ CQ Y w x@ T} QD=t l} xm O}y=wN@ Qo =
> xx { matrix(1:6, ncol=3)

<
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 2 3
2,] 4 5 6
> x { as.vector(xx)
<
> x
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6
dim() uw}Uv=t}O `@=D \UwD Q=m u}= "O=O Q}}eD O
=Q O= a= R= | U Q l} pmW w |t xvwoJ xm O}vm xHwD uwvm =
u= D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O Q}o|t CQ Y w
> x { 1:24
<
> dim(x) { c(2,12)

<
> x
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4] ,5] ,6] ,7] ,8] ,9] ,10] ,11] ,12]
1,] 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
2,] 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ q=L
> x { 1:24
<
" vO Q}o|t Q=Qk xO=iDU= w OvQ=O h}YwD x@ R=}v xm |r=ta= =}

OQ t w C=QwDUO KQW Q
|= @ w OvwW|tv =QH= CqtH xvwou}= "13
23 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> dim(x) { c(3,4,2)<
> x
,,1
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]

1,] 1 4 7 10
2,] 2 5 8 11
3,] 3 6 9 12
,,2
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]

1,] 13 16 19 22
2,] 14 17 20 23
3,] 15 18 21 24
=F
pw= p t " yO O |t u=Wv =Q <; Ctqa w = Ctqa OQ@ Q=m Cw =iD xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft wO x@ uwvm =
Q |t xH=wt =]N =@ xm 'CU= T} QD=t u=twoQ
"OO o QO |w =UD Ctqa OQ@ Q=m
> matrix(a = 10, 5, 5)

Error in matrix(a = 10, 5, 5) : unused argument(s) (a = 10)
" CU= T} QD=t u=twoQ
QO <; Ctqa OQ@ Q=m swO p t =F
> matrix(a < { 10, 5, 5)

,1] ,2] ,3] ,4] ,5]
1,] 10 10 10 10 10
2,] 10 10 10 10 10
3,] 10 10 10 10 10
4,] 10 10 10 10 10
5,] 10 10 10 10 10
"CW=O R}v =RHt Qw]x@ =Q a Okt
Q= w |t xD@r= "OyO|t u=Wv
u= D =Q 55 T Q= } D t l} xm
> a
1] 10
pYDt Qo}Om} x@ uwDU =} w Q]U ?UL Q@ =Q T} QD=t wO =} w x}=Q
wO Ovv=wD|t cbind() rbind() `
w w
@= D
O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q T} QD=t u}rw= p=Ft u=wva x@ "Ov}=tv
> m1 { matrix(1, nr=2, nc=2)

<
> m1
,1] ,2]
1,] 1 1
2,] 1 1
" CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ p=Ft T} QD=t u}twO
> m2 { matrix(2, nr=2, nc=2)

<
> m2
,1] ,2]
1,] 2 2
2,] 2 2
" CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ xH}Dv x=ov
w |t p=ta=
'O W m1, m2 | y = T} QD=t |wQ rbind ` = @ D u wvm =
> rbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2]
1,] 1 1
2,] 1 1
3,] 2 2
4,] 2 2
"CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ xH}Dv x=ov
'O W w |t p=ta= m1, m2 = T} QD=t
| y |wQ cbind ` = @ D Qo =
> cbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 1 1 2 2
2,] 1 1 2 2
|U} wvxt=vQ@ x@ =}
|R v w O wtv p=ta= uwDU w Q]U =} w Q]U 'u wDU |wQ =Q `@=D l} u= D w |t apply() ` = @ D =@
MARGIN T Q = X ' } D t u
QO xm 'CU= apply(X, MARGIN, FUN,...) CQ Y w x@ |rm wLv "CU}v
... Q =t C Q
w OO o p a= U= Q= k xm CU= |a = FUN c(1,2)
@ D Q = ' wD wO y } w 2 u U ' 1 Q]U xOvyOu=Wv
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= `@=D |Q =}DN= = = w
| yu t oQ
> x { rnorm(10, -5, 0.1)

<
> y { rnorm(10, 5, 2)
<
> X { cbind(x, y)
<
> apply(X, 2, mean)

x y
-5.027833 4.617558
> apply(X, 2, sd)
x y
0.1023305 1.8215198
=F
p t u= wva x@ apply() `@=D "CU= uwDU xU pt=W w O W w |t xO}t=v trees x w
m OQ=O O Hw |=xO=O ' R =
u @ R QO
"OO o Q |t p=ta= u
|wQ
> apply(trees, 2, sum)

Girth Height Volume
410.7 2356.0 935.3
pta Q} R w
CQ Y wO x@ w |t 'O}vm x@U=Lt
u= D =Q Height u wDU l} `tH ,qFt \ki xm O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
"Owtv
> sum(trees,2])

1] 2356
25 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
=} w
> sum(trees$Height)
1] 2356
u= D w |tv trees =
| yxO=O u wDU s=v R= \ki ::: w u}ov=}t '`tH x@U=Lt Q w
|= @ j i CQ Y wO w Qy Q
QO x Nq @ t= = =
`@=D =@ =Q xO=O s v == OD@= "Owtv xO =iDU= w |t
u= D attach() s v= x@ R =
u @ R QO |a@=D = u}=
R= Q m Q
|= @ "O wtv xO =iDU=
"O=O s =Hv= =Q j i C w =}rta =yuwDU s=v =@ w |t TBU
u= D w O}v=wN|t =Qi Qwm Pt
> attach(trees)
> sum(Height)
1] 2356
xO =iDU= names() ` = w |t
@ D R= u= D trees =
| yxO=O xawtHt pN=O QO =yQ}eDt |t=U= w O= OaD R= ` q]= |= @ Q
"Owtv
> names(trees)
1] "Girth" "Height" "Volume"
=
| yu t oQ
= w x@ p=Ft u=wva x@ "OyO u=Wv =tW x@ =Q `@=D l} |=yu=twoQ
Ov=wD|t args() `@=D R u=@ R QO %xHwD
"O}vm xHwD apply() ` = @ D
> args(apply)
function (X, MARGIN, FUN, ...)
NULL
|W l} Q=DN=U xOy=Wt 1261
=
s v "O W w |t xO}t=v str() x m O wtv xO =iDU= |a@=D R= u= Dw |t args() names() ` w Q q R =
w @= D @ xw a u @ R QO
=
' yxO=O R= sa= |W Qy Q=DN=U Ov=wD|t `@=D u}= "OOQo|t | = =D = =va x structure xtr
W v Q N U | tstr ` =@ m R= @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO u=Wv =Q ::: w `@=wD '=yQ}eDt
> str(trees)
'data.frame': 31 obs. of 3 variables:
$ Girth : num 8.3 8.6 8.8 10.5 10.7 10.8 11 11 11.1 11.2 ...
$ Height: num 70 65 63 72 81 83 66 75 80 75 ...
$ Volume: num 10.3 10.3 10.2 16.4 18.8 19.7 15.6 18.2 22.6 19.9 ...
Q}eDt Qy =
| yxO=O R= |DtUk w =yxO=O O=OaD '=yxO=O `wv u= D w |t =yQ}eDt |t=U= w O= OaD Q@ xwqa =Hv}= QO
"O wtv xOy=Wt =Q
"O}vm x=ov 'Gw NQ `@=D |va} q() ` = @ D Q N U =D = x@ p=Ft u= wva x@ =} w

> str(q)
function (save = "default", status = 0, runLast = TRUE)
u C=}rta w T} QD=t 2261
m1, m2 T Q = } D t wO ? Q pY=L x@ p=Ft Q w |t

|= @ "O W xO =iDU= %*% Qorta R= T} QD=t Q
wO ? |= @ Q
"O}vm xHwD
> rbind(m1,m2) %*% cbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 2 2 4 4
2,] 2 2 4 4
3,] 4 4 8 8
4,] 4 4 8 8
=} w
> cbind(m1, m2) %*% rbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2]
1,] 10 10
2,] 10 10
=} w |Q]k = x
| y }
QO Q}}eD =} QNDU=
w G= Q
|= @ diag() ` = @ D "OO oQ |t pY=L t() ` = @ D \UwD x}=Q
l} xO=yv=QD
"OwQ |t Q=mx@ | Q]k T} QD=t l} uDN=U
> diag(m1)
1] 1 1
> diag(rbind(m1, m2) %*% cbind(m1, m2))
1] 2 2 8 8
> diag(m1) { 10<
> m1
,1] ,2]
1,] 10 1
2,] 1 10
> diag(3)
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 0 0
2,] 0 1 0
3,] 0 0 1
> v { c(10, 20, 30)
<
> diag(v)
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 10 0 0
2,] 0 20 0
3,] 0 0 30
u}}=B ErFt T} QD=t =} = ErFt T} QD=t
w q @ 'u
| y= T}Ov= w T} QD=t l} uwDU w Q]U =iDU= =@
R= xO w |t
u= D
"O wtv O=H}=

27 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> A { matrix(1:9, nc=3)

<
> Arow(A) col(A)] { 0

> <
> A
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 4 7
2,] 0 5 8
3,] 0 0 9
solve() QwDUO 'u=v}tQDO x@U=Lt Q
|= @ det() QwDUO "OQ=O |U} QD=t C U =@ =Lt Q |Y=N `@=wD
|= @ R u @R=
"OwQ |t Q=mx@ xS} w =
| yQ=O @ w Q Q}O=kt uOQw
CUO@ Q
|= @ eigen() QwDUO w T} QD=t uOwtv T wmat |= @ Q
"OO oQ |t T wmat Q} R T} QD=t =Hv}= QO %p=Ft
> x {2
<
> y {3
<
> z {3
<
> t {4
<
> m { matrix(c(2 x, y, z+1, t+1), 2)

<
> solve(m)
Q |t pY=L Q} R xH}Dv Q}N=
"OO o = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
,1] ,2]
1,] 0.625 -0.5
2,] -0.375 0.5
|]N CqO=at x=oDUO pL 3261
xHwD Q} R pwyHt wO xrO=at wO pL x@ p=Ft Q

|= @ "O wtv pL =Q p wyHt OvJ xrO=at OvJ u= Dw |t solve() ` = @ D @ =
8 "O}vm
>
<x1 + 2x2 = 1
>
:3x1 + 4x2 = 1
O |t
" }
QO Q} R CQ Y w x@ O}U} wv@ |U} QD=t sQi x@ =Q u
Qo =
0 10 1 0 1
@1 2A @x1A = @1A
3 4 x2 1
" O}vm xHwD u
R = O x@ uwvm =
| y )
m
> A { matrix(c(1, 3, 2, 4), ncol = 2)

<
> b { c(1, 1)
<
> solve(A, b)
1] -1 1
|=xrtHOvJ xrO=at pL 4261
u
w CU= zx = w
m OQ=O u t oQ
l} `@=D |= "O Ww |t xO=iDU= polyroot() ` = @ D R= CqO =at `wv u}= pL Q
|= @
Q} R x]@=Q x@ uwvm = Q |t s}_vD

"OO o =
u
| yu= D w V}=Ri= w x xm
CQ Y @ |=xrtHOvJ ?}=Q Q
Q=O @ R= CUDQ=@a
"O}vm xHwD
p(x) = z1 + z2 x + z3 x2 + + zn xn;1
" O}vm xHwD p=Ft OvJ x@ q=L "CU= z1 : n] Q
Q=O @ CQ Y @ |=w x xrtHOvJ ?}=Q
x2 ; 0:3x ; 1:8 = 0 swO xHQO xrO=at pL
> polyroot(c(-1.8,-0.3,1))
1] 1.5+0i -1.2+0i
"CU= QiY Q@=Q@ u
pw= xHQO ?} Q xm 2 ; 4 x =0 swO xHQOxrO=at pL
> polyroot(c(-4,0,1))
1] 2+0i -2+0i
x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 = 0 w
s U xHQO xrO=at pL
> polyroot(c(6,11,6,1))
1] -1+0i -2-0i -3+0i
w =
|OQ= t QO t= " CU= \rDNt O=Oa= CQwYx@ CqO=at xW} Q V}=tv OW x_Lqt Q}N= |=yp=Ft QO xm Qw]u=ty
"CU= QiY =@ Q}=Q@ i | w w O ? Q OvDU
t y t O a } y |k}kL =} w K}LY =yxW} Q xm
" O}vm xHwD x3 ; x2 + 1:5x ; 1:5 = 0 s U w xHQO xrO=at pL x@ xQNq=@
> polyroot(c(-1.5,1.5,-1,1))
1] 1+0.000000i 0+1.224745i 0-1.224745i
14 Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O 361
hrDNt =
| yxO=O ` v w =@ =
| yu wDU w =
|=Q=O Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O " = CU= T} QD=t \U@ =yxO=O `wv u}= `k=w QO
= =
u @ R QO |Q t
| yp=wQ = QFm = '`k=w O = |t
QO " W @ R QO p}rLD w x} RHD QO =yxO=O Q=DN=U u} QD?U=vt w CU=
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "CU= CUO u}= =
R= |OwQw | yxO=O OvtR=}v R
> mtcars
mpg cyl disp hp drat wt qsec vs am gear carb
Mazda RX4 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.620 16.46 0 1 4 4
Mazda RX4 Wag 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.875 17.02 0 1 4 4
Datsun 710 22.8 4 108.0 93 3.85 2.320 18.61 1 1 4 1
Hornet 4 Drive 21.4 6 258.0 110 3.08 3.215 19.44 1 0 3 1
Hornet Sportabout 18.7 8 360.0 175 3.15 3.440 17.02 0 0 3 2
14. data frame
29 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
=yuwDU w wQO N w l} xOv}=tv Q]U Qy q=@ O

pw H QO " CU= hrDNt =
| ywQO N C a w = q]= pt=W =yxO=O u}=
O
" yO |t u=Wv wQ = O
=Q Q D= @ Q m O a carb Q}eD t p t =F u}= QO " CU= =yQ}eDt xOvyOV}=tv
Q=O @ Q l} u
u wDU Qy "CU= 15 xOQDUo xLiY l} pFt w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = xm O}vm QwYD O}v=wD|t =tW
=
| y` v @ w = |}=yxO=O |=Q=O Cw =iDt = Q
| yQ=O @ |wQ Qyx@ =t= "OvQ=O u=Um} `wv QY=va s=tD Q Qy pN=O "CU=
Q=O @
"OvW=@|t Q@=Q@ pw] |=Q=O Q N U =D = u}= QO =yQ=OQ@ s=tD "OvDUy uwo =vwo
Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O X=wN 1361
w =yuwDU |t=U= pt=W |t=U= C}Y=N "OvW=@ =yQ]U s=v w |t=U= w

X= N |=Q=O Ovv=wD|t =yxO=O `wv u}=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OvW=@|t =yQ]U |t=U= V}=tv =yQ]U s=v C}Y=N
> rownames(mtcars)1:5]

1] "Mazda RX4" "Mazda RX4 Wag" "Datsun 710"
4] "Hornet 4 Drive" "Hornet Sportabout"
=} w
> names(mtcars)
1] "mpg" "cyl" "disp" "hp" "drat" "wt" "qsec" "vs" "am" "gear"
11] "carb"
Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O O=H}= 2361
"CU= p}=i l} j} Q] R= =yxO=O uOv=wN =yu

R= |m} w
"OQ=O O Hw |irDNt =
| yx=Q =yxO=O `wv u}= O=H}= |= @ Q
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ "OW=@|t data.frame() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= Qo}O VwQ
> my.logical { sample(c(T,F), size = 5, replace = T)

<
> my.numeric { rnorm(5)

<
> my.df { data.frame(my.logical,my.numeric)

<
> my.df
my.logical my.numeric
1 FALSE -0.05643126
2 FALSE 0.21557811
3 FALSE -0.04023551
4 TRUE -0.50746280
5 FALSE -1.63608548
=} w
> test - matrix(rnorm(21),7,3)

<
> test - data.frame(test)

<
> test
15. spreadsheet
X1 X2 X3
1 -0.9247492 0.18698082 -1.39943435
2 -0.6256957 0.86310566 0.91401401
3 -0.3338215 -0.74399557 0.08866272
4 0.7411739 -0.61656031 0.18208417
5 0.3436381 -0.64038437 -0.76397593
6 -1.0379184 -0.49068270 0.21339323
7 -0.5624376 -0.01380767 -1.69015277
"O}vm xO=iDU= =
q @ p t QO =F |t=U= C}Y=N R= u wvm =
> names(test)
1] "X1" "X2" "X3"
=Q O N x=w wNrO |t=U= O}v=wD|t =tW "CU= xO}t=v X1, X2, X3 =Q =yuwDU |t=U= Q=mOwN w x
CQ Y @ R =
u @R
"O}yO Q=Qk
> names(test) { c("Price", "Length", "Income")

<
> row.names(test) { c("Ali","Abas","Hamid","Saeed","Amir","Mehdi","Majid")

<
> test
Price Length Income
Ali -0.9247492 0.18698082 -1.39943435
Abas -0.6256957 0.86310566 0.91401401
Hamid -0.3338215 -0.74399557 0.08866272
Saeed 0.7411739 -0.61656031 0.18208417
Amir 0.3436381 -0.64038437 -0.76397593
Mehdi -1.0379184 -0.49068270 0.21339323
Majid -0.5624376 -0.01380767 -1.69015277
w
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = = =@ xm O=O s =Hv= =yT} QD=t =@ w |t
u= D =Q |Dw=iDt C =}rta OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty
"O wtv xO=iDU= as.matrix() `@=D R= u=wD|t 'T} QD=t x@ Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O p}O@D |=Q@ "OQ=Ov OwHw u
u=mt=
R
sw r CQ Y QO w 'Ow wtv x_Lqt xOQDUo xLiY l} CQ Y w x@ w =
=Q Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O u= D = w |t R =
u @ R QO
"O W w |t xO=iDU= edit() = x() ` } w w

@= D R= Q m = u}= Q
|= @ "O m Q V}=Q} w =Q =yv
factor() `@=D 461
" OvyO|t u=Wv factor = R

@ =
u @ R QO =Q =yv
xm OvwW|t u=}@ |= r x wkt =} |= xDUO CQ Y w x@ =yQ}eDt R= | a@
"?DQt w ?DQt Q}e %OvwW|t u=}@ CQ Y wO w x@ =yQ}eDt u}=
=t= "OvDUy ?DQt Q}e QwDm =i xm ::: w |UQ '|=xU=t '|vW ,qFt 'O} Q}o@ Q_v QO = =
=Q yl N `= v= p t u= w =F wva x@
QO O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty "CU= ?DQt QwDm =i u}= 'O}vm s}UkD w |r}N w
| k w h}a x@ =yl =N Qo =
| k '
"O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@ uwvm =

| y )
m O
"OQ= v O Hw pw=w VN@ QO xm OwW|t T =UL= |a}@] ?}DQD l} Q}N= CtUk
> soil.types { c("clay","loam","sand","loam","clay")

<
> soil.types { factor(soil.types)

<
31 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> soil.types
1] clay loam sand loam clay
Levels: clay loam sand
x@ xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ q=L "CU= xO=O u =Wv =Q l N= K]U xU =} =
w l N ` v w xU levels CtU k QO
" CU= ?DQt CQ Y w
> soil.degrees { c("weak","average","stronge","weak","stronge")

<
> soil.degrees { ordered(soil.degrees,levels=c("weak","average","stronge"))

<
> soil.degrees
1] weak average stronge weak stronge
Levels: weak average stronge
< <
"O=O u =Wv R}v O

|O a CQ Y w x@ =yv
u= D w |t xm "OyO|t u=Wv =Q K w]U ?}DQD QN
Q]U
> soil.numeric { as.double(soil.degrees)

<
> soil.numeric
1] 1 2 3 1 3
|v=tR |QU |=yC}OwHwt 561
"OQ=O O Hww =yu

QO xirw-t Q |t O=H}=
wO "OO o ts() ` = = |v=tR
@ D @ =
| y| U < Q |W R =
u @ R QO
O
" yO |t p}mWD =Q =RHt |v=tR | UQ l} uwDU Qy xm CU= |OOa =
| yxO=O R= |U} QD=t =} Q =
Q=O @ ' yxO=O
"CU= |N} Q=D |w =Ut pY=wi '=yxO=O M} Q=D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> my.ts - ts(matrix(rnorm(30), ncol = 2), start = c(1987), freq = 12)

<
> my.ts
Series 1 Series 2
Jan 1987 -0.39579521 -0.9026295
Feb 1987 -0.36649473 0.2915367
Mar 1987 -0.40674973 -1.8566028
Apr 1987 0.32428545 -0.3488452
May 1987 0.55310221 -1.6910047
Jun 1987 -1.03032817 1.3434787
Jul 1987 0.70500090 1.4546442
Aug 1987 -1.47332244 1.6205861
Sep 1987 0.58314662 0.6378932
Oct 1987 1.55713060 -1.9681021
Nov 1987 0.74596283 0.8186411
Dec 1987 0.16404647 -1.1321248
Jan 1988 -0.03516499 -0.1627264
Feb 1988 -0.18482688 -1.2735001
Mar 1988 -1.16434845 -1.0717075
16 =yCUQyi 661
=D = Q
|Q N U y w ` v y w Q pt=W xm OW=@ |W Ov=wD|t CUQyi l} QYva Qy =t= "CU= Q=OQ@ x}@W CUQyi =} w CU}r
hrDNt |=yQ=DN=U |=Q@ u=wD|t u}=Q@=v@ 'OW=@ |Qo}O CUQyi pt=W Ov=wD|t OwN CUQyi l} xH}Dv QO "CU=
"OwQ |t Q=mx@ R =
u @ R QO |Q t
= |HwQN =
| yp=wQ |= @ , r e Q =@ = CUQyi =} w CU}r "Owtv =iDU=
xO u
R= =yxO=O
O = |t xQ}e w xOW |v}@V}B Q}O=kt '=yxOv=t}k=@ '=yQDt=Q=B OQw
Q@ R= |=xawtHt pt=W ,=@r=e |HwQN C}OwHwt
" W @
"CU= uw}UQoQ Q
|= @ C =a@ Qt pk=OL `@=D sQi u} QDxO=U xm 'O}vm xHwD lst() ` = @ D |HwQN x@ p=Ft |= @ Q
> x { 1:5
<
> y { x + rnorm(5,0,0.25)
<
> z { lst(x,y)
<
> z
Intercept X
-0.1150539 0.9848682
1] 0.259665308 -0.339443370 -0.001599916 -0.017131291 0.098509268
1] TRUE
u
xirw-t u}rw= xm CU= CUQyi l} u}= "CU= xOW xO=O C@Uv z x lst(x,y) |
@ Hw N Q=Q Okt p=Ft u}= QO
OyO|t u=Wv OL=w pw] =@ swU Q=OQ@ "CU=yxOv=t}k=@ R= |Q=OQ@ swO xirw-t "CU= <=O@t R= Z a w Q ?}W Q=OQ@
# Q}N =} CU= xOW xO =iDU= <= O@t R= Z a R=Q =}
xm
%CU= G= QNDU= p@=k hrDNt =
| yVwQ x@ CUQyi l} QY=va
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q z xi w
r -t u}rw= z1]] % xirw-t xQ =tW
"CU= xDiQ Q=mx@ s=v CtUk QO xm OyO|t u=Wv =Q z R= |= xirw-t z$name %xirw-t s=v
"CiQo xQy@ z$r R= u=wD|t z$residuals |=H@ ,qFt "Owtv xO=iDU= R}v u
QYDNt R= u=wD|t s=v uOQ@ Q=mx@ |=Q@
> test { z$r

<
> test
1] 0.259665308 -0.339443370 -0.001599916 -0.017131291 0.098509268
> z$r4] # fourth element of the residuals
1] -0.01713129
CUQyi O=H}= 1661
CUQyi | y = xirw-t |= wDLt w CUQyi = xirw-t |t=U=

| y "Owtv xO =iDU= list() ` = @ D R= O}=@ CUQyi O=H}= |= @ Q
"OvDUy CU}r `@=D =
| yu t oQ
= w
> x1 { 1:5
<
> x2 { c(T,T,F,F,T)
<
16. Lists
33 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> y { list(numbers = x1, wrong = x2)

<
> y
$numbers
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$wrong
1] TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE
R =
u @R < |W l} u
CU=Q Q
h ] w CU= xirw-t s=v Qorta AJ CtU O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
xirw-t wrong |k]v t < |W q=@ p=Ft QO " CU= CU=Q x@ AJ R= =yu
uDiQo Q=Qk ?}DQD x@ xirw-t x@DQt "CU=
"CU= y swO
> y2]]
"O=O Q}}eD =Q CUQyi |t=U= w |t "Ovm
u= D G=QNDU= =Q CUQyi | y= xirw-t |t=U= Ov=wD|t names() ` = @ D
> names(y)
1] "numbers" "wrong"
> names(y) { c("lots", "valid")
<
> names(y)
1] "lots" "valid"
R
"Ow i= | Qo}O = xirw-t
| y u= Dw |t |r@k CUQyi x@
> y3]] { 1:30

<
> y$test { "hello"

<
> y
$lots
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$valid
3]]
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26] 26 27 28 29 30
$test
1] "hello"
"O}vm xHwD xWwQm wO w xWwQm l} u}@ Cw =iD x@ uwvm =
> y1]
$lots
1] 1 2 3 4 5
> y1]]
1] 1 2 3 4 5
R= xm |t=ovy =t= "CU= CUQyi l} OwN Q |t pY=L xm

OO o |= xirw-t 'O W w |t xO =iDU= xWwQm l} R= |Dkw
O |t CUO@ xirw-t OwN \ki OwW|t
" }
xO =iDU= xWwQm wO
pwOH l} QO uwDU w Q]U |Q=Pos=v 761
P = =
|Q= os v =Q yu
u= D w |t OW=@v x=wNrO s=v |=Q=O } w = OvW=@ s=v Ok=i Q_v w =
OQ t | yxO=O | yu = wDU w =yQ]U Qo =
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Owtv
> x { 1:3
<
> names(x)
NULL
> names(x) { c("a", "b", "c")
<
> x
a b c
1 2 3
> names(x)
1] "a" "b" "c"
> names(x) { NULL
<
> x
1] 1 2 3
u}= "OvDUy P = p@=k
|Q= os v colnames() rownames() `
w @= Dw \UwD =Q =yQ]U w =yuwDU '=yT} QD=t |= @ Q
"O Ww |t s=Hv= dimnames() QwDUO \UwD Q=m
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
> rownames(x) { c("a","b")

<
> colnames(x) { c("c","d")

<
> x
c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
> dimnames(x)
1]]
1] "a" "b"
2]]
1] "c" "d"
"O Ww |t s=Hv= R}v dimnames() ` = @ D \UwD w w xD@r=
j i OQ t
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
dimnames(x) { list(c("a","b"), c("c","d"))

<
c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
35 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
xHwD OW Oy=wN ?UJQ@ wO |=Q=O xm w

j i p t =F x@ "O wtv x}=Q= =Q ?UJQ@ R= K]U wO u= D w |t R =
u @ R QO |DL
"O}vm
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
dimnames(x) { list(rows = c("a","b"), cols = c("c","d"))

<
cols
rows c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
R u=@ R QO u=tR w M} Q=D 71
"O W w |t `w WQ hrDNt = =
| yx t w =yRwQ R= |r=wDt =} =
u r U = }R "Q CU= |YNW ,qt=m Q
| t= u tR | = Q}oxR=Ov=
O =
" W @ Cw =iDt Ov=wD|t x=t w RwQ uDWwv ?}DQD "OQ=O O Hw w xU}@m p=U "OvDUy hrDNt =
| yRwQ |=Q=O | yx t = =
" CU= p} Qw
x=t =yJ
sQ RwQ | =vat x@ 3/4/2006 qF , t
sDU}U R =
u @ R QO xv=DN@WwN "CU= |Q= WO ,w =D@Uv Qt= =
u tR w M} Q=D QY=va =@ Q=m j iw ?D=Qt x@ xHwD =@
" CU= xOW x}@aD xO}J}B pt=wa u}= =@ Q=m Q
|= @ |Q= wDU=
" CU= |@D=Qt xrUrU ,qt=m u
MU=B xm CU= Sys.time() `@=D OyO|t CUOx@ =Q u=tR w M} Q=D xm |a@=D u}rw=
sy R= x Q}D \N Ctqa =@ xm Q =
=Q RwQ x Nq @ w x t 'p U = = |va} T =}kt u} QDoQR@ CU=Q x@ AJ R= xm |vat u}O@
'Ca=U ?}DQD x@ xm OUQ|t u=tR x@ C@ wv u
|B QO w |r=N |=H l} TBU "OyO|t CUOx@ =Q Ov=xOW =OH
=Q y = QDm =Q=m R= xDWQ l} xrLQt u} QN
O O
QO " v=x W = H O sy R= : Ctqa =@ xm OyO|t CUOx@ =Q x}v=F w xk}kO
"O W w |t xDWwv 'OyO|t u=Wv =Q |rLt u=tR xm
> Sys.time()
1] "2012-04-12 16:50:49 IRDT"
"OO o Q |t xO =iDU= xDWQ Q} R `@=D R= Sys.time() ` = @ D R= M} Q=D G=QNDU= |= @ Q
> substr(as.character(Sys.time()),1,10)
1] "2012-04-12"
"O wtv xO =iDU= Sys.Date() ` = @ D R= u= D w |t RwQ M} Q=D \ki u=Wv Q xD@r=
|= @
> Sys.Date()
1] "2012-04-12"
u=tR w M} Q=D =@ C=@U=Lt 171
Q=O @Q l} `@=D u}= Qo}O CQ a =@ x@ "OO o Q |t xO =iDU= as.Date `@=D =

R= u tR w M} Q=D |W uDN=U |= @ Q
"year-month-day" w x xDWQ l}
CQ Y @ = w
u
u t oQ
u}rw= "Ovm|t p}O@D |N} Q=D Q=O @ Q l} x@ =Q | QDm =Q=m
"year-month-day w x
CQ Y @ j i w xDWQ 'OW=@ Q_v QO u tR w = M} Q=D Qo = "CU= "2007-09-24" Ov = v t
=Q u tR w= M} Q=D p}O@D xm CU= format O

x W xDio `@=D u=twoQ
u}twO "CU= hour:minutes:seconds"
"Ovm|t u=}@ Cw =iDt = xDWQ
| y w x
CQ Y @
"O wtv s}UkD Q} R OQ= t w x@ u= Dw |t =Q C U =@ =Lt u}= "O=O s =Hv= |irDNt C U =@ =Lt u= D w |t u=tR w M} Q=D =@
time + number
time - number
time - time
time1 'logical operation' time2
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft OvJ x@ uwvm =
> as.Date("2007-10-18", format = "%Y-%m-%d")

1] "2007-10-18"
w
"O W x= Qty =
RwQ w x t 'p U | y = = Ctqa =@ O}=@ % OYQO Ctqa xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
> as.Date("02/27/92", "%m/%d/%y")

1] "1992-02-27"
"CU= |tkQ Q=yJ p=U |= @ Q YCq t a w CU= |tkQ =
wO p U |= @ QyCq w | t a O W t x y O =Wt xm Qw]u=ty
R= M} Q=D QO Qo = =t= "CU= u=ty Ctqa sy CtQi QO O W w |t xO=iD - Ovv O
U= x m = H R= M} Q=D QO Qo = ,=vt
" Ovm|t |w Q}B Ctqa u=ty R= sy CtQi OO o Q |t xO =iDU= /
x Ovvm =OH Ctqa
> as.Date("2007oct18", format = "%Y%b%d")

1] "2007-10-18"
'p U = u}@ uwJ ,=vt "CU= = =
x t s v pw= h L Q xU hw L Q ?UL Q@ x=t s=v xOvyOu=Wv b |Q =YDN= Ctqa
"CU= xOWv O}k |Dtqa R}v CtQi O w
QO 'OQ= v O Hw |=x Ovvm =OH RwQ w x t =
QO Windows p = t a sDU}U Control Panel QO xm Ovm|t Q=m |Dkw =yv
Q}=_v w CtQi u}= %xHwD
Standard and = QO m QO ' Regional Options x =

Regional and Language Options VN v @ R QO ' @
"Owt O} w C =
v NA =e} w u Q}
y= N i } QO O = O
s |U}ro =
B CQ Y = x@a
}= formats
e QO " W @ x W GQO v= u @ R 'u @ R H QO '
> as.Date("October 18, 2007", format = "%B %d, %Y")

1] "2007-10-18"
C Q , Ovv O C q u}vJt C
t i QO x m= H tQ ?U Q = p = = Ov
a =W B =YD C q
y " U= hw L L @ x t t m s v x yOu v |Q N= t a
" CU= xOt
> x { seq.Date(from = as.Date("2007-10-18"), to = as.Date("2007-10-30"),

<
+ by = "3 days")
> x
1] "2007-10-18" "2007-10-21" "2007-10-24" "2007-10-27" "2007-10-30"
> x + 10
37 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
1] "2007-10-28" "2007-10-31" "2007-11-03" "2007-11-06" "2007-11-09"

> x - as.Date(c("2006-01-10", "2007-08-15", "2005-06-24", "2004-12-30",
+ "2005-04-05"))
Time dierences in days
1] 646 67 852 1031 938
> x as.Date("2007-10-21")
>
1] FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE

"CU= Q} R w x CtUk u}=
CQ Y @ QO p t =F u} QN
xQNq=@ w
> format(Sys.Date(), "%a %b %d")

1] "Fri Apr 20"
"CU= u
h L Q xU ?UL Q@ = OvyOu=Wv
'RwQ s v x a |Q =YDN= Ctqa
> as.Date(format(Sys.Date(), "%a %b %d"), "%a %b %d")

1] "2012-04-20"
"O}vm xHwD Q} R w x@
OQ t "O=O s=Hv= C =}rta w |t
u= D u
=@ uwvm =
> as.Date(format(Sys.Date(), "%a %b %d"), "%a %b %d") - 7

1] "2012-04-13"
Excel QO u=tR w M} Q=D 1171
Excel QO RwQ u}rw= M} Q=D "OOQo|t |UQQ@ |OwOL =D Excel Q=Ri=sQv w R QO u=tR w M} Q=D \=@DQ= VN@ u}= QO
w
O Hw |UQDUO u
R= p@k M} Q=D x@ ,qta u}=Q@=v@ "CU}v |D}OwHwt M} Q=D u}= R= p@k w CU= 1900-01-01 Q@=Q@
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU}v O}k u}= Ov@ QO R =t= O
"OQ= v
> as.Date(35981, origin="1899-12-30")

1] "1998-07-05"
w |t
"O W xOw i= R |rY= M} Q=D x@ xm CU= |}=yRwQ O= OaD 35981 O
O a
wtv O}y=wN xOy=Wt

"O =Q u
R= |DtUk TBU w O Ww |t xOv=wN |OwQw p}=i =OD@= "O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> STEP 1: SETUP - Source File

#
> link= "D:\\R_les
Date.txt"
> # STEP 2: READ DATA
> my_data { read.table(link,
<
+ sep = ",", dec=".", skip = 1,

+ row.names = NULL, header = FALSE,
+ col.names = c("char_date", "T_anom", "Enso_f"))
> head(my_data)
char_date T_anom Enso_f

1 5/15/1951 0.02 2
2 6/15/1951 -0.03 2
3 7/15/1951 -0.01 3
4 8/15/1951 0.12 3
5 9/15/1951 0.09 3
6 10/15/1951 0.14 3
R= |DtUk TBU "O}vm xHwD =yO)m xr=@vO x@ q=L "CU= Excel C Qt i x@ =yxO=O M} Q=D xm OwW|t x_Lqt
"O}vm xOy=Wt =Q |HwQN
# STEP 3:Convert character date to Date, then get month value

r_date <{ as.Date(my_data$char_date, "%m/%d/%Y")
r_mo <{ months(r_date)
# new data.frame - add r_mo vector
my_data_1 <{ data.frame(my_data, r_date)
head(my_data_1)
char_date T_anom Enso_f r_date
1 5/15/1951 0.02 2 1951-05-15
2 6/15/1951 -0.03 2 1951-06-15
3 7/15/1951 -0.01 3 1951-07-15
4 8/15/1951 0.12 3 1951-08-15
5 9/15/1951 0.09 3 1951-09-15
6 10/15/1951 0.14 3 1951-10-15
R sDU} U x@ xDi=} p}O@D uwDU r_date |va} QN
uwDU w CU= Excel M = x@
}Q D w Q
\ @ t chart_date u wDU
"CU=
R u=@ R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 81
"O wtv =QH= w CWwv u

QO =Q |=xO U C=Q = wDUO u= Dw |t xm CU= u}= OwN x@=Wt = R
| yQ= i=s v Q Q@ R =
u @R | D @ QQ
|U} wvxt=vQ@ xm CU= |=xS} w C=}YwYN |=Q=O =t= 'CU= QDDUt u
QO |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R l} |=y|oS} w |va}
= |t QDu=U
XYNDtQ}e O=Qi=
"OR U |= @ =Q Q
"CU}v C =
u @R u}t=Qi x@ Cy=@W |@ xm CU= |rQDvm Q=DN=U |=Q=O R= =
yu @ R Q}=U Ovv=t
\QW 181
C=Q wDUO 'O wWv Q=QkQ@ Q

\ W u}= Qo = Q Q Q |]QW xm OwW =QH= O}=@ QwDUO l} |Dkw `k=wt
w OO o Q= k @ R= |=xQ B QO=
"O}vm xHwD Q
\ W QwDUO |twta pmW x@ "OW Oy=wN =QH= | Qo}O
if (logical exp.)
{
then do this
g else f
do this
g
w |t
"O W A J = T Q
h L w O W w |t GwR s}UkD xOv=t|k=@ 'OW=@ GwR x Q}eD t Q= Okt Qo = Q} R p=Ft QO
> x {8 <
if (x %% 2 == 0) print("T")
1] "T"
Q
K W "O W w |t xO=O u =Wv ifelse() ` = @ D CQ Y w x@ xm Owtv xO=iDU= |y=Dwm |rw =Q=m QwDUO R= u= D w |t =Hv}= QO
"CU= Q} R CQ Yw x@ `@=D |rm
ifelse(test, yes, no)

= = w
% yu t oQ
"CU= |k]vt CQ a =@ l} % test

"O Ww |t =QH= yes x =ov
w CUQO |k]vt
'O @ CQ a =@ Qo = %yes
"OO oQ |t =QH= no x=ov
w CUQO=v |k]vt
'O @ CQ a =@ Qo = no%
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> x { c(2:-2)
<
> sqrt(ifelse(x = 0, x, NA)) >
1] 1.414 1.000 0.000 NA NA
xkrL 281
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ u
|rm QwDUO "O W w |t Q=QmD Q=@ u}OvJ xm CU= |D=}rta |= @ Q xkrL
for (i in start:nish) f
execute task
g
xkrL xm CU= swrat p@k R= Qo}O =@ x@ "CU= XNWt xkrL
CQ a | =yDv= OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty xD@r=
w |t Q=QmD Q=@ OvJ Q_v
"O W OQ t w
R= p@k O}=@ u
QO xO =iDU= w
OQ t | y = Q}eDt =Pr "OvwW|t T}Ov= |=Q=O p wtat h qN Q@ =yx}=Q
'xkrL QO %xHwD
|a@=wD = u}=
R= Q m Q
|= @ "O W w |t xH=wt =]N =@ xt=vQ@ xvQow OvwW Q=Okt |=Q=O } w= XNWt | wLv x@ xkrL `w W Q
Q = x@ Q} R
O @Q m = =F
| yp t QO "O W w |t xO=iDU= c() = matrix()
} w ' |k]vt w QDm =Q=m O
'|O a vector() Ov = v t
"O Ww CkO =yv

> y { vector(mode = "numeric")

<
> for (i in 1:10) f

+ yi] { ig<
> y
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
"CWwv R}v Q} R = w x
| yCQ Y @ u= D w |t w
=Q j i p t=F
> y { c()
<
> for(i in 1:10) f

+ yi] { ig<
> y
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
> y { c()
<
> for(i in 1:10) f

+ yi] { i <
+ print(yi])
+g
1] 1
1] 2
1] 3
1] 4
1] 5
1] 6
1] 7
1] 8
1] 9
1] 10
> y { c()
<
> for(i in 1:10) print(yi] { i) <
1] 1
1] 2
1] 3
1] 4
1] 5
1] 6
1] 7
1] 8
1] 9
1] 10
OQmrta xm CU= |r=Ft ?r]t u}= xm 'O=O Oy=wN =]N xt=vQ@ 'OW=@ print(yi]=i) QwDUO Qo = |QN
CQwY QO
"CU}v u=Um} =H xty QO <; =w ?=UDv= Qorta wO
-1 `k=w QO | Oa@ = = w
| ys o CQ Y u}= O = QDoQR@
QO ' W @ u
|}=yDv= Q=Okt R= Ov=wD|t xkrL xOvQ=tW Q
`w W Q= Okt
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU=
41 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> y { c()
<
> for(i in 10:5) print(yi] { i) <
1] 10
1] 9
1] 8
1] 7
1] 6
1] 5
u= Dw |t Cr=L u}= QO "O wtv xO=iDU= m:n Qt=Qo w |tv Qo}O Ow@v 1 Q@=Q@ V}=Ri= |=ys=o Qo = xm CU= K=w
R= u= D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CiQo ltm seq() ` = @ D R=
> y { c()
<
> for(i in seq(1,5,0.5)) print(yi] { i) <
1] 1
1] 1.5
1] 2
1] 2.5
1] 3
1] 3.5
1] 4
1] 4.5
1] 5
|ivt s=o O}=@ w QDoQR@
'O @ u
|}=yDv= Q=Okt R= xkrL xOvQ=tW Q
`w W Q=Okt Qo = seq() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= w
CQ Y QO
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ O

"OQ= v O Hww |QiV}B Cr=L u}= Q
QO = } R O wtv u=}@ ,=L} QY =Q
> y { c()
<
> for(i in seq(5,1,-0.5)) print(yi] { i) <
1] 5
1] 4.5
1] 4
1] 3.5
1] 3
1] 2.5
1] 2
1] 1.5
1] 1
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CW=O wD QO wD | y= xkrL u= Dw |t
> z { matrix(2, 4)
<
for(i in 1:2) f
+ for(j in 1:4) zi,j] { i+jg<
> z
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 2 3 4 5
2,] 3 4 5 6
QmD
Q= O= OaD xm CU}v uWwQ p@k R= |va} "CU}v XNWt =yv
| =yDv= p@k R= xm CW=O |}=yxkrL w |t =t=
u= D
w |t
"O W xO =iDU= repeat while
w QwDUO wO R= Q m = u}= Q CU= =D OvJ xkrL
|= @ "
Qo = "CU= f (x) = 0 |Q@H xrO=at xW} Q uDi=} Q

|= @ |Q wyWt VwQ xm O} Q}o@ Q_v QO =Q uDw}v VwQ u wvm =
x0 x m O}vm Q
Z i " W O Oy=wN =Qoty xrO=at xW} Q CtU x@ Q} R Q=QmD x=ov
'OW=@ f (x) ` = @ D jDWt f 0(x)
u}=Q@=v@ 'OW=@ x}rw= T L O
xn = xn;1 ; ff0((xxn;1))
n;1
"CU= Qwr}D ?} QkD Q@ |vD@t xO}= u}=
f (xn) f (xn;1) + (xn ; xn;1 )f 0(xn;1)

O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q Q} R `@=D p=Ft u= wvax@ uwvm =
f (x) = 5x3 ; 7x2 ; 40x + 100

"CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x |DWoR=@ xrO=at x=ov
xn = xn;1 ; 5x 15;x72x; ;1440 x + 100

3 2
x ; 40
"CU= Q} R = O
| y ) w x
m CQ Y @ while Q wDUO =@ xOW xDio xrO=at pL uwvm =
> x { 0.5 <
> f { 5 x^3 - 7 x^2 - 40 x + 100

<
> tolerance { 1e-6 <
> n {0 <
> while (abs(f) tolerance) f >
+ f.prime { 15 x^2 - 14 x - 40
<
+ x { x - f / f.prime
<
+ f { 5 x^3 - 7 x^2 - 40 x + 100

<
+n {n+1 <
+g
> cat("number of iterations:",n,"\n")
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x pY=L w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
number of iterations: 10
> x
1] -3.151719
w =F
j i p t QO " yO O |t xt=O= OwN Q=QmD x@ xkrL 'CU= CUQO RDv=QB pN=O |k]vt CQ a =@ =D while QwDUO QO
"CU= xDiQo w
CQ Y Q= QmD x@DQt 10
"OO oQ |t =QH= repeat QwDUO =@ p=Ft u}ty uwvm =
> x { 0.5
<
43 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> tolerance { 1e-6 <
> n {0 <
> repeat f
+ f { 5 x^3 - 7 x^2 - 40 x + 100
<
+ if (abs(f) tolerance ) break

<
+ f.prime { 15 x^2 - 14 x - 40
<
+ x { x - f / f.prime
<
+n {n+1 <
+g
> cat("number of iterations:",n,"\n")
" CU= Q} R w x pY=L
CQ Y @ w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
number of iterations: 10
> x
1] -3.151719
x=ov
'OO oQ CUQO=v if p N=O |k]vt =@ =
CQ a D O W w |t Q=QmD QOkv
repeat = Q =
u t i | yOq m
w pN=O C=Q wDUO
"CU= 10 Q Q QmD
@= @ Q= O=OaD OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty Q |t
"OO o =
GQ N xkrL R= p QDvm break = Q =@
u t i
"CU= repeat QwDUO R= | Qo}O p=Ft xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = %p=Ft
> i {0 <
> repeat f
+ if (i 10) >
+ break
+ if (i 2 && i> < 5) f
+i {i+1 <
+ next
+g
+ print(i)
+i {i+1 <
+g
x@ w Ovm|tv =QH= =Q u
u}t=Qi x}k@ OUQ@ u
x@ xkrL Qo = xm OQ=O O Hw w next s v= x@ |Q wDUO Q}N= xkrL QO
| y )
m= O pY=L "OO oQ |t R=e
,=OOHt xkrL VOQo w OOQo|t R=@ 'CU= repeat QwDUO =Hv}= QO xm xkrL |=OD@=
" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ q @ =
1] 0
1] 1
1] 2
1] 5
1] 6
1] 7
1] 8
1] 9
1] 10
x}=Q
=
|=Q m Q =}U@ C}Y=N R= w O wtv |Q=OO N w xkrL Q Q =x
w \ W uO @ Q m @ R= O}=@ 'OQ=O u =mt= xm =Hv
=D =t=
CUO@ =Q 10 = 1 u}
D O
@ GwR O= a= Q} R =F
p t " W @ O = |t xkrL |awv ut Dt OwN C}Y=N u}= "O wtv xO =iDU=
O
" yO |t
> x { c(1:10)
<
> y { xx %% 2 == 0]
<
> y
1] 2 4 6 8 10
apply(X, Margin, w x CQ Y @ Q wDUO xwLv "Ovm|t sm Q=}U@ =Q xkrL R= xO =iDU= R
sw r apply Q}_v |a@=wD
OvDU c(1,2)
y Q = (2) = wO y } w yu wDU (1) =
' yQ]U Margin w CU= T} QD=t X u
QO " CU= Function)
Ovv=wD|t =yv
xm Cio O}=@ `@=wD w
OQ t QO "O W w |t p=ta= =yxO=O |wQ xm CU= |a@=D =} w pta Function w
" OvW=@ Q@ Q=m xOW h} QaD =} w xDN=UV}B
> x { rnorm(10,-5,0.1)
<
> y { rnorm(10,5,2)
<
> X { cbind(x,y)
<
> apply(X, 2, mean)

x y
-5.022379 4.021949
> apply(X, 2, sd)
x y
0.07029347 1.73544377
apply `@=wD xO=wv=N 1281
x@ |a@=D R= |Q= QmD C=}rta R= | U Q l} s=Hv= |= @ Q xkrL p=ta= R= R}yQB Q OW x_Lqt q=@
|= @ QO xm Qw]u=ty
| D = OvH xm w
"O=O O Hw trees = x@
s v |=xO=O R =
u @ R | yxO=O = CUQyi =F Q O
QO p t |= @ " W xO =iDU= apply() =
s v
"CU= "OW=@|t Q]U 31 u

pm Q} R CQ Y w x@ u
pw=
> head(trees,7)
= CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L xm
% @
Girth Height Volume

1 8.3 70 10.3
2 8.6 65 10.3
3 8.8 63 10.2
4 10.5 72 16.4
5 10.7 81 18.8
6 10.8 83 19.7
7 11.0 66 15.6
"OO o Volume Height Girth

Q x@U=Lt w ' =
| yu wDU R= l} Qy u}ov=}t xm CU= Q=Qk uwvm =
> apply(trees,2,mean)
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @ w x pY=L u}=Q@=v@ "O W w xDiQo u}ov=}t =yuwDU R= xm OwQ |t Q=mx@ u}= Q
|= @ 2 O
O a
Girth Height Volume

13.24839 76.00000 30.17097
" O}vm xHwD Q} R QwDUO x@ "O=O s =Hv= R}v sapply() ` = =

@ D @ u= D w |t =Q Q m = u}ty uwvm =
> sapply(trees,mean)
w
OQ= t CiQo Q=mx@ |}=y=H QO u= D w |t =Q sapply() ` = = @ D t= "OO oQ |t pY=L p@k xH}Dv u=ty u
|= H=Q =@
x@ "Ovm|t (O
" }
|t simple xtr m pw= R= s) Q = x =U
DxO U =Q r t u}=Q@=v@ O
"OQ= v O @ Q m Q = apply() ` = @ D xm QDxO}J}B
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft
w x
Q ] @ =Q p} QwDm =i `@=D R =
u @R xD@r= "OyO|t s=Hv= =Q p} QwDm =i x@U=Lt pta xm OwW|t xDN=U `@=D l} =OD@=
"OQ=O xDN=U V}B
fact { function(x) f
<
f {1<
if (x 2) return (1)
<
for (i in 2:x) f
f {f ig
<
fg
"O}vm xHwD Q} R QwDUO x@ "OO oQ x@U=Lt 5= 0 D O= a=O p} QwDm =i xm CU= Q=Qk uwvm =
> sapply(0:5,fact)
= CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
% @
1] 1 1 2 6 24 120
CU}r =} CUQyi CQwYx@ xm |t Q=mx@ |}=}W= |=Q@

OwQ w OQ=O O Hw | w Qo}O `@=D apply() ` = w = @ D xO= v N R=
l} =OD@= "O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = w |t xO}t=v

"O W lapply() ` = @ D u}= "OvDU ( O | list xtr
y " }
t m pw= R= l)
w |t xDN=U Q} R
"O W = O \UwD
| y )
m =
xO U CU}r
> a { c("a","b","c","d")
<
> b { c(1,2,3,4,4,3,2,1)
<
> c { c(T,T,F)
<
> list.object { list(a,b,c)

<
> list.object
% @ = CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
1]]
1] "a" "b" "c" "d"
2]]
1] 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1
3]]
1] TRUE TRUE FALSE
Q
"OO o p =ta= CU}r QY=va |wQ p ]w `@=D xm CU= Q=Qk uwvm =
> lapply(list.object,length)
% @ = CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
1]]
1] 4
2]]
1] 8
3]]
1] 3
"O}vm xHwD Q} R w x@ QY=va

OQ t R= l} Qy Tqm uOQw
CUOx@ Q =}
|= @
> lapply(list.object,class)
% @ = CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
47 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
1]]
1] "character"
2]]
1] "numeric"
3]]
1] "logical"
=Q sapply() ` = w
@ D ?= H u =ty 'O}vm p =ta= trees =
| yxO=O u}ov=}t |wQ =Q lapply() ` = @ D Qo = uwvm =
"O}vm xHwD Q} R OQ tw x@ Q |t Qy=_
"OO o u
QO CU}r CQ Y w =yDvt OyO|t
> lapply(trees,mean)
= CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
% @
$Girth
1] 13.24839
$Height
1] 76
$Volume
1] 30.17097
w
O Hw R}v | Ov@xwQo u
QO xm |t Q=mx@
OwQ O Q
pw= H |= @ w OQ=O O Hw | w apply() ` = w =
Qo}O `@=D @ D xO= v N R=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = w | O} = tapply() ` = u

"O W t x t v @ D }= "OQ=O
xO=O V}=tv Q} R QO h}OQ 8 xO=O u}= R= |DtUk xm OwW|t xO}t=v mtcars x w R =

m OQ=O O Hw |=xO=O u @ R QO
C h 32 =
" U= p w
}OQ yxO=O m "O W |t
> data(mtcars)
> attach(mtcars)
> head(mtcars,8)
mpg cyl disp hp drat wt qsec vs am gear carb

Mazda RX4 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.620 16.46 0 1 4 4
Mazda RX4 Wag 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.875 17.02 0 1 4 4
Datsun 710 22.8 4 108.0 93 3.85 2.320 18.61 1 1 4 1
Hornet 4 Drive 21.4 6 258.0 110 3.08 3.215 19.44 1 0 3 1
Hornet Sportabout 18.7 8 360.0 175 3.15 3.440 17.02 0 0 3 2
Valiant 18.1 6 225.0 105 2.76 3.460 20.22 1 0 3 1
Duster 360 14.3 8 360.0 245 3.21 3.570 15.84 0 0 3 4
Merc 240D 24.4 4 146.7 62 3.69 3.190 20.00 1 0 4 2
XNWt cyl uwDU w CU= ur=o Qy QO p}=t ?UL Q@ =ywQOwN hQYt xOvyOu=Wv mpg uwDU 'q=@ pwOH QO
Q
|= @ Q Ovr}U 8 64
w ' = w
| ywQO N CNwU h QYt \UwDt CU= Q=Qk uwvm = "CU= w
wQO N Q Ovr}U O= OaD xOvvm
"OO oQ x@U=Lt =yh}OQ s=tD
> tapply(mpg,cyl,mean)
4 6 8
26.66364 19.74286 15.10000
with `@=D 2281
tapply Q}_ v |a@=wD |wQ xOW xDio `@=D =@ O}v=wD|t =tW "Ovm|t pta =yxO=O \}Lt QO R C=Q=@a |wQ `@=D u}=
'OvW=@ xDU@ l} R= |DtUk w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = Qo = "O}vm pta OvQ=Ov xO=O Z iQ V}B u=twoQ
xm plot = } w
%R= CUDQ=@a `@=D |rm w O w Q

CQ Y " v= N= i with ` = @ D pN=O ,=t}kDUt =Q x W O xDio xO=O u= D w |t
with(data, function( )) :::
> library(MASS)
> data(bacteria)
> with(bacteria, tapply((y=="n"), trt, sum))
"O W w |t pY=L xH}Dv q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
placebo drug drug+

12 18 13
`@=wD 381
Q} R KQW x@ `@=D l} uDWwv |twta QwDUO "OyO|t s=Hv= =Q |Y=N xi}_w xm CU= xt=vQ@ R= VN@ l} `@=D
"CU=
functionName { function(arg1, arg2, ) f

<
do thisg
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q EQ e w =F}i x} k xm CU= |a@=D Q} R p=Ft
49 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> hypot { function(a, b) sqrt(a^2 + b^2)

<
> hypot(3,4)
1] 5
"CU= xHwD QwNQO Q} R w
OQ= t j i w xt=vQ@ QO
"O W w |t xDN=U 3, 4 O
O= a= =@ a, b |D wk t | y = Q}eDt
O |t CUO@
" }
5 O a O sqrt(a^2 + b^2) x@ U =Lt =@
w |t
"O W P
h L a, b C w k t h} QaD 'OW s=tD x@U=Lt |Dkw
"Ovm|t x@U=Lt =Q =yxO=O Q=}at h= QLv= w u}ov=}t xm O} Q}o@ Q_v QO =Q Q} R `@=D %p=Ft
> mystats { function(x)

<
+f
+ mymean { mean(x)
<
+ mysd { sd(x)
<
+ c(mean=mymean,sd=mysd)
+g
"OO o Q |t xH}Dv Q} R Q}O=kt OwW xO=O j i w `@=D x@ Q} R =
| yxO=O Qo =
> my_data { c(1,2,3,4,5)

<
> mystats(my_data)
mean sd
3.000000 1.581139
w |t xDiQo Q=mx@
"O W R =
u @ R QO list() ` = @ D R= xO=iDU= =@ `@=D u}ty
> mystats { function (x)

<
+f
+ myinput { x <
+ mymean { mean(x)
<
+ mysd { sd(x)
<
+ list(data = myinput, mean = mymean, sd = mysd)

+g
"OO o Q |t xH}Dv Q} R Q}O=kt OwW xO=O j i w `@=D x@ Q} R =
| yxO=O Qo =
> my_data { c(1,2,3,4,5)

<
> mystats(my_data)
$data
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$mean
1] 3
$sd
1] 1.581139
O xDWwv |DWoR=@ CQwYx@ xm O}vm xHwD p} QwDm =i `@=D x@ "CW=O R}v |DWoR=@ |=yxt=vQ@ u=wD|t R u=@ R
x W QO
"CU=
> Fact { function(n) if (n == 1) 1 else n Fact(n - 1)

<
> Fact(5)
1] 120
|Q=}DN= w |Q=@H= u=twoQ 1381
l} O =@
s= m w |Q H= u t oQ
s= m = w O xm Ovm|t u}at `@=D h} QaD 'O Ww |t xOv=wN=Qi R =
u @ R QO `@=D l} |Dkw
CU= |Q =}DN= k = w
u t oQ
w OyO|t =]N `@=D OW=@v Qo = w CU= |Q H==@ x = w
u t oQ
Q} R p=Ft CU=
QO " |Q =}DN=
"OQ=O =Q 2 Z iQ V}B Q=Okt w
> power { function(x, k=2) f

<
+ x^k
+g
> power(5)
1] 25
> power()
Error in power() : element 1 is empty
the part of the args list of '^' being evaluated was:
(x, k)
"O wtv u}at =Q |Dw=iDt Q=Okt k = w
u t oQ
|= @ u= DQ w |t =t=
> power(5,3)
1] 125
: : : u=twoQ 2381
O}y=wN|t O}vm Q
Z i "O W xO w =iDU= Qo}O `@=D x@ `@=D l} = = w
| yu t oQ
p =kDv= Q Ov=wD|t x]kv xU u=twoQ
|= @
"Ovm sUQ xup = 0

D R= =Q T wv}U `@=D xm O}U} wv@ |mJwm `@=D
> plotsin { function(xup=2 pi,...)

<
+f
+ x - seq(0, xup, l=100)
<
51 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
+ plot(x, sin(x), type="l",...)

+g
> plotsin(col="red")
xm O
u
uw @ O } B Q P |t =Q Q}=U w xlab lwd col Q}_ plot ` =
' ' v w |t xm
@ D QO u= D =Q |v=twoQ
Qy plotsin ` = @ D
"O}vm XNWt plotsin ` = @ D QO =Q u

xm O}W=@ Qw@Ht
|rLt |=yQ}eDt 3381
=Q u
CL=QY x@ xm u}= Qot 'CU= |rLt Q}eDt u
O}}=tv ? wUvt =Q |Q= Okt | Q}eDt x@ Qo = `@=D pN=O QO
u} Ro}=H Vt=vsy Q}eDt |wQ VQ=Okt `@=D R= GQ=N '|rLt Q}eDt Qo}O CQ=@a x@ "O}vm h} QaD <<; |v=yH
O =
" W @ ? =UDv= l} `@=D QwDUO u} QN
xm u
Qot OwQ |t u}@ R= u
Q= Okt O@=} xtD=N `@=D Qo = ,=vt "O Ww |tv
| Q}F-=D `@=D Q
|= H= "OO oQ |t 3QQ x@= @ Q= Okt `@=D pN=O QO "O Q}o|t QiY Q=Okt x Q}eD t = OD@= 'Q} R p=Ft QO
P |tv |vwQ}@ |v=yH Q}eDt

"OQ= o QO
> x {0 <
> functionx { function() f

<
+x {3 <
+g
> functionx()
> x
1] 0
w |t h} QaD |v=yH
"O W CQ Y w x@ q=@ p=Ft uwvm =
> x {0 <
> functionx { function() f

<
+x {3 <<
+g
> functionx()
> x
1] 3
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ '`@=D l} |DL 'OW=@ |W Qy Ov=wD|t `@=D u=twoQ
> test { function(n, fun)

<
+f
+ u { runif(n)
<
+ fun(u)
+g
> test(3,sin)
1] 0.7537332 0.8033265 0.3290288
Q@ Q=m xOW h} QaD |}=DwO Qorta l} CN=U 4381
xO =iDU= %anything% Ovv=t % Ctqa R= Q=m u}= |=Q@ "CN=U =Q Q_v OQwt |}=DwO Qorta u=wD|t R u=@ R QO
=F Q
%p t |= @ "O Q}o Q=Qk uW}Dwm pN=O = O}=@ 'Qorta h} QaD
QO u
s v =vt
QO , "O Ww |t
"%anything%" { function(x,y) f g
<
"O}vm xHwD setdi() union() `

w w
@= D OQmrta x@ 'Q} R p=Ft Q
`w W R= p@k
> x { c(1,2,5)
<
> y { c(5,1,8,9)
<
> union(x,y)
1] 1 2 5 8 9
> setdi(x,y)
1] 2
> setdi(y,x)
1] 8 9
"Ovm|t x@U=Lt uQ =kDt w
CQ Y x@ =Q xawtHt wO h qDN= xm OwW|t xDN=U | Qorta uwvm =
> "%sdf%" { function(a,b) f

<
+ sdfxy { setdi(x,y)
<
+ sdfyx { setdi(y,x)
<
+ union(sdfxy,sdfyx)
+g
> x %sdf% y
1] 2 8 9
Qy Q=m xwLv Q} R p=Ft '18 |DWoR=@ VwQ w
17 Q=QmD VwQ " CU= swUQt OQm} wQ wO ,qwtat C U=@ =Lt |= @Q %p=Ft
O
" yO |t u=Wv z>0 Q
|= @ =Q p t v p = Q =tDL= OOa x@U=Lt Q} R pwtQi "OyO|t u=Wv =Q wO
X1
(;1)nz2n+1
(z) = 1 + p1
2 2 n=0 n!2n(2n + 1)
"CU= Q} R MQW x@ u
| y m= O xm OwW|t p=@vO Q=QmD VwQ pw=
> Phi1 { function(z) f

<
+ sum = z
+ nfac = 1
+ for (n in 1:30) f
+ nfac = n nfac
+ sum = sum + (-1)^n z ^ (2 n + 1) / + (nfac 2^n (2 n + 1))g
+ 0.5 + sum / sqrt(2 pi)
+g
> Phi1(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
w |t x_Lqt Q} R
"O W QO |DWoR=@ VwQ x@ q=@ xr=Ut
17. iteration 18. recursion
53 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> Phi2 { function(z)

<
+f
+ n2p1 = 1 mult = -z^2/2
+ term = z sum = term
+ for (n in 1:30) f
+ n2p1 = n2p1 + 2
+ term = term mult / n
+ sum = sum + term / n2p1
+g
+ 0.5 + sum / sqrt(2 pi)
+g
> Phi2(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
u u=wN=Qi w xOW xDWwv `@=D xQ}NP 5381
u= Dw |t x=ov
"OW pY=L u=v}t]= u
|DUQO R= w O}OQo pt=m w OW xDWwv Q@ Q=m xOW h} QaD `@=D xm u}= R= TB
Q
|= @ u wvm = "O wtv xQ}NP | Oa@ =
| yxO =iDU= Q Q_v
|= @ OQ t w pLt QO x= wNrO |t=v =@ p}=i Rl } u= wvax@ u
O w Q
" v= N= i =Q Q_v OQ t w `@=D TBU Q Q
w O m = H= =Q source("p = R Q}U
} i t w s v = ") QwDUO O}=@ =OD@= =yv
R= xO =iDU=
=F
##### p t " CU= xHwD p@=k xDmv wO =Hv}= QO
=
| ys v @ = = `@=D u}OvJ p}=i R l} QO xm CU= umtt uwJ OW=@v u=Um} `@=D s=v w p}=i R s=v xm u}= pw=
w
"O W x Q}NP uwo =vwo
xO =iDU= source Q wDUO R= O}=@ =yp}=i R R= l} Qy <=R= x@ "OW O=H}= =RHt p}=i Rl } `@=D Qy Q Qo =
|= @
O w Q
" v= N= i =Q Cw =iDt `@=wD TBU w O W w
x@ |r}=i QO ,qFt xm CU= xOW xDWwv Q=}at h= QLv= w u}ov=}t x@U=Lt |= @Q |a@=D "O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
"CU= xO}OQo xQ}NP mean_sd =
s v
mean.sd { function (x, na.rm = TRUE)

<
f
if (na.rm) x { x!is.na(x)]<
n { length(x)
<
if (n 2) f <
cat("small number of data", "\n")

return(c(Mean = NA, SD = NA))
g
xbar { sum(x)/n
<
sd { sqrt(sum((x - xbar)^2)/(n - 1))

<
c(Mean = xbar, SD = sd)

g
Q Q
"OO o = H= Q} R QwYx@ source() ` = @ D O}=@ q=L
> source("D:\\R_les\\mean_sd.R")
"O Ww |t xO=O `@=D x@ Q=}at h= QLv= w u}ov=}t x@U=Lt Q Q_v
|= @ w
OQ t | yxO=O = TBU
> x { c(1,2,3)
<
> mean.sd(x)
"CU= Q} R w x x@U=Lt pY=L
CQ Y @
Mean SD
2 1
19 |Q=Ri=sQv |=yxDU@ 91
R x= } B =} w
21 xDUy x@ xm CU= |v=w=Qi 20 |Q=Ri=sQv = xDU@ uDW=O
| y R =
u @R syt Q=}U@ | y = |oS} w R= |m}
|O a O xm w R
OQ=O O Hw |Q= i=s v Q xDU@ 2000 R= V}@ xm Cio O}=@ R=Dtt xirw-t u}= x@ xHwD Q O w |t jrLt
|= @ " v W
CU= u=o}=Q CQwYx@ hwYwt |=yxDU@ s=tD xm CU= u}= O}=Ri=|t C} Rt u}= x@ xm |=xDmv "CU= xHwD QwNQO
O w |t R}v
" v W RwQ @ , x =vt "OvDUy 22 R=@ uDt |=Q=O w
X wYN QO |i=m K}wD =t= "CU= xOW xQ=W= |}=yxDU@ x@ j} Q=iD x@ O}W=@ xOQm xHwD pYi u}= p qN QO Qo =
w |t xDN=OQB syt u}= x@ uwvm = xm 'CU= xOWv
"O W GQO =yv
=} R
C H Q}=U =@
w \ DQ= ' ?Yv 'uOQw
CUOx@
O w |t ?Yv OwNx@ OwN R}v |Q=Ri=sQvxDU@ |O=OaD `k=w QO 'OOQo|t ?Yv =tW QDw}Bt=m |wQ R Q=Ri=sQv |Dkw
" v W
=Q Packages | wvt 'xLiY = R

|q @ Q= @= Q= v w CtUk QO R QO xm OQ=O C}ty= QOkv
R
|Q= i=s v | y Q = xDU@ EL@
w |t x_Lqt Q} R
"O W CQ Y @ w x =yxv} Ro R= |DUQyi 'O Ww l}rm wvt u}= |wQ Qo = "O}vm|t xOy=Wt
Local package
Set CRAN mirror
Select repositories
Install package(s)
Update package(s)
Install package(s) from local zip les
?}DQD ?UL Q@ =tW x@ =Q R O
QO x W |Q= oQ @ | y P = = xDU@ CUQyi 'O}vR@ =Q Local package xv} Ro Qo =
=yv
?Yv Q}Ut u=WDUQyi Q@ xwqa xm Owtv xO =iDU= R}v Q} R `@=D R= u= Dw |t =vt "OyO|t u=Wv <=@ir= hw L Q
O
" yO |t CUOx@ R}v =Q
> library()
19. Packages
"OvW=@|t =yxO=O w `@=wD pt=W OvDUy |}=yxv=N@=Dm R Q
'|Q= i=s v | y = xDU@ R= Qw_vt "20
21. core 22. open source

The R u
K}wD xm OQ=O O Hw w base = l} xm OwW|t x_Lqt 'O}vm x=ov CkO x@ xDio CUQyi x@ Qo =
s v
Qy =yxDU@ x}k@ =t= "OQ=O O Hw w |UQDUO u

=
| yxO=O w `@=wD s=tD x@ CQ Y w u}= O = |t
QO " W @ Base Package
|UQDUO |Q=PoQ=@ seQx@ xm CU= u}= QO x}=B |=yxDU@ =@ =yv
Cw=iD w OvW=@|t XNWt w =RHt s=v |=Q=O s=Om
w
"O W xO =iDU= O}=@ library(xDU = ) ` = @ s v @ D R= Q}N= OQ=wt x@ |UQDUO Q CU}v QU}t =yv
|= @ " =
| yxO=O w `@=wD x@
"O}vm xLwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv xO =iDU= u= D w |t R}v library() ` = @ D | =H@ require() ` = @ D R= xD@r=
> library(MASS)
OO o Q |t `]k \=@DQ= O} wW GQ=N R R= Qo = "CU= QU}t MASS xDU@ |=yxO=O w `@=wD x@ |UQDUO Oa@ x@ u}= R=
Q
"OO o Q= k @ x WQQ O xDio \ DQ= =@ library() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ O}=@ =
xQ @ wO w
| y = xDU@ R=}v ?UL Q@ Q=m w OvwW|tv P =

|Q= oQ @ u
QO Z i Q V}B w x R =
CQ Y @ | y xDU@ s=tD xm CU= K=w
u}= p}YiD =t= = |t Q=QkQ@ R}v =Q
"OR U sRq \ DQ= =@ CU@ Q=m w
CQ Y QO w Ovm|t |Q=PoQ=@ w xO wtv ?=NDv= =Q OwN
"O Q}o|t CQ Y w xvwoJ pL=Qt
" package xtr Q_

O}vm A}=D =Q m w v OQ t w xDU@ s=v 'u
google Ov = wHDU w w l OD
x}@W =} v t H Q D t } QO = @= 1
23 CRAN - Package e1071 CQ a =@ wHDUH R= T O Q} Q_

B ' } e1071 package =F wv x
o v QO p t u= a @
xO wWo xDU@ u}= XDNt |= xLiY "O}vm l}rm O}v | x_ q

u
|wQ " m R Q} Q | =o = xm@
t L t =Q o= i v } @ W
xO QWi p}=i Windows binary: xv} Ro p@=kt xLi u Downloads: CtU

QO ' Y }= w | k QO "O W t
l} xLiY u}= QO xD@r= "OQ=O Q=Qk =tW QDw}Bt=m |wQ xOQW p = wv O}v download e1071.zip
i } i u m= " m =Q
"O wtv download R} v =Q u

u= D w |t xm OQ=O O Hw w Q_ w xDU v OQ tQ | =tv Cy pdf p =
@ |= @ } y=Q H } i
p}=i uO wtv R=@ Q O}vm R=@

|= @ " O
=Q x W xDio xO QWi p}=i xm O}vmv |aU xHwI}y x@ xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD 2
Packages wv x |va xv} Ro | t QO m t u}O@ "O} Q}o@ ltm R w

O N R= x W O xDio
Install package(s) from local zip les

=t O O w
W w W wW Select les = x
y= N xO o QHv = u s v @ |=x B Q m }= @ " = O}vm l}rm u
|wQ w xO wtv ? =NDv= =Q
=Q Open O}r wt =NDm w xO O Q w Q w}B =

v ? v= =Q u
w }w @ O N D t m QO Q_v w xDU@ xQ}NP pLt x@ O}v=wD|t
OQ t
"OO o Q |t Qy=_ Q} R s=e}B R QO x =ov

"O}vR@
package è1071' successfully unpacked and MD5 sums checked

O N w R = xDU@ CUQyi
| y QO =Q xDU@ u}= s=v =tW |va} "O Ww |t P =
|Q= oQ @ e1071 xDU @ ?}DQD u}= x@
" O}vm|t xOy=Wt
"O}vm xO =iDU= Q} R QwDUO R= O}=@ w O} Q=Ov |UQDUO xDU@ u}= =

| yxO=O w `@=wD x@ Rwvy =t= 3
> library(e1071)
"O wtv xO=iDU= Q} R QwDUO R= u= D w |t Q_v OQ t w xDU@ `@=wD xOy=Wt |= @ Q
> library(help=e1071)
23. Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN)
xDU@ R= xO=iDU= R= p@k =Pr 'CU= Qo}O |xDU@ OvJ =} l} |Q=PoQ=@ x@ R=}v =yxDU@ | a@ R= xO=iDU= |=Q@ 4
O
" yO |t u=Wv Q=]N= w x w Pt R=}v
CQ Y @ =Q Q m R w
'CQ Y u}= Q}e QO "O=O s=Hv= =Q Qt= u}= O}=@ 'Q_v w
OQ t
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@
> library(e1071)
Loading required package: class
"CU= R=}v class s=v x@ |=xDU@ x@ e1071 xDU@ R= xO=iDU= |=Q@ OOQo|t x_Lqt q=@ s=}B QO xm Qw]u=ty
Q |t xi== Q} R
"OO o QO xm
> library(class)
> library(e1071)
>
Q |tv Qy=_ |t=e}B Qo}O xm OwW|t xOy=Wt

"OO o
xO wtv A}=D =Q `@=D s=v xm CU= |i=m O}vm xOy=Wt Q_v OQwt xDU@ R= =Q `@=D l} |=yO)m O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
" O}vR@ =Q Enter O}r m w
Q wDUO R= CU= |i=m 'O}vm hPL xOW xDio CUQyi R= =Q u

O}y=wN|t w O} Q=Ov R=}v |=xDU@ x@ ,=v=}L= Qo = 5
"O}vm xO=iDU= Q} R
> remove.packages("e1071")
"O wtv xO=iDU= Q} R QwDUO w |t |Y=YDN=
R= u= D w x xDU@ l}
CQ Y @ =
| yxO=O x y O =Wt Q
|= @ 6
> data(package="package name")

" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> data(package="MASS")
swO pYi
Q=O wt s v UQ
C=Q wDUO 'O}vm x_Lqt =Q =yu

R= |WN@ O}v=wD@ xm u}= |=Q@ "Owtv sUQ =Q |Dw=iDt |=yQ=Owtv u=wD|t R u=@ R QO
w w =
O H t yQ=O wtv sUQ |=Q@ `@=D xvwo wO R u=@ R QO "O}vm A}=D R QO =Q demo(persp) =} w demo(graphics)
"CU=
"Ov}=tv O=H}= OO
=Q | } H Q=O wtv Ovv=wD|t xm 1 q=@ K]U `@=wD
"Ov}=Ri=}@ OwHwt Q=O wtv x@ =Q | Y a Q =v Ovv=wD|t xm 2 u}}=B K]U `@=wD
O
" W Oy=wN x=Q= =yu
R= |O= OaD ' R =
u @ R QO Q=Owtv sUQ C=Q wDUO =@ |}=vW
Q
|= @
|Q=Owtv `@=wD 12
'OQ=O s}UQD QO |v=w=Qi OQ@ Q=m xm |a@=D "OO o Q |t x_Lqt |Q=O wtv |q @= K]U `@=wD R= |O= OaD CtUk u}= QO
"O wtv sUQ Vv+m =QB Q=O wtv l} w |t

u= D Q
|Q=O @ |xO=O wO R= xO =iDU= =@ Q} R p=Ft QO " CU= plot() ` = @ D
> x { rnorm(50)
<
1. high-level plotting functions 2. low-level plotting functions
57
> y { rnorm(50)
<
> plot(x,y)
u= Dw |t 'O}vm xi== =Q Q} R u}}=B K]U QwDUO Qo = xm Q |t pY=L Q} R pmW
"OO o w
j i C=Q wDUO Q
|= H= R= TB
2
1
0
y
1
2
2 1 0 1
Vv+m =QB Q=Owtv l} V}=tv %12 pmW
"CW=O pmW Q
|= @ u= wva l}
> title("Figure 1")

Qo}O w
`= v= u= D w |t =t= "CU= x]kv
|= Z i Q V}B w x
CQ Y @ x W O s}UQD pmW 'O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
= s}UQD
| y w =yO)m x@ OQ= t w Q}=U |= @ u Q wvm = "CW=O plot() ` = @ D QO type C} =
Y N R= xO =iDU= =@ '=Q =ypmW
" O}vm xHwD Q} R
> x { seq(-5,5,1)
<
> y { x^2
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y) text(-0.5,20,"without type")
> plot(x,y, type='b') text(-0.5,20,"type='b'")
" CU= q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H= Q xH}Dv 3$2 pmW
> x { seq(-5,5,1)
<
> y { x^2
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y, type='c') text(-0.5,20,"type='c'")
59 Q=O wtv sUQ 2 pYi
Figure 1
2
1
0
y
1
2
2 1 0 1
u= wva =@ Vv+m =QB Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %22 pmW
> plot(x,y, type='h') text(-0.5,20,"type='h'")

"CU= q=@ = O
| y ) Q
m |= H= xH}Dv 4$2 pmW
> x { seq(-5,5,1)
<
> y { x^2
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y, type='l') text(-0.5,20,"type='l'")
> plot(x,y, type='o') text(-0.5,20,"type='o'")
"CU= q=@ = O
| y ) Q
> x { seq(-5,5,1)
<
> y { x^2
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y, type='s') text(-0.5,20,"type='s'")
> plot(x,y, type='S') text(-0.5,20,"type='S'")
"CU= q=@ = O
| y ) Q
curve() `@=D 112
"CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ u
|rm pmW "O}=tv sUQ u}at xrY=i l} |wQ =Q xDUw}B `@=wD Ov=wD|t R =
u @R `@=D u}=
curve(expr, from, to, add = FALSE, ...)

= = w
% yu t oQ
K W Q
"CU= xOW xDWwv x ?U L Q@ xm |DQ=@a % expr
25
25
20
20
without type type=b
15
15
y
y
10
10
5
5
0
0
4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 2 4
x x
type='b' = wtv V}=tv

@ Q=O %32 pmW
25
25
20
20
type=c type=h
15
15
y
y
10
10
5
5
0
4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 2 4
x x
type='h' type='c' =
w @ Q=Owtv V}=tv %42 pmW
"OO o Q sUQ u
|wQ O}=@ `@=D xm CU= |= xvt=Ofrom, to
%
w |t xi== Q=L pmW x@ `@=D pmW OW=@

"O W TRUE
Qo = w CU= |k]v add t %
"O}vm sUQ 2 = 0 D R= =Q T wv}U `@=D Q=O wtv %p=Ft
> curve(sin(x), from=0, to=2 pi)

O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q u
7$2 pmW
"O}vm sUQ 3 = -3D O =D
R= =Q OQ= v U= p t v = Q `@=D Q=O wtv %p=Ft
> curve(dnorm(x), from=-3, to=3)

O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q u
8$2 pmW
x@ Q |t xi==
"OO o u
s= oQ wDU}y x@ CU= xOW x}yD curve() ` = @ D \UwD xm p=tQv p=tDL= `@=D =Hv}= QO %p=Ft
25
25
20
20
type=l type=o
15
15
y
y
10
10
5
5
0
0
4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 2 4
x x
type='o' type='l' =
w @ Q=O wtv V}=tv %52 pmW
25
25
20
20
type=s type=S
15
15
y
y
10
10
5
5
0
4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 2 4
x x
type='S' type='s' =
w @ Q=O wtv V}=tv %62 pmW
"O}vm xHwD Q} R = O
| y )
m
> set.seed(1)
> x { rnorm(10000)
<
> xx -3.5 | x 3.5] { NA

< > <
> hist(x, freq=F, breaks=30)

> curve(dnorm(x), -3.5, 3.5, add=T)
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q u
9$2 pmW
|Q=t |Q=Owtv `@=wD 212
"OQ=O |v=w=Qi OQ@ Q=m xm 'Owtv xO =iDU= =

|Q t
Q=O wtv `@=wD R= u= D w |t R =
u @ R QO
1.0
0.5
sin(x)
0.0
0.5
1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
sin( ) ` =
x @ D V}=tv %72 pmW
"Ovm|t O=H}= s=QowDU}y `@=D u}= hist(x) %
Q =yx QwLt
Q= k = Q
|wQ p t v | yl = OvJ xm "Ovm|t O=H}= QwLt wO |wQ =Q =ylOvJ `@=D u}= %qqnorm(x)
"OQ=O
"Ovm|t sUQ y ?U L Q@ =Q x lOvJ `@=D u}= %qqplot(x,y)

O =tv|t O=H}=
" } =Q box & whisker Q=Owtv `@=D u}= %boxplot(x)
" 10$2 pmW O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> x { rnorm(100)
<
> y { rt(100, df=3)

<
> par(mfrow=c(2,2))
> hist(x, col=2)
> qqnorm(x)
> qqplot(x,y)
> boxplot(x, col="green")
s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo |=yCtUk 3 1 2
x@ R}v x}L=v u}= w CU= xOW x]=L= Q=O wtv x}L=v \UwD xm s}UQD x}L=v "CU= x}L=v xU pt=W Q=O wtv l}
|W=wL "OyO|t u=Wv |@ wNx@ =Q ?r]t u}= 11$2 pmW "CU= xO}OQo x]=L= x}W=L Q=yJ xr}Uwx@ OwN x@ wv
=Q s}UQD x}L=v xm |W=wL "CU= QiY Q@=Q@ =yu
Z i Q V}B Q}O=kt xm OO o Q |t s}]vD oma QD = =@ |HQ=N
t=Q B
"O W w |t s}_vD mar QD = =@ CU=

t=Q B xO wtv x]=L=
0.4
0.3
dnorm(x)
0.2
0.1
0.0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
O =D
OQ= v U= p t v = Q `@=D V}=tv %82 pmW
sy x@ C@Uv Q=Owtv OvJ C}aw 22
u}=Q@=v@ "OOv@|t =Q |r@k xQHvB xm OwW|t R=@ O}OH xQHvB l} high level s} U D Q Q wDUO Qy =@ 'R =
u @ R QO
"CW=O |wQ V}B u=wD|t =Q pL x=Q xU s}W=@ xDW=O ,=t=wD =Q Q=Owtv OvJ xm u}= |=Q@ "OwQ|t u}@ R= |r@k Q=Owtv
"O Q@v u}@ R= =Q | Qo}O |m} xm xQHvB OvJ O=H}= 1
O Q}o Q=Qk sy
" v |wQ =yv
xmv
uw @O xLiY l} |wQ Q@ xv=o =OH =
| yQ=O wtv s}UQD 2
Q u}@
"Ow @ R= |r@k Q=Owtv xmv
O O
uw @ ' L=w xLiY QO |r@k Q=Owtv |wQ Q@ O}OH Q=Owtv s}UQD 3
=RHt xQHvB OvJ O=H}= 122
"O=O s =Hv= Q=m u}= u= Dw |t windows() = x@ |a@=D =@

s v
windows(width, height)
Qy =@ "OyO|t u=Wv =Q =yZQa QwLt O
xR= v= height = w
u t oQ
w =ypw] QwLt O
xR= v=width = w
u t oQ
u
QO xm
s}UQD O}OH Q=O wtv l} u
QO xm CU= =
xO t
w O W w |t xO wWo O}OH xQHvB l} windows Q wDUO Q
|= H= Q @ =
" O}vm xHwD Q} R | y )
m = O x@ p=Ft u= wvax@ "OO oQ
> x { c(2,3.3,4,5.5,6.5,8,9.5,10.10,12,13.13)
<
> y { seq(2,20,by=2)
<
> n { 2.75
<
> windows(n,n)
> plot(x,y)
> windows(n,n)
> plot(x,y,typ="o")
Histogram of x
0.4
0.3
Density
0.2
0.1
0.0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
u x@ w Q
\ @ t s= o Q wDU}y O =D
w OQ= v U= p t v = Q `@=D V}=tv %92 pmW
> windows(n,n)
> plot(x,y,typ="h")
> windows(n,n)
> plot(x,y,typ="s")
Q |t pY=L
"OO o 12$2 pmW Q} R = O
| y m |= H= Q =@
=yQ=Owtv xOW R=@ |=yxQHvB uDU@ 222
xm CU= |Qw Q xDmv u}= Qm P "O Ww |t xO wWo O}OH xQHvB l} OO o Q |t Q

|= H= windows() ` = x @ D m Q @= Qy
u= Dw |t =yv
R= Qy uDU@ Q
|= @ u wvm = O
"OQ= v O Hw w l} xQ =tW O Q
w x W `w W wO xQ =tW R =
R= QHv
u @ R QO x B xQ =tW
"O=O s =Hv= =
=Q Q m wO
x]w@ Qt windows xLi close C q Y t a |wQ uO m Q l}rm
" CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x xm dev.o() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU=
> dev.o(number of window)

O w |t xDU@ OwHwt
" v W | yx = QHvB x}rm xm CU= u}= Z i Q V}B "O wWv xO=O x QHvB xQ=tW u=twoQ
Qo =
xLiY l} |wQ =RHt Q=Owtv OvJ 322
Q} R KQW x@ xm w
OQ=O O Hw |irDNt =
| yVwQ Q=O wtv xLiY l} |wQ = RHt Q=Owtv OvJ s}UQD Q
|= @ R =
u @ R QO
"OO o Q |t x=Q=
Histogram of x Normal QQ Plot
20
2
Sample Quantiles
15
1
Frequency
0
10
1
5
2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 0 1 2
x Theoretical Quantiles
2
5
1
0
y
1
5
2
2 1 0 1 2
=
|Q t Q=O wtv OvJ V}=tv %102 pmW
|w=Ut |=yCtUk x@ Q=Owtv xLiY s}UkD 1322
xS=w hiNt mf Q
"O=O Q= k =Q Q=O wtv OvJ xLiY l} |wQ u= D w |t mfcol = mfrow } w | y = QDt=Q=B R= xO =iDU= =@
Ovm|t s}_vD =Q Q=O wtv | y = QDt=Q=B par() ` = @ D " Ovvm|t u=}@ =Q u wD col Q] row
U w U w CU= multiframe
O w |t s}_vD Q} R KQW x@ QDt=Q=B
" v W wO Qy "Ot
Oy=wN pYi u}ty QO u
pYit KQW xm
par(mfrow=c(r,k))
par(mfcol=c(r,k))
QDt=Q=B "OyO|t u=Wv =Q OO o Q |t sUQ Q=O wtv u
QO xm |= xLiY | yu= wDU O= OaD k = Q]U
w y O= r
OaD xu
QO m
" CU= |vwDU u=tO}J Qov=}@ mfcol w | Q]U u=tO}J Qov=}@ mfrow |m} Q i= o
|w=Ut=v |=yCtUk x@ Q=Owtv xLiY s}UkD 2322
`@=D xm CU= u}= =yv

x}rw= h qDN= "CU= mfcol mfrow w = QDt=Q=B
| y |= @ Q |v} Ro}=H VwQ layout() ` = @ D
| Ov@s}UkD u}L QO Qo}O CQ=@a x@ "Ovm|t s}UkD |w=Ut=v x}L=v OvJ x@ =Q Q=Owtv V}=tv xLiY Ov=wD|t Q}N=
l} w CU= pQDvm p@=k =RHt Qw]x@ =yuwDU | =vyB w =yQ]U `=iDQ= 'u wDU w Q]U OvJ x@ Q=O wtv V}=tv xLiY
O =tv p=eW=
" } =Q u wDU =} w Q]U l} R= V}@ Ov=wD|t XNWt Q=O wtv
xm CU= K}LY O
O= a= T} QD=t |= wDLt "CU= T} QD=t `@=D 'layout() ` = @ D CU= =@
|Q H= xm u=twoQ
u}rw=
'T} QD=t = x
| y }=QO R= l} Qy QO R}v QiY OOa "Ovm|t u}at =
=Q yQ=O wtv \UwD xOW p=eW= uwDU w Q]U O=OaD
"O Q}o|tv Q=Qk |Q=O wtv =Hv
QO xm CU= u
xv=Wv
"CU= Q} R QwDUO pO =at par(mfrow=c(3,2)) QwDUO p=Ft |= @ Q
1391 '|vWwOv|wUwt 66
Outer margin 3
Figue margin 3
Figure margin 2
Figure margin 4
Outer margin 2
Outer margin 4
Plot Region
Figure margin 1
Outer margin 1
Q=Owtv = VN@ V}=tv

| y %112 pmW
w QHvB OvJ V}=tv

s= D x %122 pmW
layout(matrix(c(1,2,3,4,5,6), byrow=T, ncol=2))

`@=D Q CW=Po V}=tv x@
|= @ " layout.show() `@=D =@ =Q Ovm|t O=H}= layout() ` = @ D xm |}=yR=Qi= w |t
u= D
w OO o Q |t XNWt QDy@ | Ov@s}UkD xwLv =yp=Ft u}= QO "O wtv x=Q= =Q |QDW}@ = =F
| yp t u= D w |t layout()
"CW=Po V}=tv x@ O
=Q x W O =H}= | Ov@s}UkD w |t
u= D layout.show() ` = = =vt
@ D @ ,
%1 p t =F
> m { matrix(1:4, ,2, 2)

<
> m
,1] ,2] 1 3
1,] 1 2
2,] 3 4
> layout(m) 2 4
> layout.show(4)
%2 p t =F
> m { matrix(1:6, 3, 2)
<
> m
,1] ,2] 1 4
1,] 1 4
2,] 2 5 2 5
3,] 3 6
> layout(m) 3 6
> layout.show(6)
Qo = p=Ft Q O
|= @ " yO |t u=Wv =ypmW x}L=v QO =Q =yQ=Owtv uDiQo Q=Qk ?}DQD layout() ` = @ D T} QD=t | wDLt
"O Ww xDWwv Q} R CQ Y @ w x Q}N= w
OQ t
layout(matrix(c(6:1), byrow=T, ncol=2))

x}L=v QO ,q@k xm Q=O wtv u}rw= |va} w Oy=wN Tma
"O @ CQ Y w x@ 'V}=tv xLiY =
QO yQ=O wtv uDiQo Q=Qk ?}DQD
"O Q}o|t Q=Qk 3 2 x} =
L v QO u wvm = CiQo|t Q=Qk 11
%3 p t =F
> m { matrix(1:6, 2, 3)
<
> m
,1] ,2] ,3] 1 3 5
1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
> layout(m) 2 4 6
> layout.show(6)
%4 p t =F
CQ Yw x@ layout = O Qo =
| y m =F
'p t |= @ " Q Ovm p=eW= =Q u wDU =} w Q]U l} R= V}@ CU= umtt Q=Owtv l}
CU= Q} R
> m { matrix(c(1,2,3,3), byrow=F,

<
ncol=2)
> m 1
,1] ,2]
1,] 1 3 3
2,] 2 3
layout(m)
2
>
> layout.show(3)
%5 p t =F
=yZQa =t= "OvDUy u=Um} ZQa |=Q=O =yuwDU s=tD w u=Um} `=iDQ= |=Q=O =yQ]U s=tD 'ZQiV}B CQwYx@
=O}B |UQDUO =yv
x@ xm |}=yQ]U `=iDQ= Ov=wD|t heights u=twoQ
"Owtv Zwa u=wD|t =Q |L=wv |=yuwDU w
T QDUO p@=k = Q
| yZ a |= @ Q |r@k u=twoQ
x@=Wt width = w
u t oQ
u}vJty "Ovm QDoQR@ |D@Uv x@ =Q Ovm|t
"Ovm|t pta
> m { matrix(1:4, 2, 2)
<
> layout(m, widths=c(1, 3), 1 3
+ heights=c(3, 1))
> layout.show(4)
2 4
1
QDmJwm 1+3 = 14 C@Uv x@ =yv
=
R= |=xQ B w
3
OvwW|t QDoQR@ 1+3 = 34 C@Uv x@ =yZQa w =y`=iDQ= |=xQ B=
%6 =F O Q |t
p t " vO o
> layout(matrix(c(1,2,1,3),2,2))
> plot(rnorm(100), type="l")
> hist(rnorm(100))
> qqnorm(runif(100))
"O Ww |t xH}Dv 13$2 pmW w
j i C=Q wDUO Q
|= H= =@
=yQ=Owtv u=mt u}}aD =@ xLiY s}UkD 3322
=Q Q=O wtv OvJ par() = w

u t oQ
u= wvax@ mfcol mfrow
w C=Q wDUO \UwD w |t OW x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
u= D
uDiQo Q=Qk pLt |wQ =Q | QDW}@ p QDvm xm CUy R}v | Qo}O u =mt= =t= "Owtv s}UQD Q=Owtv xLiY l} |wQ
2
1
rnorm(100)
0
1
2
3
0 20 40 60 80 100
Index
Histogram of rnorm(100) Normal QQ Plot
1.0
25
0.8
20
Sample Quantiles
Frequency
0.6
15
0.4
10
0.2
5
0.0
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 2 1 0 1 2
rnorm(100) Theoretical Quantiles
|w =Ut=v | Ov@s}UkD =@ =
|Q t Q=O wtv OvJ V}=tv %132 pmW
O = |t
" W @ par() g QO = w
u t oQ
u
w Ovm|t p=ta= Q=O wtv
w
"O W xO =iDU= Q} R C Q g = w t i R= u t oQ
QO O}=@ 'Q=O wtv pLt s}_vD Q
|= @
c(x_left, x_right, y_left, y_right)

"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OvQ=O Q=Qk l} w QiY Q}O=kt u}@ Qwm Pt | y = xirw-t R= l} Qy 'u
QO xm
# Add boxplots to a scatterplot

par(g=c(0,0.8,0,0.8), new=TRUE)
plot(mtcars$wt, mtcars$mpg, xlab="Miles Per Gallon",
ylab="Car Weight")
par(g=c(0,0.8,0.55,1), new=TRUE)
boxplot(mtcars$wt, horizontal=TRUE, axes=FALSE)
par(g=c(0.65,1,0,0.8),new=TRUE)
boxplot(mtcars$mpg, axes=FALSE)
mtext("Enhanced Scatterplot", side=3, outer=TRUE, line=-3)
"OO o Q |t pY=L 14$2 pmW j i w xt=vQ@ Q
|= H= =@
Enhanced Scatterplot
30
Car Weight
25
20
15
10
2 3 4 5
Miles Per Gallon
g Q wDUO \UwD Q=O wtv OvJ V}=tv %142 pmW
OL=w xLiY QO |r@k Q=Owtv |wQ Q@ O}OH Q=Owtv s}UQD 422
| Qo}O |=yQ=Owtv |rai Q=Owtv |wQ u=wD|t `@=D Q=yJ =@ "CU= xOW s}UQD Q=Owtv l} plot() `@=D =@ O}vm ZQi
"O wtv xi== u
x@ =Q
plot() # draw a graph

points() # adds points
lines() # adds lines
abline(a,b) # Draws a line of slope a and intercept b
abline(h=) # adds horizontal lines
abline(v=) # adds vertical lines
curve() # adds curves
|HQ=N |=ys}_vD 1422
plot(x,y, col=2) =F
p t |= @ " yO Q O |t u=Wv =Q =yQ=Owtv R= QD|} RH w QDW}@ = QDt=Q=B 'Q} R CUQyi
| y
Q u}}aD
"O m =Q Q=O wtv \ w]N Ct=N w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@
u= D %lwd
O Ov=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= Q=Okt
w O a "O m Q u}}aD =Q =Q Q=O wtv QO xO =iDU= w
OQ t \ w]N `wv u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ %lty
lty="dashed" =F
p t |= @ " W @ Q O = QDm =Q=m =}
=F Q O = QDm =Q=m =}
p t |= @ " W @ O Ov=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= Q=Okt
w O a "O mQ u}}aD Q=Owtv nvQ w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@
u= D %col
u} w=va nvQ Q}}eD Q
|= @ 'col.sub col.main w R= u= wvaQ} R w u= wva nvQ Q}}eD Q col = "red"
|= @ "
w
"O W | =iD col.axis
t xO U= R= =yQwLt nvQ Q}}eD Q Q
|= @ x Nq @ w = col.lab = wL R= yQ t
"Ovm|t u}at =Q Q=O wtv | y = xDWwv *srk QDt=Q=B u}= O

|O a Q= Okt font %
"O W w p}O@D `@ Qt x@ xQ}=O xv=Wv ,qFt "O wtv u}at =Q Q=O wtv = x =Wv
| y v u= Dw |t 3 pch QDt=Q B = = %pch
@
nvQ w font.main = @ u
xR= v= wO Cvwi Q XNWt
"O m =Q Q=O wtv |rY= u= wva u= Dw |t QDt=Q=B u}= = %main
@
"OO oQ |t V}=Q} w col.main = @ u
=@ u
nvQ w font.sub = O
@ u
xR= v= w Cvwi "O mQ XNWt =Q Q=O wtv |aQi u= wva u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ % sub
Q |t V}=Q} w
"OO o col.sub
K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ=B QO xD@r= "OQm XNWt =Q C=YDNt |=yQwLt |t=U= u=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ %xlab, ylab
"O Ww |t s=Hv= OwNx@OwN pta u}= 'q @ =
Q m = u}= Q
|= @ "O wtv u}}aD =Q y xw = wLt QFm =OL
| yQ w pk=OL Q}O=kt u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ % xlim, ylim
Q= Okt low u
QO xm 'O wtv xO=iDU= ylim=c(low,high) xlim=c(low,high) w C=Q wDUO R= u= Dw |t
" yOO |t u=Wv =Q QFm =OL Q=Okt high w pk=OL
R= O}vm R
nQ @ =Q u= wva O O}y=wN@ Qo =
xR= v= "Owtv QDoQR@ =Q Q=O wtv u wDt w =yxv=Wv u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ %cex
cex.lab R= =yQwLt |t=U= uO wtv QDoQR@ Q O}vm
|= @ " xO =iDU= cex.sub R= u= wvaQ} R Q
|= @ w cex.main
" CiQo ltm w |t
u= D
|= v x =Wv =} w uDt 'x]kv Qy xm w x OvwW s}_vD

|Q ] @ Q
|Q=O @ CQ Y @ w x Ovv=wD|t |m}i=Qo | y = QDt=Q=B R= |=xQ B =
"O wtv pta u= D w |t R}v xv=o =OH w x =
CQ Y @ t= "OO o Q |t Q=O @Q QY=va pt=W
Q=Owtv l} |=yQDt=Q=B s}_vD 2422
'nvQ '\N `wv '\w]N Ct=N Q}_v |}=yQDt=Q=B |=Q=O Ov=wD|t Q=Owtv l} "OW xOy=Wt uwvm =D xm Qw]u=ty
Q wDUO u=ty |=Q@ \ki 'OwW xOQw
s}UQD QwDUO OwN QO |m}i=Qo |=yQDt=Q=B Qo = uwvm = "OW=@ ::: O Cvwi
w xR= v= '
=
| yQ=O wtv s=tD |wQ =yQDt=Q=B u}= w
'O W xOQw
par() ` = @ D QO |m}i=Qo | y= QDt=Q=B Qo = =t= "CU= p =ta= p@=k
CQ Y @ y w x = QDt=Q=B s}UQD QwDUO l} pN=O =} w OUQ@ |Oa@ par() `@=D x@ =} xmv}= Qot "OOQo|t p=ta= R}v |Oa@
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ ?r]t QDy@ Q
lQO |= @ "OO o Q Z} waD |rLt
> plot(x,y,cex.lab=2, main="size of title",cex.main=2,cex.axis=2)

"OQ=O Q= kQ plot() ` = @ D pN=O pmW | y = QDt=Q=B xm OwW|t xOy=Wt w
j i OQ t QO w
> par(cex.lab=2,cex.main=2,cex.axis=2)
> plot(x,y,main="size of title")
" CU= Q} R w x |rLt Z} waD
CQ Y @
> par(cex.lab=2,cex.main=2,cex.axis=2)
> plot(x,y,main="size of title")
3. Plotting character
> plot(x,y,cex.lab=2, main="size of title",cex.main=1,cex.axis=1)

"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft QO par() ` = @ D ?r=H = Z} waD x@ uwvm =
| y
> # Set a graphical parameter using par()

> #par() # view current settings
> opar { par()
< # make a copy of current settings
> par(col.lab= "red") # red x and y labels
> hist(mtcars$mpg) # create a plot with these new settings
> par(opar) # restore original settings
u}}=B K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ=B 3422
`@=wD \UwD Q=m u}= "O}vm xi== u

x@ w
=Q OQ= t R= | a@ xm O}y=wN|t TBU 'O}vm|t O=H}= Q=O wtv l} =tW
"CU= Q}PBu=mt= u}}=B K]U
\w]N uOwRi=
Q
Q=O @ \ =kv lines() ` = w |t
@ D "O W xO =iDU= OwHwt Q=Owtv x@ \ w]N R
uOw i= |= @ Q abline() lines() ` w w
@= D
"Ovm|t s}UQD =Q u}at <=O@t R= Z a w Q ?}W =@ CU=Q w]N

\ abline() ` = @ D "Ovm|t pYw sy x@ =Q |OwQw
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@
> plot(c(-2,2),c(-2,2))
> lines(c(0,2), c(0,2), col="red")
> abline(a=1, b=2, lty=2) # adds the line y = a + bx
> abline(v=1, lty=3, col="blue", lwd=3)
\N h QDt=Q=B =@ w |Owta \N v QDt=Q=B =@ abline() `@=D QO "O}
|t CUO@ Q} R Q=O wtv jwi C=QwDUO |=QH= =@
"OO o Q |t sUQ |ki=
C=Q wDUO x@ p=Ft u=wva x@ "OwQ|t Q=mx@ \N xQ=B w u=m}B s}UQD |=Q@ ?}DQD x@ segments() w arrows() `@=wD
w |t xi== Q} R
"O W C=QwDUO p@k
> arrows(
+ c(0,0,0),
+ c(1,1,1),
+ c(0,0.5,1),
+ c(1.2,1.5,1.7),
+ length = 0.1)
`@=D Ovv=t `@=D u}= "O Ww |t xO =iDU= grid() ` = @ D R= Q m= u}= Q
|= @ "Ow i= R 4 =tvy=Q \ w]N u= D w |t =yQ=Owtv x@
=yu=twoQ
u}= Qt=Qo "OW=@|t ::: w u}J\N 'QB\N \N `wv 'Ct=N 'nvQ = = w
| yu t oQ
|=Q=O plot()
?}DQD x@ =Q =tvy=Q \ w]N Ow@v w xm
w O @ w
OQ=O O Hw ny nx w = w
u t oQ
wO grid() ` = @ D " CU= plot() ` = @ D Ovv=t
4. Grid lines
2
1
c(2, 2)
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
c(2, 2)
CU=Q \N OvJ V}=tv %152 pmW
sUQ y= x } w | y = CyH QO \ w]N 'OO o Q NA |w=Ut =yv

R= l} Qy Qo = "Ovvm|t u}at y x w | yQ = wLt QO
\ w] x x
N @ QwLt CyH QO w O}y=wN|t =tvy=Q \ w]N y QwLt CyH QO xm O}vm Z i u Q wvm = Q |tv
"OO o
"O wtv pta Q} R w x O}=@ x=ov

'O} Q=Ov R=}v =tvy=Q
CQ Y @
grid(nx=NA, ny=NULL)
xm O}W=@ p}=t Qo = =t= 'OvwW|t sUQ w Q
\ @ t | yQ = wLt | y = l}D O= OaD x@ y x Cy
w H wO QO =tvy=Q \ w]N
Q}}eD Q_v w
OQ t Q=O wtv QO ?U=vD x@ =Q =yl}D xm CU= u}= VwQ u}rw= O}yO Vy=m =} w V}=Ri= =Q =yv
O= OaD
Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ uwvm = "OW=@|t abline(h=numeric, v=numeric) ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= swO VwQ =t= "O}yO
"O}vm xHwD
> x { c(1,4,7,8,10)
<
> y { c(2,6,11,15,20)
<
> plot(x,y)
> grid()
Z i Q V}B Q}e w x =tvy=Q
CQ Y @ \ w]N u wvm = "OO oQ |t O=H}= 17$2 xQ =tW Q=O wtv w
j i | y )
m |= H= = O Q =@
"OO o Q |t p=ta= |WQ=iU
> x { c(1,4,7,8,10)
<
> y { c(2,6,11,15,20)
<
> plot(x,y)
> abline(h=seq(1,20,2),v=seq(1,10,0.5),lty=3,col="gray50")
Q |t O=H}=
"OO o 18$2 xQ =tW Q=O wtv w
j i | y )
m |= H== O Q =@
2
1
c(2, 2)
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
c(2, 2)
u=m}B OvJ V}=tv %162 pmW
=yxv=Wv w \=kv uOwRi=
pmW |r@k Q=O wtv x@ =Q |]=kv Q} R | y )= O O R |t OwHwt

m " }= i= Q=O wtv x@ =Q |i== xv=Wv w \ =kv points() ` = @ D
"Ovm|t xi== 19$2
> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch=3, col="blue")

> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch=4, cex=3, lwd=2)
> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch="K", col="green")
O
" yO |t u=Wv Q
=Q O=O Q= k xO =iDU= w
OQ t u= D w |t xm |}=yxv=Wv R= |DUQyi Q} R xt=vQ@
> plot(0:10, 0:10, type="n", xlab="", ylab="")

> k { -1
<
> for (i in c(2,5,8)) f

+ for (j in 0:9) f
+ k - k+1
<
+ points(i, j, pch=k, cex=2)g

+g
"OO o Q |t O=H}= 20$2 pmW q=@ xt=vQ@ Q
|= H= =@
uDt w u=wva uOwRi=
"Ov}=tv|t xi== =Q |vwDt s}UQD x}L=v QO \ki OwHwt Q=Owtv x@ text() w mtext() 'legend() 'title() `@=wD
"Ovm|t xi== |r@k Q=O wtv x@ =Q 21$2 pmW |vwDt Q} R | y )
m= O
> title(main="My title", sub="My subtitle")

20
15
y
10
5
2 4 6 8 10
=tvy=Q \ w]N =@ Q=Owtv l} V}=tv %172 pmW
> text(0,0, "some text")

> text(1,1, "Angular text", srt=45)
" Ovm|t xi== 22$2 pmW OwHwt Q=O wtv |W=wL R= |m} x@ =Q Q_v OQ t w uDt 5 mtext() `@=D
mtext("Text in the margin", side=4)

=
w q @ Q wLt 3 O
O a ' AJ QwLt 2 O
O a ' u}}=B QwLt u
|= @Q 1 O
O a " Ovm|t u}}aD =Q Q_v w
OQ t Q wLt :side
"Ovm|t XNWt =Q CU=Q QwLt 4 O
O a x Nq @ Q =
"CU= 0 u
Z i Q V}B "Ovm|t u}at Q_v w
OQ t Q wLt R= =Q xDWwv xrY=i :line
| =@ir= = =
w xO U | yp t i Q=O w Q wtv l} |wQ O}y=wN@ Qo = "OyO|t u=Wv w \N
j i |wQ =Q xDWwv C =YDN :at t
uDi=} Q CU= LATEX

|= @ " C=Q wDUO x}@W u
C=Q wDUO "O}vm expression() ` =
xO =iDU= @ D R= O}U} wv@ =Q |v=vw}
'O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@ uwvm = "O}vm A}=D
| y )
m =Q demo(plotmath) wD R \}L Q UO ' t QO =yu
pt=m CUQyi
"O Ww |t xi== p@k 23$2 pmW Q=O wtv x@ xm
> text(-1,1.5,
+ expression(
+ paste(
+ frac(1, sigma sqrt(2 pi)),
+ " ",
+ plain(e)^frac(-(x-mu)^2, 2 sigma^2))),
+ cex = 1.2)
QO R}v =yv
|HwQN xm Q |t x=Q= CU= xOW xDWwv Q} R
'OO o = O \UwD xm =ypwtQi
| y )
m R= xvwtv OvJ p=Ft Q
|= @
"CU= xOy=Wt p@=k 24$2 pmW
> par(mar = c(1, 1, 1, 1))

> plot(0:10, 0:10, type = "n", axes = FALSE)
5. marginal text
20
15
y
10
5
2 4 6 8 10
|WQ=iU | =tvy=Q \ w]N =@ Q=Owtv l} V}=tv %182 pmW

2
1
KK K
c(2, 2)
0
1
K
2
2 1 0 1 2
c(2, 2)
x]kv OvJ V}=tv %192 pmW

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
=yxv=Wv V}=tv %202 pmW
My title
2
t
ex
rt
1
la
gu
An
KK K
c(2, 2)
some text
0
1
K
2
2 1 0 1 2
c(2, 2)
My subtitle
uDt OvJ V}=tv %212 pmW

My title
t
tex
ar
1
l
gu
An
Text in the margin

KK K
c(2, 2)
some text
0
1
K
2
2 1 0 1 2
c(2, 2)
My subtitle
x}W=L |wQ uDt V}=tv %222 pmW
My title
2
1 x2
e 22
2
x t
te
ar
1
ul
g
K
An
K
Text in the margin
c(2, 2)
some text
0
K
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
c(2, 2)
My subtitle
Q=O wtv |wQ p t i w Q V}=tv %232 pmW

> text(1, 10, expression(x %+-% y), cex = 1.5)

> text(1, 9, expression(xi]), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 8, expression(x^2), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 7, expression(sqrt(x)), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 6, expression(sqrt(x, 3)), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 5, expression(x != y), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 4, expression(x = y), cex = 1.5)
<
> text(1, 3, expression(hat(x)), cex = 1.5)

> text(1, 2, expression(tilde(x)), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 1, expression(bar(x)), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 0, expression(x % = % y), cex = 1.5)
< >
> text(4, 10, expression(Alpha + Omega), cex = 1.5)

> text(4, 9, expression(alpha + omega), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 8, expression(45 degree), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 7, expression(frac(x, y)), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 5.5, expression(sum(xi], i = 1, n)), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 4, expression(prod(plain(P)(X == x), x)), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 2.5, expression(integral(f(x) dx, a, b)), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 0.5, expression(lim(f(x), x %- % 0)), cex = 1.5)
>
> text(8, 10, expression(x^y + z), cex = 1.5)

> text(8, 9, expression(x^(y + z)), cex = 1.5)
> text(8, 8, expression(x^y + z), cex = 1.5)
> text(8, 6, expression(hat(beta) == (X^t X)^f-1 + g X^t y), cex = 1.5)
> text(8, 4, expression(bar(x) == sum(frac(xi], n), i == 1, n)), cex = 1.5)
> text(8, 2, expression(paste(frac(1, sigma sqrt(2 * pi)), " ", plain(e)^f
+ frac(-(x - mu)^2, 2 sigma^2)
+ g)), cex = 1.5)
> box()
Q=Owtv QO =yCvwi Q}}eD
"O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@ p=Ft

| y )
m Q
|= @ "Owtv w
Z a =Q u
| y = xDWwv = Cvwi
| y w |t
u= D Q=O wtv l} QO
plot(1:10,1:10,type="n")
windowsFonts(
A = windowsFont("Arial Black"),
B = windowsFont("Bookman Old Style"),
C = windowsFont("Comic Sans MS"),
D = windowsFont("Symbol")
)
text(3,3,"Hello World Default")
text(4,4,family="A","Hello World from Arial Black")
text(5,5,family="B","Hello World from Bookman Old Style")
text(6,6,family="C","Hello World from Comic Sans MS")
text(7,7,family="D", "Hello World from Symbol")
Q |t xOy=Wt
"OO o =Q 25$2 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= R= Q TB
xy xy z
xi xyz
x2 45 xyz
x
x
y
XtX1Xty
3 n ^
x
xi
xy 1
n
PX x
xi
xy x
x i1 n
x^ b
fxdx
1 x2
~
x a e 22
2
x
lim fx
xy x0
R QO x W O xDWwv pwtQi OvJ V}=tv %242 pmW

10
8
Hello World from Symbol

6
Hello World from Comic Sans MS

1:10
Hello World from Bookman Old Style

4
Hello World from Arial Black
Hello World Default

2
2 4 6 8 10
1:10
Q=O wtv |wQ =yCvwi V}=tv %252 pmW

=yQwLt pQDvm
O=H}= =yZQiV}B R= xO=iDU= =@ OwNx@OwN =yQwLt |=y?UJQ@ w =yQwLt 'O}vm|t O=H}= =Q |Q=Owtv =tW |Dkw
=y QwLt axes = F R= xO =iDU= =@ ,qFt "O wtv pQDvm |m}i=Qo | y = QDt=Q=B =@ u= D w |t =Q C =t}_vD u}= "OO oQ |t
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OvwW|t h L P
> x { rnorm(100)
<
> y { rnorm(100)
<
"O Ww |tv sUQ OwNx@OwN =yQwLt

> plot(x,y, axes=F)
"O Ww |t OQ=w |DUO Qw]x@ =yQwLt
> axis(side=1)
> axis(side=2)
=
w q @ |= @ Q 3 O
O a ' AJ CtU |=Q@ 2 O
O a ' u}}=B Q1 O
|= @ O a " yO O |t u=Wv =Q Q wLt sUQ pLt side = w
u t oQ
pmW Owtv sUQ =Q y w x |=yQwLt pLt u=wD|t pos = wu t oQ

R= xO =iDU= =@ "CU=Q CtU |=Q@ 4 O
O a x Nq @ Q =
"O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@
| y m " 26$2
> < { rnorm(100)

> y { rnorm(100)
<
> plot(x,y, axes=F)

> axis(side=1, pos=0)
2
1
y
3 2 1 0 1 2
1
2
=yQwLt pLt Q}}eD V}=tv %262 pmW
pmW "OO o Q |t XNWt labels at w =

| yu t oQ
= w =@ =yu
|wQ =y?UJQ@ w =yl}D s}qa uDiQo Q=Qk pLt
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q =yv
27$2
O
x W XNWt u=mt QO =yl}D s}qa uDiQo Q=Qk
> x { rnorm(100)
<
> y { rnorm(100)
<
> plot(x,y, axes=F)

2.0
1.2
0.4
0.4
y
1.2
2.0
2.0000000 0.8571429 0.2857143 1.4285714
Q wLt |wQ =yl}D pLt V}=tv %272 pmW
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q =y?UJQ@ 28$2 pmW
=yl}D s}qa = ?UJQ@ uDiQo Q=Qk

|wQ y
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
> xtickplaces { 1:20
<
> ytickplaces { seq(-2,2,l=6)

<
> xlabels { paste("day", 1:20, sep=" ")

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels)

> axis(side=2, at=ytickplaces)
O}y=wN@ Qo = "OvQ}o|t Q=Qk sy |wQ =yu
xm u}= |=Q@ "OwW|tv xO=O V}=tv OwHwt |=y?UJQ@ s=tD R u=@ R QO
QDt=Q=B =@ Q=m u}= " 29$2 pmW OO o Q lJwm =yQDm =Q=m O O}=@ OvwW
xR= v= xO=O u=Wv =yQwLt |wQ =yu
s=tD
"CU= Q}PBu=mt= cex.axis
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
<

<

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels, cex.axis=0.5)

1.2
0.4
y
0.4
1.2
day 1 day 4 day 7 day 10 day 13 day 16 day 19
QwLt |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %282 pmW

2.0
1.2
0.4
y
0.4
1.2
day 1 day 3 day 5 day 7 day 9 day 11 day 13 day 15 day 17 day 19
lJwm xR= v= O =@ QwLt |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %292 pmW


xm CU= xOW xO =iDU= box() s v = x@ |a@=D R= p t =F u}= QO " O}vm xHwD labels at w C=Q wDUO R= |Qo}O p=Ft x@
" 30$2 pmW Ovm|t sUQ Cw =iDt p=mW= x@ |QO m = pmW uwt=Q}B
> plot(1:7, abs(rnorm(7)), type = 'h', axes = FALSE)

> axis(1, at = 1:7, labels = letters1:7])
> box(lty = 'dotdash') abs(rnorm(7))
a b c d e f g
1:7
Q
h L CQ Y w x@ QwLt |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %302 pmW
"Ovm|t XNWt =Q l}D Ctqa xR=Ov= QDt=Q=B u}= "CU= tck Owtv xO=iDU= u
R= u=wD|t xm |Qo}O O}it QDt=Q=B
" 31$2 pmW Ovm|t sUQ =Q Q=O wtv xm@W \N `k=w QO xm CU= tck=1 O
u
| L Cr=L
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
<

<

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels, cex.axis=0.5)

> axis(side=1, at=c(5,10,15,20,25), labels=rep("",5), tck=1, lty=2)
wO Qy O}y=wN@ Qo = wtv
"O =iDU=
xO log="y" = log="x" } R= u= D w |t y = x |tD =o
} w }Q r | yQ= wLt sUQ Q
|= @
"O}vm xO=iD log="xy"

U= w
R= O W |tD} Q=or QwLt
Q=Owtv lJwm |=yl}D V}=tv
7 lJwm w 6nQR@ VN@ wO x@ =y|Ov@xHQO u}= "OQ}o|t CQwY |}=y|Ov@xHQO =yQwLt |wQ '=yQ=Owtv s}UQD QO
=t= "OvOQo|t O=H}= OwNx@ OwN R

'nQ @ | y| = Ov@xHQO Z i Q V}B w x pmW s}UQD =@ "OvwW|t s}UkD
CQ Y @ '
'Q=O wtv QO lJwm =

| y| Ov@xHQO GQO |= @ " v Q O Q}o|tv w
CQ Y Z i Q V}B w x lJwm
CQ Y @ | y| = Ov@xHQO
u wvm = "OQ=O splines survival w | y = xDU@ x@ R=}v R}v xOW xDio xDU@ =t= "O wtv xO=iDU= Hmisc xDU @ R= O}=@
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@
library(survival)
library(splines)
library(Hmisc)
plot(0:10,seq(0,20,2),xlab="m.tick of x",ylab="m.tick of y")
minor.tick(nx=2, ny=5)
O |t CUOx@
" }
32$2 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
xO}rwS |=yQ=Owtv 4422
=
| yxO=O ?@U x@ =t= "Ov=xOW pYw Qo}Om} x@ \N =@ Q=Owtv \=kv 'xOW s}UQD Vvm =QB |=yQ=Owtv R= |=xQ B QO =
xm Owtv xO =iDU= | OviQD w |t
R= u= D R = O O |@r=H
u @ R QO " vQ= v CQ Y w xm 'Ov}
|t QO syQ@ syQO CQ Y @w x =yv
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = Q ìQ

"OO o |Q=O wtv |oO}rwS u}=
> x { c(1,2,1,1.5,4,5,1.5,4,4.5,3)
<
> y { c(1,3,5,1,3,6,3.5,1,5,5)
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y,type="l", main="messy graph")
> sequence { order(x)
<
> plot(xsequence],ysequence],type="l",main="order graph")

CtU Q=O wtv =t= 'CU= xO}rwS Q=Owtv 'AJ CtU Q=Owtv "O}
|t CUOx@ 33$2 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
O = |t xOW ?DQt
" W @ Q=O wtv 'CU=Q
|Oa)@ xU |=yQ=Owtv 5422
R
|Q= i=s v | y Q = xDU@ =@ sy w CU= Q}PBu=mt=R OwN =@ sy Q=m u}= "CW=O R}v |Oa@ xU Q=Owtv u=wD|t R u=@ R QO
Q} R KQW x@ Owtv xO=iDU= u= Dw |t X wYN u}= QO =yv
R= xm |a@=wD wtv s}UQD
"O | Oa)@ xU Q=Owtv w |t
u= D u
"CU=
= w
u t oQ
wO " CU= u=twoQ
xU |=Q=O pk=OL w OyO|t s=Hv= =Q |HQ=N ?Q Ovv=t |rta `@=D u}= outer()
u=Wv =Q x,y =
| yQ=O @ <= H=Q R u}@ C@Uv xm CU= |a@=D swU Q OvDUy
Q=O @ " x,y = Q
| yQ=O @ swO w pw=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ "OyO|t
6. major tick 7. minor tick
1.2
0.4
y
0.4
1.2
day 1 day 3 day 5 day 7 day 9 day 11 day 13 day 15 day 17 day 19
xm@W \ w]N V}=tv %312 pmW

20
15
m.tick of y
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
m.tick of x
Q=O wtv lJwm | y = l}D V}=tv %322 pmW

messy graph order graph
6
5
5
y[sequence]
4
4
y
3
2
2
1
1
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
x x[sequence]
O
x W ?DQt w x O}rwS =
| yQ=O wtv V}=tv %332 pmW
> x { 1:3
<
> y { 1:3
<
> z { outer(x,y, FUN="-")

<
> z
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 0 -1 -2
2,] 1 0 -1
3,] 2 1 0
> x { c("A", "B", "C", "D")

<
> y { 1:9
<
> z { outer(x, y, paste, sep = "")

<
> z
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4] ,5] ,6] ,7] ,8] ,9]

1,] "A1" "A2" "A3" "A4" "A5" "A6" "A7" "A8" "A9"
2,] "B1" "B2" "B3" "B4" "B5" "B6" "B7" "B8" "B9"
3,] "C1" "C2" "C3" "C4" "C5" "C6" "C7" "C8" "C9"
4,] "D1" "D2" "D3" "D4" "D5" "D6" "D7" "D8" "D9"
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "O wtv s}UQD =Q x} wQ =} Oa)@ xU

w | |=tv l} w |t `@=D u}= =@
u= D persp()
> x { seq(-4,4,l=50)
<
> y {x <
> myf { function(x,y)f

<
+ sin(x)+cos(y)
+g
> z { outer(x,y, FUN = myf)
<
> persp(x,y,z, theta=45, phi=45, shade = 0.45)

w |t pY=L
"O W 34$2 pmW q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
z
| Oa)@ xU pmW l} V}=tv %342 pmW
w Q xm CU=
p t i Oa@
| wO p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D Q=O wtv s}UQD p=Ft wtv x_Lqt
"O w |t xm
u= D | Qo}O ?r=H p=Ft
"CU= xOt
Q=O wtv p}P QO R}v u
mu1 { 0 # setting the expected value of x1

<
mu2 { 0 # setting the expected value of x2

<
s11 { 10 # setting the variance of x1

<
s12 { 15 # setting the covariance between x1 and x2

<
s22 { 10 # setting the variance of x2

<
rho { 0.5 # setting the correlation coe cient between x1 and x2

<
x1 { seq(-10,10,length=41) # generating the vector series x1

<
x2 { x1 # copying x1 to x2
<
f { function(x1,x2)f
<
term1 { 1/(2 pi sqrt(s11 s22 (1-rho^2)))

<
term2 { -1/(2 (1-rho^2))

<
term3 { (x1-mu1)^2/s11
<
term4 - (x2-mu2)^2/s22
<
term5 { -2 rho ((x1-mu1) (x2-mu2))/(sqrt(s11) sqrt(s22))

<
term1 exp(term2 (term3+term4-term5)) g # setting up the

# function of the multivariate normal density
z { outer(x1,x2,f) # calculating the density values

<
persp(x1, x2, z,
main="Two dimensional Normal Distribution",
sub=expression(italic(f)~(bold(x))==frac(1,2~pi~sqrt(sigma11]~
sigma22]~(1-rho^2)))~phantom(0)~exp~bgroup("",
list(-frac(1,2(1-rho^2)),
bgroup("", frac((x1]~-~mu1])^2,
sigma11])~-~2~rho~frac(x1]~-~mu1],
sqrt(sigma11]))~ frac(x2]~-~mu2],sqrt(sigma22]))~+~
frac((x2]~-~mu2])^2, sigma22]),"]")),"")),
col="lightgreen",
theta=30, phi=20,
r=50,
d=0.1,
expand=0.5,
ltheta=90, lphi=180,
shade=0.75,
ticktype="detailed",
nticks=5) # produces the 3-D plot
# adding a text line to the graph
mtext(expression(list(mu1]==0,mu2]==0,sigma11]==10,
sigma22]==10,sigma12]==15,rho==0.5)), side=3)
s}UQD |= @Q scatterplot3d = x@
s v xDU@ l} xD@r= "O}
|t CUOx@
|= 35$2 Q=O wtv w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
Oy=wN x=Q= sQ =yJ pYi QO u
R= |}=yp=Ft "CU= | QDW}@ = =mt=
C v |=Q=O xm w
OQ=O O Hw | Oa@ xU =
| yQ=O wtv
O
" W
=yQ=Owtv uOwtv xQ}NP 522
` wvDt | y = CtQi =@ w Q_v w pLt

OQ t QO p}=i l} w x
CQ Y @ =Q x W O s}UQD =
| yQ=O wtv u= Dw |t R =
u @ R QO
w pdf eps ps ti jpeg png bmp wmf

' ' ' ' ' ' ' w |t uwo =vwo
R= u= D = CtQi u}@
| y R= "O wtv xQ}NP |m}i=Qo
Q
"O @ s v = :::
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ OyO s=Hv= =Q x Q}NP pta Ov=wD|t xm |a@=D |rm CQ Y w
savePlot(le="lename",type="formatname",device=dev.cur())
Two dimensional Normal Distribution

1 02 011 1022 1012 15 0.5
0.015
0.010
z
0.005
10
5
0.000
10 0
5 x2
0 5
x1 5
10 10
1 1 x1 12 x1 1 x2 2 x2 22
fx exp 2
2 11221 2 21 2 11 11 22 22

xQ}eDt = Q `} RwD
wO p t v Q=Owtv V}=tv %352 pmW
Q
"O m x Q}NP w
j i Q wDUO Q
|= H= @ =Q= |vwo =vwo |=yCtQi u= Dw |t type = w =
u t oQ
@ O W w |t xOy=Wt xm Qw]u=ty
w
O N x@ w
'=Q O W x Q}NP =
u
| yQ=O wtv =} wtv CU= Q=Qk xm
Q=O |=x QHvB xQ =tW xm CU= |v=twoQ
device = w
u t oQ
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OyO|t X =YDN=
> plot(1:10, seq(0,20,l=10))

> savePlot(le="Rplot", type="pdf")
"OO o Q |t xQ}NP Rplot.pdf = x@
s v plot QwDUO R= |W=v wtv
Q=O w
j i | y )= O
m |= H= Q =@
swU pYi
p =tD L= w Q t =
=yu
Q@ xw qa "CU= = = O
|Q t
|R Up t w yxO=O = p}rLD =
'|Q t
C U =@ =Lt Q `@=D
|= @ =
|O } R O= OaD pt=W R =
u @R
O Oy=wN EL@ =yu
" W R= |Ow OLt O= OaD |wQ =Hv}= QO w

"OQ=O O Hw y = package QO `@=D |=x_Lqt p@=k O=OaD
|Q=t x}=B `@=wD 13
O=} R |Q@ Q=m =@ `@=wD 113
O = |t
" W @ Q Q=
u=w= i O @ m |=Q=O Q} R CUQyi "CU= O=} R Q=}U@ R =
u @ R QO `@=wD CUQyi
" yOO |t =Q sum(x)

xQY a ` =v wtHt %
O
" yO |t =Q x Q =v |atH `t %cumsum(x)
Y a D H
O
" yO |t =Qx Q =v Q p = %prod(x)
Y a ? Y L
O |
" yO x Q =v QF O %max(x)
t =Q Y a m= L
O |
" yO x Q =v p O %min(x)
t =Q Y a k= L
92
93 p =tDL= w Q t= 3 pYi
O
" yO which.max(x)
|t =Q x QYv a u} QDoQR@ T}Ov= %
O | x QYv u QDm w T O %which.min(x)

" yO t =Q a } J m } v=
C c(min(x), max(x)) =a ` = u %range(x)

" U= pO t @ D }=
O | x Q =v Oa %length(x) " yO t =Q Y a O= D
O | x Q =v u}o =} %mean(x) " yO t =Q Y a v t
O | x Q =v x =} %median(x) " yO t =Q Y a v t
O | x Q =v T = %var(x) " yO t =Q Y a v } Q=w
O | x Q =v =}a QL %sd(x) " yO t =Q Y a Q t h= v=
O
" W @ = T Q = l x Q Ov | x@ =L
} D t |oDU@t T Q = %cor(x)
} o= ' m t U t =Q y } D t
O | C O y x u} |] |oDU@t ? Q %cor(x,y)
" yO t U @ w @ =Q N y }
C | " x Q | wm w
U= wO %chisq.test(x)
N VwQ @ VR= @ } v u tR
"C h Q}tU= Q wtr v x Q | wm w

U=hw o %ks.test(x) m VwQ @ VR= @ } v u tR
C x wt = l Q C wD t w
" U= %t.test(x)
v v wO } } |= @ vO U= u tR
C y x T= QQ w %var.test(x,y)
" U= w v } Q=w | @= @ u tR
xDU@ R = O
u @ R QO "OQ= v O Hw w 3 |oO}Wm ?} Q w
2 |orwJ ?} Q Ovv=t |}=yXN=W x@U=Lt R 1xDU y QO
R= xm u}= Q CU=
|= @ " e1071 xDU @ u}= s=v "OR U = |rta =Q x W O xDio C =mv CU= QO k = xm w
OQ=O O Hw |Q= i=s v R Q
" O}vR@ =Q Enter O}r m w xO wtv A}=D =Q Q} R QwDUO xm CU= |i=m O} wW x=o
u
`@=wD CUQyi w C =YNWt
> library(help=e1071)
O = |t
" W @ skewness kurtosis | =@i
w } r= hw L Q ?}DQD x@ Q_v OQ t w `@=D wO xDU@ u}= QO Q=L `@=wD u}@ R=
w |t xDN=OQB |oO}Wm ?} Q
"O W w |orwJ ?} Q x@U=Lt x@ uwvm =
> library(class)
> library(e1071)
> x { trees$Height
<
> skewness(x)
1] -0.3568773
> kurtosis(x) 1] -0.7233677
R}v xO =iDU= w O = Q=L R}v
OQ t xO=O " W @ class xDU @ O}=@ e1071 xDU @ R= xO =iDU= |= @ Q xm CU= K}wD x@ sRq
" CU= OwH w R w

t O N QO xm CU= trees xO=O | y = xirw-t R= |m}
1. core 2. skewness coecient 3. kurtosis coecient
|iO=YD O=Oa= w |r=tDL= |=y`} RwD 2 1 3
Q} R w
CQ Y x@ xm 'CU= Cw =iDt pmW Q=yJ |=Q=O `@=D Qy "CU= xOW xDW=Po R =
u @ R QO |r=tDL= `@=wD QDW}@
"OvDUy
O
" yO |t u=Wv x x]k v QO =Q `@=D Q
Z a ' dfunc(x, ) QwDUO
O
" yO |t u=Wv x x]k v =D =Q |atHD p=tDL= Q=Okt ' pfunc(x, ) Q wDUO
O
" yO |t u=Wv 0<p<1 |=R= x@ =Q `@=D l OvJ Q=Okt qfunc(p, ) Q wDUO
"Ovm|t |R U = x}@W =Q `@=D R= |iO=YD xvwtv rfunc(x, )

' Q wDUO
w CU= Z i Q V}B CQ Y w x@ =yQDt=Q=B xm 'OyO|t u=Wv =Q |r=tDL= `@=wD R= | U Q l} CUQyi 1$3 pw H QO O

O =tv |WQ=iU
" } OQ t w ?UL =Q =yu
Ov=wD|t Q@ Q=m
"O}vm xHwD CU= p=tQv p=tDL= `@=D |=Q=O xm |iO=YD OOa w
OQ t QO Q} R p=Ft x@
> rnorm(1)
1] 1.358007
xm Q |t O=H}= |iO=YD
'OO o O
O= a= R= | } H | U OO Q l} O}vm|t =QH= =Q |iO=YD O
O= a= Q_v w `@=D xm Q=@ Qy
OQ t
'O}vm xO =iDU= |iO=YD O=Oa= `@=D Q

|= H= R= p@k set.seed() QwDUO R= Qo = uwvm = "CU= Cw =iDt u}W}B | U @ Q =
x= wNrO K}LY OOa l} Q}N= `@=D u=twoQ
w O
"O @ x W O}rwD ,q@k xm Ci=} O}y=wN =Q | U u Q =ty =QH= Qy QO x =ov
" CU=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ `} RwD l} FX (x) = Pr(X x) |atH D p =tDL= uOQw
CUO@ Q
|= @
> pnorm(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
1 ; FX (x) = Pr(X > x) =tD | =
"OQw
CUO@ R}v =Q p L= i = u =mt= l} =@ w |t uwvm =
u= D
> pnorm(1.96, lower.tail=F)

1] 0.02499790
Q =k}O Q qF Q} | Q
t |= @ , t "O=iD wo = w P-value = | QL
t Q= k xO U= OQ t |Q t
u tR
QO } w v= @ Q}O=kt uOQw
CUO@ |= @ Q
C Q w x 5 Q = Q ` " U= } R CQ Y @ ( |= @ p t v }R D w xiQ] w
wO u tR
|v=QL@
> qnorm(0.025)
1] -1.959964
> qnorm(0.975)
1] 1.959964
= CU= Q@=Q@
% @ df=1 = 2 = 3:84
@ w
u tR
|= @ Q P-value Q= Okt
> 1-pchisq(3.84, 1)
1] 0.05004352
"O}vm ?=UL f(4,43) ` = @ D QO =Q 3.6 O
O a P-value Q= Okt "O}vm xHwD Qo}O p=Ft l} x@
95 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
u `@=wD = = ` w
w |Q t | y } R D %13 pw H O
`} RwD O)m =yQDt=Q=B package

Z i Q V}B
beta beta shape1, shape2 -, - stat
binomial binom size, prob -, - stat
Cauchy chauchy location, scale 0, 1 stat

2 chisq df, ncp -, 0 stat
Dirichlet dirichlet alpha - MCMCpack
exponential exp rate 1 stat
F f df1, df2, ncp -, -, - stat
gamma gamma shape, rate, scale -, 1, 1/rate stat
geometric geom prob - stat
Generalized Extreme Value gev xi,mu,sigma -, -, - evir
Generalized Pareto gpd xi,mu,beta -, -, - evir,POT
hypergeometric hyper m, n, k -, -, - stat
Inverse Gamma invgamma shape,rate -, - MCMCpack
Inverse Wishart iwish v, S -, - MCMCpack
logistic logis location, scale 0, 1 stat
lognormal lnorm meanlog, sdlog 0, 1 stat
Multinomial multinom size, prob -, - stat
lognormal lnorm meanlog, sdlog 0, 1 stat
Multivariate Normal mvnorm mean,sigma -, - mvtnorm
Multivariate-t mvt sigma,df -, - mvtnorm
negative binomial nbinom size, prob, mu -, -, - stat
nomal norm mean, sd 0,1 stat
Poisson pois lambda - stat
'Student' (t) t df, ncp -, 0 stat
Weibull weibull shape, scale -, 1 stat
uniform unif min, max 0,1 stat
Wilcoxon wilcoxon m, n -, - stat
Wishart wish v, S -, - MCMCpack
C R = w |r" xDU = x = w_v (
U= u @R O N Y= y } w } B Q t
> 1-pf(3.6,4,43)
1] 0.01284459
OO o Q |t OQ %5 w
uO @ Q=O |vat K]U Q =
|= @ t= " CU= u
R= QDoQR@ =Q} R OwW|tv OQ %1 w
uO @ Q=O |vat K]U Q
|= @
w Q
"O W ? wO QO O}=@ P-value w xiQ]
O @ w
wO u tR
Qo = xm OwWv w Q CU=
V t= i " u
R= QDmJwm uwJ
> 1-pt(2.8,21)
1] 0.005364828
> 2 (1-pt(2.8,21))
1] 0.01072966
"O}vm x@U=Lt =Q u
| yl = OvJ O}v=wD|t O}W=@ xDW=O w
=Q uO @ Q=O |vat K]U Qo = uwvm =
> alpha - c(0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.001)

<
> qnorm(1-alpha/2)
1] 1.644854 1.959964 2.575829 3.290527
s=QowDU}y 1213
%CU= Q} R KQW x@ u
|rm w
CQ Y xm "CU= |iwQat Q=O wtv Q wDU}y p=tDL=
's= o =
w Q t
QO
hist(x,breaks="Sturges",prob=FALSE)
|@U=vt=v pmW Ov=wD|t sm |r}N =} O=} R |r}N =yxDUO O=OaD "OyO|t u=Wv =Q y = xDUO O=OaD breaks u=twoQ
" CU= Q} R pmW x@ u

x]@=Q xm Ovm|t xO=iDU= Sturges pwtQi R= R u=@ R ZQi V}B CQwY QO "Ovm O=H}= =Q
dlog2 (n) + 1e
Freedman-Diaconis (FD) w Q pFt 'Ovm|t u}at

p t i =Q xDUO | =vyB xm OQ=O O Hw w R}v | Qo}O =
| yVwQ
" CU= Q} R pmW x@ u

x]@=Q "OQ=O Q= k Q iqr |mQ=J u}@ xOw OLt T U= = Q@ xm
2 iqr n; 3
1
"CU= xOW O=yvW}B Scott \ U D ww CU= Q} R pwtQi u

| =v@t xm OQ=O O Hw w R}v | Qo}O pwtQi
3:5 s n; 3
1
"CU= Q=}at h= QLv= s u

QO xm
"O}vm xO =iDU= nclass=num. of class = w
u t oQ
R= O}v=wD|t OW=@ =tW Q=}DN= q =
QO , t m p QDvm O}y=wN@ Qo =
"Ovm|t O=H}= xDUO 20 Q_ w
v OQ t s= o Q wDU}y nclass=20 =F
|= @Q p t u= wvax@
x w x pmW
|= v o @ w OO o Q |t Qy=_ |r=oJ `k=w QO w O W w |t p=aiQ}e |v=w=Qi prob=T = freq=F } w QwDUO QO
w
"O W OL=w Q@=Q@ s=QowDU}y QO =yCL=Ut `wtHt xm Q |t s}_vD
OO o
|v=w=Qi |arOvJ xm Owtv sUQ u= Dw |t =Q | Qo}O |Q=O wtv s=QowDU}y wtv =@ x=Qty
Q=O %|v=w=Qi |arOvJ
97 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
Q} R p=Ft x@ xOW xDio Q=O wtv s}UQD Q CU=

|= @ " Q=OQ N @ w Q |i}YwD Q=t
QO |}=RUx@ C QyW R= w O W w |t xO}t=v
"O}vm xHwD
> tmp { hist(trees$Volume)

<
> lines(c(min(tmp$breaks),tmp$mids,max(tmp$breaks)),c(0,tmp$counts,0),
+ lty=5,lwd=1.75)
> legend("topright",c("Histogram","Freq. polygon"),lty=c(NA,5),lwd=c(NA,1.75),
+ pch=c(22,NA),inset = 0.05)
lines() ` = @ D QO TBU "O Q}o|t Q=Qk tmp = x | s v @ W QO s= o Q wDU}y C =YNWt s=tD =OD@= w
j i | y )
m QO = O
u}twO "OyO|t u=Wv =Q =yxDUO xm C breaks = w
U= u t oQ
u}rw= w |t
"O W xO =iDU= s=QowDU}y =
| yu t oQ
R== w
O=OaD xm CU= counts = w
u t oQ
u}twU "OyO|t u =Wv =Q =yxDUO \Uw \ =kv Q xm CU=
Q=O @ mids = w
u t oQ
O
" yO |t u=Wv xDUO Qy |v=w=Qi
"OO oQ |t pY=L 1$3 pmW w
j i | y )
m |= H== O Q =@
Histogram of trees$Volume
10
Histogram
Freq. polygon
8
6
Frequency
4
2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
trees$Volume
|v=w=Qi |arOvJ w s= oQ wDU}y =

CqB Tm =@ 2213
OyO|t u=Wv =Q xv=}t pwL =yxO=O `} RwD |@ wNx@ Q=Owtv u}= "CU= boxplot Q=t
QO QwyWt |=yQ=Owtv R= |m}
pmW x@ ,=OD@= Q=O wtv u}= QY=va K}wD Q O
|= @ " yO |t CUOx@ Q
=Q C B | yxO=O w = xrwJ | yxO=O = u}vJty w
|O wta \N wO R= uwQ}@ xm |]=kv "CU= swU lQ=J w pw= lQ=J ?}DQD x@ Q3 Q1 w u

QO xm "O}vm xHwD 2$3
= w
u t oQ
|=Q=O boxplot() O}v | m t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty "OvQwyWt 4 CQB \ =kv x@ OvQ=O Q=Qk Tm =@ u}iQ] QO
Cr=L R= C qB Tm =@ pmW w CU= FALSE CUQO=v Z i Q V}B Cr=L QO xm CU= horizontal |k]v t
4. outliers
Min Q1 Q3 Max
lower whisker upper whisker

median
boxplot hrDN t | y = CtUk V}=tv %23 pmW
O |t
" }
QO |O wta Cr=L x@ |ki=
R = R
| yxO=O < H xm trees = u}= s=Hv=
xO=O R= Q m Q O =
|= @ " W @ xO=O xw o Q OvJ |=Q=O xm O}vm xHwD |r=Ft x@ uwvm =
" CU= 3$3 pmW pY=L Q |t
"OO o =iDU= CU=
xO
> boxplot(trees)
w
O Hw plot |k]v = w
t u t oQ
|m}i=Qo `@=D QO "OQw
CUOx@ =Q boxplot O
|O a C =YNWt u= Dw |t xvwoJ =t=
|O a O Q}O=kt x=ov
'OwW CUQO=v u=twoQ
u}= Q=Okt Qo = "CU= TRUE CUQO u
ZQiV}B Q=Okt xm OQ=O
w |t Qy=_
"O W
> boxplot(trees, plot=FALSE)

%CU= Q} R Q}O=kt pY=L
$stats
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 8.30 63 10.2
2,] 11.05 72 19.4
3,] 12.90 76 24.2
4,] 15.25 80 37.3
5,] 20.60 87 58.3
99 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
80
60
40
20
Girth Height Volume
trees =
| yxO=O boxplot V =t } v %33 pmW
$n
1] 31 31 31
$conf
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 11.70814 73.72979 19.1204
2,] 14.09186 78.27021 29.2796
$out
1] 77
$group
1] 3
$names
1] "Girth" "Height" "Volume"
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ = xirw-t xm OvDUy CU}r l}

u
| y w x
CQ Y @ j i w Q}O=kt OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
w = x =}
w s U lQ J ' v t 'pw= lQ J ' = u}}=B whisker pt=W xm Q Qy QYva GvB xm CU= |U} QD=t
xw o % stats
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q CU= q=@ whisker
" Ovm|t u}at =Q xw o n
Q Qy QY=va O= OaD xm CU= |Q=O @Q %
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q xw o Q Q notch = u} = Q =k x C |U Q = %conf
y q @ w } B }O t m U= } D t
"OvDUy Q
C B | yxO=O = `k=w QO x O | =W = whisker
m yO t u = Q =k %out
v =Q y R= GQ N }O t
O | =W" yO l = Q Oa %group
t u v =Q xO=O } | yxw o O= D
O | =W =
" yO t ul Q Q = %names
v =Q yxO=O } xw o y s v
table() `@=D 3213
u= wva CLD |=xO=O xawtHt R QO p=Ft |=Q@ "Owtv xO=iDU= table() `@=D R= u=wD|t =yxO=O uOwtv xYqN |=Q@
xO =iDU= u
R= pw= pYi QO R}v ,q@k w |t pt=W
"O W =Q wQO N w 32 R= C}YwYN 11 x w
m OQ=O O Hw mtcars
Q |t p=ta=
"OO o Q Ovr}U cyl |va w
} j i |xO=O xawtHt swO C}YwYN |= @ Q Q} R | y )= O
m u wvm = "CU= xOW
> data(mtcars)
> attach(mtcars)
> table(cyl)
% CU= Q} R Q}O=kt pY=L
cyl
4 6 8
11 7 14
"OQ=O O Hw Qw Ovr}U 8 wQO Nw 14 w Q Ovr}U 6 wQO N w 7 'Q Ovr}U 4 wQO Nw 11 x m O W w |t x_Lqt u}=Q@=v@
"Owtv x=Q= R}v |@Uv |v=w=Qi w x
CQ Y @ =Q xYqN u= D w |t uwvm =
> table(cyl)/length(cyl)
cyl
4 6 8
0.34375 0.21875 0.43750
"CU= x=Q= p@=k barplot() u=wva CLD |a@=D \UwD Q=m u}= "Owtv s}UQD R}v Q=Owtv CQwYx@ u=wD|t =Q xYqN
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q xYqN s}UQD ?? pm W " CU= xOW O=H}= table() ` = @ D \UwD xm CU= |W `@=D u=twoQ
101 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
4 6 8
table Q=Owtv V}=tv %43 pmW
pw HO l} |W=wL `@=D u}rw= xm "OQ=O R}v prop.table() margin.table() Q}_

w v |D=kDWt table() ` = @ D
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = = |t XNWt

"OR U O
pw H |@Uv |v=w=Qi |twO w Ovm|t u}at =Q
> m { matrix(1:6,2)
<
> m
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
Q |t p=ta=
"OO o m |wQ margin.table() ` = wvm =
@ D u
> margin.table(m,1)
1] 9 12
> margin.table(m,2)
1] 3 7 11
Qw_vt = w
swO u t oQ
Qo = "CU= O
pw H u wDU xOv}=tv OW=@ 2Q o= w Q]U xOv}=tv OW=@ 1Q o= Q}N= `@=D swO u t oQ
= w
O
" yO |t CUOx@ O
=Q pw H QY=va pm `wtHt '`@=D 'OwWv
Q |t p=ta=
"OO o m |wQ prop.table() ` = @ D u wvm =
> prop.table(m,1)
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 0.1111111 0.3333333 0.5555556
2,] 0.1666667 0.3333333 0.5000000
xm Qw]u=ty "CU= xOW s}UkD 12 O Q@

O a u
swO Q]U QY=va w 9 O Q@
O a O
pw H pw= Q]U QY=va |va}
" CU= OL=w Q@=Q@ Q}N= pw H O Q]U Qy QY=va `wtHt OwW|t x_Lqt
> sum(prop.table(m,1)1,])

1] 1
"O}vm xHwD O
pw H swO Oa)@ x@ uwvm =
> prop.table(m,2)
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 0.3333333 0.4285714 0.4545455
2,] 0.6666667 0.5714286 0.5454545
11 O Q@ swU vwDU QY=va

O a w 11 O Q@
O a u
swO u wDU QY=va ' 3 O Q@
O a O
pw H pw= u wDU QY=va |va}
" CU= OL=w Q@=Q@ Q}N= O
pw H u wDU Qy QY=va `wtHt OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty "CU= xOW s}UkD
> sum(prop.table(m,2),1])

1] 1
QDt=Q=B =@ uwU=wB `} RwD R= |iO=YD xO=O 1500 u
QO xm Q Q_v Ot
'O=O Q= k =Q Q} R p=Ft u= D w |t table() `@=D Q
|= @
"O Ww |t xYqN TBU w OO o Q |t O=H}= 1.5

> set.seed(10)
> y { rpois(1500,1.5)
<
> table(y)
y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
336 522 350 193 59 26 11 2 1
O = |t
" W @ : : : 522 =
w y l} O= OaD ' 336 = yQiY O=OaD u
QO xm
`@=D R= Q m= u}= Q
|= @ "O wtv p}O@D Q}eDt wO =@ w
Q=O? JQ J xO=O = l} x@ =Q Q}N= O
pw H u= D w |t |oO=U x@ uwvm =
103 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
w |t
"O W =iDU=
xO as.data.frame()
> as.data.frame(table(y))
%CU= Q} R Q}O=kt pY=L
y Freq
1 0 336
2 1 522
3 2 350
4 3 193
5 4 59
6 5 26
7 6 11
8 7 2
9 8 1
w |t xDN=OQB p=tDL= `@=D OvJ x@ uwvm =

"O W
p=tQv p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D 4213
w |t u=}@ Q} R
%O W w x
CQ Y @ p t v p = Q =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D
f (x ) = p1 e;
x; ( )2
2 2
2
" O}vm xHwD Q} R pmW x@ u
|atHD `@=D =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D V}=tv
w p |= @Q
X { seq(-4,4,0.1)
<
par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(X,dnorm(X),type='l',xlab="x", ylab="f(x)", main="PDF's Normal")
plot(X,pnorm(X),type='l',xlab="x", ylab="F(x)", main="CDF's Normal")
|R U = x}@W =Q Qwm Pt `@=D 'p=tQv |iO=YD O=Oa= =@ u=wD|t uwvm = "OOQo|t pY=L 5$ 3 pmW 'q=@ |=yO)m |=QH= =@
" 6$3 pmW OQm xU}=kt | Q_v `@=D =@ =Q u
w Owtv
set.seed(5)
Y { rnorm(2000) # 2000 from Normal(mu = 0, sigma=1)
<
O w |t
" v W h LP 4 R= QDoQR@ w -4 R= QDmJwm O
O= a= Q} R QwDUO QO
YY -4 | Y 4] { NA
< > <
x { seq(-4, 4, .1)
<
wtv sUQ pmW l}

"O QO =Q |r=oJ `@=D w s= oQ wDU}y u=wD@ =D OwW|t p=aiQ}e |v=w=Qi Q} R QwDUO QO
PDFs Normal CDFs Normal
0.4
1.0
0.8
0.3
0.6
F(x)
0.2
f(x)
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 2 4
x x
= Q |atHD
p t v w p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D =
hist(Y, breaks="FD", xlim=c(-4,4), freq=FALSE, main="")

title("Histogram of Normal distribution")
lines(x, dnorm(x), lwd=2)
qqplot() w qqline() 'qqnorm() |m}i=Qo `@=wD 5213
\N l} x=ov
'OvW=@ p=tQv =yxO=O Qo = "O=O u =Wvqqnorm() ` = @ D =@ =Q xO=O | U Q l} w = Q
uO @ p t v u= D w |t
7$3 pmW xU}=kt |= @Q xm OwW|t pY=L qqline() ` = C @ D R= U=Q \N s}UQD "OvyO|t V}=tv =Q CU=Q
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OwQ |t Q=mx@
x { runif(200)
<
y { rnorm(200)
<
par(mfrow=c(2,1))
qqnorm(x,main="")
title("Q-Q for uniform Dis.")
qqline(x, col="red")
qqnorm(y, main="")
title("Q-Q for normal Dis.")
qqline(y, col="red")
Q O O
|= @ # v=x W `} RwD l} Q
R= | U wO u}= =}
xm Owtv KQ]t =Q p= U w u}= u= D w |t 'O}W=@ xDW=O Q
xO=O | U wO Qo =
\N l} p}mWD \ =kv Qo = Q=O wtv sUQ =@ "OQ=O O Hw w qqplot() CQ Y w x@ |a@=D R = = u}= s=Hv=
u @ R QO Q m
xO=iDU= CU=Q \N l} R= u= Dw |t R}v xU}=kt |= @ " Q CU= pw@k p@=k lQDWt `} RwD ZQi x=ov
'OvyO@ =Q CU=Q
" 8$3 pmW Q |t pY=L
OO o abline(0,1) ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ xm CU= pw= `@ Q R=Ut}v \N u}= "Owtv
105 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
Histogram of Normal distribution
0.4
0.3
Density
0.2
0.1
0.0
4 2 0 2 4
| Q_v p=tDL= `@=D Q wDU}y

w s= o =
QQ for uniform Dis.

Sample Quantiles
0.8
0.4
0.0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Theoretical Quantiles
QQ for normal Dis.

Sample Quantiles
2
1
1 0
3
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Theoretical Quantiles
= Q
p t v w CN=wvm} p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D = Q
wO p t v | yl = OvJ =
x { rnorm(500)
<
y { rnorm(500)
<
qqplot(x,y)
abline(0,1, col="blue", lwd=2)
3
2
1
y
0
1
2
3
2 1 0 1 2
Q
xO=O | U wO | yl = OvJ Q=O wtv V}=tv %83 pmW
ecdf() `@=D 6213
ecdf() x w
m OQ=O O Hw |a@=D =t= "OQm s}UQD w x@U=Lt =Q |atHD `} RwD `@=D u=wD|t "OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]v=ty
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO|t CUO@ =Q |@ QHD |atHD `} RwD w |t xO}t=v
w O W
> x { rnorm(10)
<
> plot(ecdf(x))
O |t CUOx@
" }
9$3 pmW 's}UQD R= TB
u=Wv | Q_v w |@ QHD Cr=L QO =Q p w@} w |atHD p=tDL= `} RwD xm O}vm xHwD 10$3 Q=O wtv w =yO)m x@ uwvm =
O
" yO |t
> x { seq(0,2,0.1)
<
> plot(x, pweibull(x,scale=1,shape=2),type="l", main="ECDF and Weibull CDF")

> x.teo { rweibull(n=200,shape=2, scale=1)
<
> plot(ecdf(x.teo), add=TRUE)

107 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
ecdf(x)
1.0
0.8
0.6
Fn(x)
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5
= Q |@ QHD |atHD `} RwD

p t v Q=O wtv V}=tv %93 pmW
ECDF and
Weibull CDF
1.0
0.8
pweibull(x, scale = 1, shape = 2)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
pw@} w |@ QHD |atHD `} RwD Q=O wtv V}=tv %103 pmW

=t=o p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D 7213
w
"O W h} QaD =t=o `@=D xm CU= sRq = OD@= 'p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D u}= u=}@ R= p@k
Z1
;(
) = x;1 e;x dx
> 0
0
"O wtv u=}@ Q} R w
CQ Y x@ =Q =t=o p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D w |t TBU
u= D
8
>
< ;(1 ) x;1e; x x
0
f (x) = >
:0 x<0
=1 Q=Okt Qo = w |t xO}t=v scale T=}kt QDt=Q=B

"O W shape pm
w W QDt=Q=B
QD =
t=Q B wO |=Q=O `@=D u}=
"O W w |t p}O@D |}=tv `} RwD x@ `@=D u}= 'OW=@
"CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D u}= =
| yQw =DWo
X =

X2 =
2
O |t CUO@ Q} R \@=wQ
" }
w
j i CqO =at pL R=
= X
2
X 2

= X
X
"O}vm xHwD 11$3 pmW `} RwD u}= w

OQ t QO R =
| yp t =F x@ uwvm =
x { seq(0,10, length=100)
<
par(mfrow=c(2,2))
plot(x,dgamma(x,shape=1,scale=1), type='l',xlab="x",
ylab="Prob", main="Shape 1")
" 12$3 pmW O}vm xHwD scale QD =
t=Q B p t =F x@ uwvm =
x { seq(0,30,length=100)
<
plot(x,dgamma(x,shape=2,scale=1), type='l', xlab="x",

109 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
Shape 1 Shape 2
1.0
0.3
0.8
0.6
0.2
Prob
Prob
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x x
Shape 5 Shape 10
0.20
0.12
0.15
0.08
0.10
Prob
Prob
0.04
0.05
0.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x x
hrDNt | y = shape = @ =t=o `} RwD | yQ=O = wtv V}=tv %113 pmW
ylab="f(x)", main="Gamma pdf's")

lines(x,dgamma(x,shape=2,scale=2), lty=2)
legend(x=20,y=.35,paste("Scale=",c(1,2,4,8)), lty=1:4)
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O=O VR= @ =Q Q =t=o `} RwD 'Q_v w =
OQ t | yxO=O | U Q l} Q@ u= Dw |t
X { c(4.75, 3.4, 1.8, 2.9, 2.2, 2.4, 5.8, 2.6, 2.4, 5.25)
<
n { length(X)
<
alpha { (mean(X)/sd(X))^2
<
theta { var(X)/mean(X)
<
x { seq(0, 8, length=200)
<
plot(x, dgamma(x,shape=alpha,scale=theta), type='l', ylab="f(x)")

points(X, rep(0,n))
|xwLv xm Cw=iD u}= =@ Owtv Q=QmD = =F
=Q q @ p t u= D w |t xD@r= w |t pY=L
"O W 13$3 pmW w
j i | y )= O
m |= H= @ Q =
O =
" W @ |Q wLt | y = l}D CQ Y w x@ p@k p=Ft |@ QHD =
| yxO=O uO=O u =Wv
X { c(4.75, 3.4, 1.8, 2.9, 2.2, 2.4, 5.8, 2.6, 2.4, 5.25)
<
n { length(X)
<
alpha { (mean(X)/sd(X))^2
<
theta { var(X)/mean(X)
<
x { seq(0, 8, length=200)
<
plot(x, dgamma(x,shape=alpha,scale=theta), type='l', ylab="f(x)")

rug(X, ticksize = 0.03, side = 1, lwd = 2)
"O W w |t pY=L 14$3 pmW w
j i | y )= O
m |= H= Q =@
Gamma pdfs
Scale= 1
Scale= 2
0.3
Scale= 4
Scale= 8
0.2
f(x)
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
hrDNt | y = scale = @ =t=o `} RwD =

0.30
0.25
0.20
f(x)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
xO=O | U Q l} Q@ =t=o `@=D VR= @ Q V}=tv %133 pmW

111 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
0.30
0.25
0.20
f(x)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
l}D w
CQ Y x@ |@ QHD \ =kv xO=O | U Q l} Q@ =t=o `@=D Q V}=tv
VR= @ %143 pmW
|iO=YD |Q}oxvwtv 3 1 3
u= Dw |t =Q xU}m l} R= A D w xU uO}Wm w 100 = 1 D O

R= O= a= |iO=YD ? =NDv= Ovv=t |r=tDL= =
xO U | y @ = x QHD
"CU= Q} R |rm CQ Y w x@ sample() ` = @ D "O wtv = x}@W
|R U R u @R = \UwD
sample(x, size, replace = FALSE, prob = NULL)

'u
QO xm
O = QDm =Q=m =}
" W @ w O aO Ov=wD|t xm CU= Q_v w
OQ t Q=O @ %x Q
"OO o ? Q =NDv= O}=@ xm |O= Oa size
D %
Q
"OO o s =Hv= |Q= Po}=H =@ =} w |Q= Po}=H O
uw @ | Q}oxvwtv replace
%
O O
" y @ uRw =yxvwtv ? =NDv= x@ Ov=wD|t xm CU= |Q=}DN= Q prob
Q=O @ %
%=yp=Ft
100 = 1 D R= hO =YD x@ OOa l} ? =NDv=
> sample(1:100, 1)
1] 19
T D = l} Q=@ 10 =Q
? D B
> sample(1:6, 10, replace = T)

1] 5 4 3 5 4 6 1 5 2 4
|w =Ut=v Cq =tDL= =@ T D = l} Q=@ 10 =Q
? D B
> sample(1:6, 10, c(0.6,0.4,0.1,0.05,0.03,0.02), replace = T)

1] 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 3
|Q= Po}=H O
uw @ w hO =YD x@ xQyt 6 u wvm = w
"OQ=O O Hw OQR x Qyt 3 w |@
xQyt 4 R Q
' t k x Qyt 8 |= xU}m QO
"O}vm ? =NDv=
> urn { c(rep("red", 8), rep("blue", 4), rep("yellow", 3))

<
> sample(urn, 6, replace = F)

1] "red" "yellow" "blue" "red" "red" "red"
p=tDL= `@=D l} |=yQDt=Q=B OQwQ@ 413
|}=yVwQ R= "O wtv Q

OQw
@ =Q p =tDL= `@=D l} = QDt=Q=B
| y w |t hrDNt
u= D =
| yVwQ x@ O}v=O|t xm Qw]u=ty
"O wtv =
xQ W= =yv
x@ w
5
OQ@ s=v u=wD|t |}=tvDUQO QFm =OL VwQ w yQw = =DWo VwQ Ovv=t
|}=tvDUQO QFm =OL VwQ x@ =Q p=tDL= `@=D |=yQDt=Q=B xm OQ=O OwHw MASS u=wva CLD |=xDU@ R u=@ R QO
pw= ' CU= Q = w
|Qw u t oQ
wO |=Q=O xm CU= OwHwt tdistr() s v= x@ |a@=D xDU@ u}= QO " Ovm|t OQw
@ Q
"OQ}o Q=Qk uW}Dwm pN=O QO O}=@ xm Q_v w
OQ t p =tDL= `@=D swO w O@=} VR= @ Q |a@=D =yv
Q@ CU= Q=Qk xm |}=yxO=O
=@ uwvm = w |t O}rwD XNWt
"O W = QDt=Q=B =@ =t=o `} RwD =@ |iO=YD
| y O
O= a= | U Q l} =OD@= =Hv}= QO %p=Ft
"OO oQ |t OQw
Q@ 'CU=xDi=} VR=Q@ Qwm Pt |=yxO=O Q@ xm =t=o p=tDL= `@=D |=yQDt=Q=B ,=OOHt =t=o p=tDL= `@=D ZQi
library("MASS")
set.seed(1)
random { rgamma(500,8.5,2.5)
<
para { tdistr(random,"gamma") print(para)

<
para { unlist(para)
<
x { seq(1,10,0.1)
<
y { dgamma(x,8.5,2.5)
<
plot(x,y,type="l")
lines(x,dgamma(x,para1],para2]),lty=2)
legend(7.0,0.30,legend=c("exact", "ML"), lty=c(1,2), bg="gray90")
"O W w |t pY=L 15$3 pmW q=@ xt=vQ@ Q
|= H= =@
|Q=t |=yVwQ 513
Q |t O}m =D =yu
u} QDQwyWt
"OO o |wQ =Hv}= QO " CU= Q w =
Z i u tR
w |Q t
| yVwQ u @ = = R}t R =
u @R
t xiQ] wO w l} uwtR 1513
w |t uwtR
"O W t p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D =@ =Hv}= QO =yZQi "CU= t.test() w

u tR
` v w u}= |= @Q |rY= `@=D
t.test(x, y = NULL, alternative = c("two.sided", "less", "greater"), mu = 0,

paired = FALSE, var.equal = FALSE, conf.level = 0.95)
5. Maximum Likelihood
113 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
0.3
exact
ML
0.2
y
0.1
0.0
2 4 6 8 10
O Q
x W OQw @ | y = QDt=Q=B =@ xO=O | U Q l} Q@ =t=o `@=D VR= @ Q V}=tv %153 pmW
%u
QO xm
"CU= OwHwt =
xO U u tR
w l} x=ov
'OwWv xO=O yQ o= " OvDUy O x,y
|O a | yQ=O @ % = Q
'"two.sided" u
Z i Q V}B "OO oQ |t u @ =} =yQDm =Q=m R= |= xDWQ \UwD u} Ro}=H Q alternative
Z i %
" O}vm xO =iDU= | Q}oQ=mx@ |= @Q R}v u

pw= hw L R= Q O}v=wD|t =tW " "less" "greater"
w
O Hww xvwtv wO Qo = 'Ovm|t u=}@ =Q =yu}ov=}t h qDN= =} OyO|t u=Wv =Q u}ov=}t CUQO Q= Ok x t O mu
m |O a %
"CU= QiY Q@=Q@ Z i Q V}B " OW=@ xDW=O

"O}W=@ xDW=O |}=DwO uwtR
O}y=wN@ Qo = CU= |k]vt xv=Wv %paired
" CU= F Q V}B
u
Z i w OvQ@=Q@ sy =@ =yTv=} Q=w OW=@ T CUQO Qo = "CU= |k]vt Q}eDt % var.equal
u} Ro}=H Z iQ ?UL Q@ u}ov=}t |= xrY=i Q
OQw
@ |= @ ( 95
Q Z i Q V}B u=v}t]= K]U % conf.level
" O}vm uwtR
=Q mu=70 Qi Y Z i Q trees =
| yxO=O QO %1 p=Ft
> data(trees)
> t.test(trees$Height, mu = 70)
One Sample t-test
data: trees$Height
t = 5.2429, df = 30, p-value = 1.173e-05
alternative hypothesis: true mean is not equal to 70
95 percent condence interval:
73.6628 78.3372
sample estimates:
mean of x
76
"O Ww |t OQ QiY Q u}=Q@=v@

Z i
=yu
hQYt R= =}
xm CU= u}= p=wU uwvm = "OOQo|t xi== wQOwN CNwU x@ |vOwRi= l} O}vm ZQi %2 p=Ft
"Ovm|tv xO =iDU= u
R= Qo}O w
|wQO N VW w Ovm|t =iDU=
xO w
u
R= wQO N VW Q=m u}= Q
|= @ #O W w |t xDU=m
"CU= Q} R w x xm 'CU= xOW
CQ Y @ | Q}oxR=Ov= ur=o Q@ p}=t mpg Q}eD t
Car 1 2 3 4 5 6
mpg w/ additive 24.6 18.9 27.3 25.2 22.0 30.9
mpg w/o additive 23.8 17.7 26.6 25.1 21.6 29.6
> add { c(24.6, 18.9, 27.3, 25.2, 22.0, 30.9)
<
> noadd { c(23.8, 17.7, 26.6, 25.1, 21.6, 29.6)

<
> t.test(add, noadd, paired=T, alt = "greater")

Paired t-test
data: add and noadd
t = 3.9994, df = 5, p-value = 0.005165
alternative hypothesis: true dierence in means is greater than 0
0.3721225 Inf
sample estimates:
mean of the dierences
0.75
w
"O tR
ks.test ` = = Q
@ D @ =Q |Q=O @ |xO=O l} w |t
u= D
> x { runif(100)
<
> out { ks.test(x, "pnorm")

<
> out
One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: x
D = 0.5007, p-value 2.2e-16 <
alternative hypothesis: two-sided

"Owtv xO=iDU= k-s w w |t R}v OvW=@ xOW PN= `} RwD l}
u tR
R= u= D Q
R= |Q=O @ |xO=O wO Qo =
> x1 { rnorm(100)
<
> x2 { rnorm(100)
<
> ks.test(x1, x2)

Two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: x1 and x2
D = 0.08, p-value = 0.9062
115 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi

Q} R G}=Dv w =Q =
w O W ? D B Q @ 300 = l} xm O}vm
T D Q
Z i " O}}=tQi xHwD |N `@ Qt uwtR
R= p t =F l} x@ uwvm =
Q pY=L
"OO o
= xHw
T D 1 2 3 4 5 6
|v=w=Qi 43 49 56 45 66 41
= u}=
R= Q m Q CU= 16
|= @ # = xHw Qy uOt
p=tDL= |va} "CU=
T D h ]Q |@ T D= u}= xm CU= u}= w
p= U u wvm =
"O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@
| y )
m w |t
"O W xO =iDU= |N `@ Qt uwtR
> counts { c(43, 49, 56, 45, 66, 41)

<
> probs { rep(1/6, 6)

<
> chisq.test(counts, p = probs)

Chi-squared test for given probabilities
data: counts
X-squared = 8.96, df = 5, p-value = 0.1107
"CU= u
R= QDoQR@ 0.1107 |va } p =tDL= Okt x=ov
Q= ' OW=@ OYQO 5 w w w

j i u tR
uO @ Q=O |vat K]U Qo =
"O Ww |tv w
OQ uO @ h ] Q |@ Z iQ u}=Q@=v@
sQ=yJ pYi
u w} QU oQ | yp t = O
|a@=wD uOv=wN=Qi j} Q] R= =ypOt u}= ,=twta "CU= |Q=t
|=ypOt VR=Q@ |=Q@ |O=} R |=yu}DwQ |=Q=O R u=@ R
"CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ Q =
VR= @ |Q t
p t O l} |rm pmW "Ovvm|t pta lm, glm, pFt
respose ~ expression
|]N uw}UQoQ |=ypOt 14
pwtQi |=yC}OwHwt 114
O
" yO |t Q Q} R
VR= @ CQ Y w x@ =Q |]N pOt l} R =
u @R
y = 0 + 1 x1 + + pxp + "
=@ =
, r e " |va} =]N xrtH "OyO|t u=Wv =Q u w}UQoQ ?}=Q O@t
w <= R= Z a Q = (0 1 p) x m
"
CU= "2 Tv=} Q=w w QiY u}ov=}t =@ p=tQv `} RwD |=Q=O
"Owtv xO =iDU= Q} R pwtQi w lm() ` =@ D R= xO =iDU= =@ u= D w |t 'Q}eDt wO =@ uw}UQoQ |= @ Q
116
117 uw}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
y ~ x1+x2
" CU= y = 0 + 1 x1 + 2x2 + " w Q xrRvt x@
p t i w
j i CQ a =@ xm
R= Z aQ O}U} wv@ Q} R CQ Y w x@ w x]@=Q =t=
=Q j i w |t
"O W <= O@t R= Z a Q pt=W R =
u @ R 'Z i Q V}B Qw] x@
"OO o Q |t h L <= P O@t
y ~ -1+x1+x2
=
| yp t=F x@ "OvDUy |]N uw}UQoQ QO |Y=N |v=at |=Q=O *,-,^,\,: | y = Qorta xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
" O}vm xHwD Q} R
y ~ x1+x2+x1:x2
" CU= y = 0 + 1x1 + 2 x2 + 12x1 x2 + " w Q xrRvt x@
p t i w
j i CQ a =@ xm
"Ovm|t O=H}= ?}DQD x@ =Q |} wOwO w xv=o} = xrtH ^ Qorta
| y R= xO =iDU=
y ~ (x1+x2+x1:x2)^2
"CU= Q} R x]@=Q pO =at q=@ pwtQi
y ~ x1+x2+x3+x1:x2+x2:x3+x1:x3
R= Z aQ -1 O W x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty "Ovm|t P
h L u w}UQoQ xrO=at R= =Q |DqtH =} w xrtH - Qorta
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv P
h L =Q <= O@t
y ~ (x1+x2+x1:x2)^2 - x2:x3
"CU= Q} R x]@=Q pO =at q=@ pwtQi
y ~ x1+x2+x3+x1:x2+x1:x3
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Ovm|t Q=QmD Q}eDt Q
|= @ =Q |@} Q I `=
@ D
y ~ I(x1+x2)
Q}}eD pOt QO x2 Q}eDt O}y=wN@ Qo = ,=vt "CU= y = 0 + (x1 + x2 ) + " w Q xrRvt x@
p t i w
j i CQ a =@ xm
O Q
" }=xO m x =@DW= O}vm pta Q} R w
CQ Y x@ Qo = w Q
"O W ? wO QO , qFt "Ovm
y ~ x1+2*x2
"O wtv pta O}=@ Q} R CQ Y w x@ ?r]t uOW CUQO Q
|= @
y ~ x1+I(2*x2)
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ R = w Q
u @ R QO u
p t i x =ov
'OW=@ y = 0 + 1 x + 2x2 CQ Y @ w x Q_v w
OQ t p t O Qo =
y ~ poly(x, 2)
Q
% } R CQ Y @ w x xv w
y ~ x+x2^2
|R=UpOt `@=wD 2 1 4
Q Q
w VR= @ |= @ |O } R = `@=wD "OQ=O =yQ}eDt u}@ |]N \@=wQ u=}@ Q |a}Uw OQ@ Q=m |]N uw}UQoQ
|= @ =
| yp t O
Q
KW x@ =yu
= = w
| yu t oQ
R= |=xQ B = xm CU= lm() = u}=
Q m Q |rY= `@=D
|= @ w
"OQ=O O Hw |]N uw}UQoQ p}rLD
"CU= Q} R
lm(formula, data, weights, subset, na.action)

" O}vm xHwD Q} R | yxO=O = x@
gene1 gene2
-1.06 -1.08
-0.81 -1.02
-0.48 -0.39
-0.42 -0.48
-0.30 -0.58
-0.35 -0.24
-0.31 -0.05
-0.18 -0.33
-0.20 0.51
-0.11 -0.53
-0.09 -0.47
0.16 0.10
0.45 0.39
0.53 0.11
0.67 0.52
0.80 0.34
0.87 1.08
0.92 1.21
x@ w Q w
\ @ t u tR
w |oDU@ty ?} Q =OD@= xm "CU= xOW xQ}NP gen_reg.txt = x@ |r}=i
s v w
QO j i | yxO=O =
"Ovm|t |UQQ@ =Q =yu
x@ w Q w O w
\ @ t OQ= t x v= N =Q u
Q} R = O
| y )
m "O wtv O}y=wN x_Lqt =Q u
> x - read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt",header=T)
<
> cor.test(x$gene1, x$gene2)

Pearson's product-moment correlation
data: x$gene1 and x$gene2
119 uw}UQoQ = O
| yp t 4 pYi
t = 7.5105, df = 16, p-value = 1.246e-06

alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0
0.7071560 0.9556856
sample estimates:
cor
0.8826268
Q} R pwtQi =@ uw}UQoQ pOt uwvm =
gene2 = 0 + 1 gene1 + "

"OO oQ |t p=ta= =yxO=O |wQ
> x { read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)

<
> m.reg { lm(gene2~gene1, data=x)

<
> m.reg
Call:
lm(formula = gene2 ~ gene1, data = x)
Coe cients:
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05541 0.97070
"CWwv R}v sy Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u= D w |t = = O
=Q q @ | y )
m
> x { read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)

<
> m.reg { lm(x$gene2~x$gene1)

<
> m.reg
Call:
lm(formula = x$gene2 ~ x$gene1)
Coe cients:
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05541 0.97070
"O}vm xHwD Q} R O
pw H x@ uw}UQoQ x@ w Q
\ @ t | y = |HwQN uDi=} Q
|= @
Expression Description
coef(obj) regression coe cients
resid(obj) residuals
tted(obj) tted values
summary(obj) analysis summary
predict(obj,newdata=ndat) predict for new data
deviance(obj) residual sum of squares
"CU= m.reg u=ty obj R= Q w_vt w =F

j i p t QO
" O}Wm =Q xDi=} VR= @ Q \N w O wtv sUQ =Q Vvm =QB Q=Owtv w |t uwvm =
u= D
> plot(x$gene1, x$gene2)

> lines(x$gene1, tted(m.reg))
xO =iDU= R}v Q} R C=QwDUO R= u=wD|t xDi=} VR=Q@ \N sUQ |=Q@ "OwW|t pY=L 1$ 4 pmW Q} R |=yO)m |=QH= =@
1.0
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
xDi=} VR= @ Q \N w Vv+m =QB Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %14 pmW
"O wtv

> abline(m.reg)
R}v =Q =yxOv=t}k=@ 'xDi=} Q \N
VR= @ w |@ QHD \ =kv Q@ xw qa xm O}vm|t x_Lqt =Q 2$4 pmW Q} R QO u wvm =
"O wtv sUQ w |t
u= D

> lines(x$gene1, tted(m.reg))
> segments(x$gene1, tted(m.reg), x$gene1, x$gene2, lty=2)
| =]N 'tQ }O=kt Q}_v xDi=} Q
VR= @ p t R= O |i== = q]=
C a =
R= |=xQ B uOQw
CUO@ Q
|= @ summary() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= O}it =yQDt=Q=B u}@ |oDU@ty O =D

w OQ= v U=
> summary(m.reg)
Call:
lm(formula = x$gene2 ~ x$gene1)
Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-0.3812 -0.2196 -0.0084 0.1492 0.7595
121 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
1.0
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
=yxOv=t}k=@ w u w}UQoQ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %24 pmW
Coe cients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr( jtj) >
(Intercept) -0.05541 0.07330 -0.756 0.461

x$gene1 0.97070 0.12925 7.511 1.25e-06 ***
|
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Residual standard error: 0.311 on 16 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared: 0.779, Adjusted R-squared: 0.7652
F-statistic: 56.41 on 1 and 16 DF, p-value: 1.246e-06
"O wtv x@U=Lt =Q u w}UQoQ xrO=at ?}=Q |= xrY=i Q
OQw
@ u= Dw |t connt() ` = =
@ D @
> coef(m.reg)
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05540906 0.97070027
> connt(m.reg)
2.5% 97.5%
(Intercept) -0.2107882 0.09997012
gene1 0.6967126 1.24468796
R}v Qiv=
|O= w x
CQ Y @ =Q =yv
w |t xm Ovm|t xQ}NP OwN
u= D QO =Q |D=aq]= Q w x
'Q=O @ CQ Y @ summary() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R OQ= t w x@ uwvm = "O wtv xO =iDU= Qo}O = CtUk

| y QO =yv
R= w O=O u =Wv
summary(model)3]
$residuals
summary(model)4]
$coe cients
summary(model)6]
$sigma
summary(model)8]
$r.squared
summary(model)9]
$adj.r.squared
summary(model)10]
$fstatistic
"OQ}o|t Q=Qk m.reg O
p t xS=w | H = x@ |va} "CU= m.reg O
p t s v = =Hv}= QO O}vm|t xOy=Wt xm Qw]v=ty
with ` = w |t 'OyO|t CUOx@
@ D R= u= D summary() ` = @ D xm |D=YNWt w u w}UQoQ \N uOQw
CUOx@ Q
|= @
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv xO =iDU= R}v
> with(trees, fm.reg { lm(Girth~Volume)

<
+ summary(m.reg)g)
sy xDi=} VR= @Q \N w \ =kv s}UQD OQ t QO w |DL w |t pY=L p@k
"O W VwQ G}=Dv u=ty q=@ | y )= O
m |= H= @ Q =
" O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@
| y )
m "O wtv xO =iDU= with ` = @ D R= u= D w |t
> with(trees, fplot(Girth~Volume)

+ abline(lm(Girth~Volume))g)
Cw =iD xm OOQo swrat =D OwW xOQw
|L}wD xOW p}OaD u}}aD ?} Q |va} Radj
2 x @ `H=Q xm CU= sRq =Hv}= QO
=t= "CU= xHwD QwNQO |oDU@ty QO u}}aD ?} Q Q=Okt =
|q @ u= R}t O}v=O|t xm Qw]v=ty #CU}J R2 = @ u
"Owtv xU}=kt sy =@ =Q =ypOt w |tv u}=Q@=v@ "Ovm|t Q}}eD =yxO=O

u= D O=OaD u}vJty w =yQ}eDt O= OaD =@ Q=Okt u}=
" CU= Q} R CQ Y @ w x R2 h Qa } D " CU= xOW O=yvW}B xOW p}OaD u}}aD ?} Q Q=Okt =Pr
Pn (y ; y^ )2 SS
R2 = 1 ; Pin=1 i i 2 = 1 ; e
i=1 (yi ; y") SSt
u= D w |t =y|O=R
xHQO Cr=NO =@ " W @ t
Pn Pn
Ov = | SSt = i=1 (yi ; y")2 SSe = i=1 (yi ; yî )2 w u
QO xm
"O wtv h} QaD =Q xDi=} p}OaD u}}aD ?} Q
SS n ; 1 SS
e =(n ; p)
R2
adj = 1 ; SS =(n ; 1) = 1 ; n ; p SS
e
t t
O = |t
" W @ p ; 1 Q Q pkDU Q}eD Oa xD@ C = Q}eD Oa p =
@= @ t t O= D r= " U= y t O= D w x wtv
y v O= OaD n u
QO xm
u= D w |t predict.lm() `@=D = u}=
R= Q m Q
|= @ "O wtv OQw
@ u Q w}UQoQ xrO=at R= xO =iDU= =@ OO
=Q | } H Q}O=kt w |t
u= D
"O=O CUO@ =Q |= xrY=i OQw

@ Q sy w |= x]kv OQw
@ Q= Q Okt sy CQ Y w u}= QO " CiQo xQy@
> predict.lm(m.reg, newdata=data.frame(gene1=c(0.1,0.2)), int="conf")

t lwr upr
1 0.04166097 -0.11587731 0.1991993
2 0.13873100 -0.02557153 0.3030335
123 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
x y O =Wt | y = x s=tD |=R= x@ =yv

|= xrY=i Q
OQw
@ w |= x]kv =
| y y s=tD x=ov
'O wWv xO =iDU= newdata R= Qo =
" }
O |t CUO@ xOW
"Owtv pta R}v Q} R CQ Y w x@ u= Dw |t O}OH Q}O=kt |= @ Q
> predict(m.reg, list(gene1=c(0.1,0.2)), int="conf")

t lwr upr
1 0.04166097 -0.11587731 0.1991993
2 0.13873100 -0.02557153 0.3030335
pOt X}NWD 1214
x@ w |t p=Ft
u= D Q
|= @ "O wtv xO =iDU= |}=yXN=W = w
w yu tR
R= u= D w |t 'xOt
CUO@ pOt |HvU CLY |= @ Q
"Owtv xQ W= = Q} R OQ= tw
#OvDUy p=tQv =yxOv=t}k=@ =}
#OvDUy |]N uw}UQoQ | y = Q}eDt w MU=B u}@ x]@=Q =}
#OQ=O O Hw C B w Q Q}O=kt =}
" Ovm|t pQDvm =Q =yxOv=t}k=@ p=tQv `} RwD k-s w

u tR
> res { resid(m.reg)

<
> ks.test(res, "pnorm", mean=mean(res), sd=sd(res))

One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: res
D = 0.1553, p-value = 0.7217
"OO oQ |t Qy=_ 3$4 pmW Q=O wtv Q=yJ 'O} Qw=}@ |r@k | y )
m= O xr=@vO QO =Q Q} R C=Q wDUO Qo =
> par(mfrow=c(2,2))
> plot(m.reg)
%R= CUDQ=@a Q=O wtv Q=yJ u}=
w
O N R= w O Q}o Q=Qk y=0 \ N p L w O}=@ pY=L pmW %xDi=} VR= @ Q Q}O=kt ?UL Q@ =yxOv=t}k=@ Q}O=kt
O O
" y v u =Wv =Q | vwQ O
xm CU= |vat u}O@ 'OvwW s}kDUt \N l} V}=tv x@ l}ORv xOv=t}k=@ \=kv Qo = %p t v= Q qqplot Q=Owtv
"Ovm|t |w Q}B p=tQv `} RwD R= x vO =t}k=@ Q=Owtv
'Ovr@ \ =kv "OyO|t u=Wv O O =D

=Q x W OQ= v U= | yx v = O =t}k=@ swO xW} Q Q=O wtv u}= scale-location
% Q=Owtv
"OvDUy xOv=t}k=@ Q}O=kt u} QDoQR@
Residuals vs Fitted Normal QQ

0.8
9 9
Standardized residuals
2
0.4
18
Residuals
18
1
0.0
0
0.4
16
16
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 2 1 0 1 2
Fitted values Theoretical Quantiles
ScaleLocation Residuals vs Leverage

3
9
1.5
9
1
16 18 0.5
18
1.0
1
0
0.5
Cooks distance16
0.0
0.5
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Fitted values Leverage
=yxOv=t}k=@ x@ w Q
\ @ t | yQ=O = wtv V}=tv %34 pmW
125 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
O
' yO |t u=Wv =Q OvQ=O |O=} R Q}F-=D uw}UQoQ \N |wQ xm =Q |]=kv Q=Owtv u}= %Cook's distance Q=Owtv
Q |krD R}v
"OO o C B \Q =kv u= wvax@ Ov=wD|t xm
"O wtv xO =iDU= Q} R QwDUO w |t 'QDW}@

R= u= D =
| yQ=O wtv |DL w |O= Qiv= CQ Y w x@ q=@ =
| yQ=O wtv sUQ |= @ Q
plot(m.reg, which = 1)
"O W 2 O 1
w |t xO=iDU= O a R= O
O a | =H@ Q}N= Om QO qqplot Q=O wtv s}UQD Q Ovm|t sUQ
|= @ " =Q pmW u}rw= xm
plot(m.reg, which = 2)
"CiQ V}B R}v 6 O =D
O a u= D w |t =yQ=Owtv sUQ |= @ Q
u=v}t]= xrY=i 2214
"O wtv xO =iDU= Q} R = O

| y )
m R= u= D w |t u=v}t]= xrY=i O=H}= |= @ Q
x { read.table("E:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)
<
m.reg { lm(x$gene2~x$gene1)
<
new { data.frame(x$gene1 { sort(x$gene1))

< <
pred.w.clim = predict(m.reg, newdata=new, interval="condence",level=0.95)

plot(x$gene2~x$gene1, pch=20)
abline(m.reg, col="blue")
lines(x$gene1,pred.w.clim,2],col="red", lty=2)
lines(x$gene1,pred.w.clim,3],col="red", lty=2)
pred = predict(m.reg, interval="condence") print(pred)
pred1 = predict(m.reg, interval="condence"),1,drop=F] print(pred1)
legend(-1, 1.2,
c("obs. data", "predict", "Lower b.", "Upper b."),
pch=c(20,NA,NA,NA), lty=c(0,1,2,2), lwd=c(0,1,1,1),
col=c("black","blue","red","red"))
O |t CUO@
" }
4$4 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
Q= Okt w |t xO}t=v 1 AIC xm Owtv
"O W xO =iDU= |= x]@= R= u= D w |t xDi=} Q
VR= @ | yp t = O u}@ xU}=kt |= @ Q
O =Wt
x y Q CU= OwHwt
|= @ " R w
O N QO xm OwW|t xO=iDU= trees |=xO=O R= p t |= @ "=F Q CU= QD?U=vt u
QDtm
"O}vm =QH= =Q Q} R QwDUO xm CU= |i=m CU= uwDU xU pt=W xm u
> trees
xm OO o Q |t x@U=Lt AIC x] = @ l} Qy Q
|= @ w O W w |t xDiQo Q_v QO trees =
| yxO=O |= @ p t wO u Q O wvm =
"O}vm xU}=kt =Q =yu
sy =@ O}v=wD|t
> lm1 { lm(Volume ~ Height Girth, data=trees)

<
> AIC(lm1)
1] 155.4692
> lm2 { lm(Volume ~ Height + Girth, data=trees)
<
1. Akaike's An Information Criterion

obs. data
1.0
predict
Lower b.
Upper b.
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
!95 u =v}tY= xrY=i =@ uw}UQoQ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %44 pmW
> AIC(lm2)
1] 176.9100
Q=Owtv xLiY sUQ 3214
Q=O wtv xm CU= ?U=vt 'O}OQo xU}=kt sy =@ u

R= |}=ypOt w OW trees xa wtHt =
| yxO=O EL@ xm uwvm =
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @ w x Q_v w
OQ t | y ) = O
m "OO o Q s}UQD R}v CU= uw}UQoQ xLiY xm 5$4
> library(scatterplot3d)
> s3d { with(trees, scatterplot3d(Girth, Height, Volume, pch = 16,
<
+ highlight.3d = TRUE, angle = 60))

> t { lm(Volume ~ Girth + Height, data = trees)
<
> s3d$plane3d(t)
uw}UQoQ QO xOWto |=yxO=O 314
=
u @ R QO " OvW=@ xOWto =yv
= xirw-t
| y R= |m} |va} 'OvW=@ Xk=v |}=y2 ?DQt GwR xm CU= umtt uw}UQoQ QO
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= C} Q}Ot p@=k uw}UQoQ uOQw

CUOx@ |= @Q Qt= u}= |@ wN@ R
> x { c(12,4,6,8,13,15,19)
<
> y { c(11,2,5,NA,20, 23, 33)

<
> z { c(3,6,8,11,40,21,99)
<
> reg1 { lm(y~x+z)

<
> reg1
"CU= Q} R w x xH}Dv Q}N=
CQ Y @ = O
| y ) Q
m |= H= R= TB
2. pairwise
127 u w}UQoQ = O
| yp t 4 pYi
80
70
60
Height
Volume
50
90
85
40
80
30
75
70
20
65
10
60
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Girth
uw}UQoQ xLiY Q=O wtv %54 pmW
Call:
lm(formula = y ~ x + z)
Coefficients:
(Intercept) x z
-5.19862 1.57928 0.09165
" CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x xH}Dv w

'O W = H= Q Q} R QwDUO xt=O= QO Qo = w
> reg1$model
y x z
1 11 12 3
2 2 4 6
3 5 6 8
5 20 13 40
6 23 15 21
7 33 19 99
"CU= xOW h L P 4 xQ =tW GwR O Ww |t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty

w |t =QH= Xk=v
"O W GwR wO =@ =yDvt =yxO=O u=ty =@ uw}UQoQ uwvm =
> x { c(12,4,6,8,13,15,19)
<
> y { c(11,2,5,NA,20, 23, 33)

<
> z { c(3,6,8,11,40,21,NA)
<
> reg2 { lm(y~x+z)

<
> reg2
Call:
lm(formula = y ~ x + z)
Coefficients:
(Intercept) x z
-5.6706 1.4996 0.1843
> reg2$model
y x z
1 11 12 3
2 2 4 6
3 5 6 8
5 20 13 40
6 23 15 21
"CU= xOW h L P 7 4
w xQ=tW =
| yGwR O W w |t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty
xO=O l} |=yxwQo |=yQ=Owtv sUQ 1314
s}UQD = =
C kw= R= |=xQ B QO " CW=O |irDNt = Q
| yxw o xO=O l} pN=O u= Dw |t OW x_Lqt uwvm =D xm Qw]u=ty
`k=w QO w CU= QwOkt pairs() `@=D R= xO=iDU= =@ R QO Q=m u}= "OW=@ O}it Q@ Q=m |=Q@ Ov=wD|t Qo}Om} C@Uv =yv
xO =iDU= R QO trees = =F Q O
| yxO=O R= p t |= @ " yO |t CUOx@ =Q Vvm =Q+B =
| yQ=O wtv R= |U} QD=t l} `@=D u}=
w |t
"O W
pairs(trees)
129 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
w Oy=wN
"O @ 6$4 pmW xH}Dv
R}v =RHt w x
CQ Y @ =Q Q=O wtv Qy Q@ xDi=} VR= @ \ Q w]N 'u w}UQoQ ltm x@ u= D w |t Vvm =Q+B Q=O wtv T} QD=t QO
65 70 75 80 85
10 12 14 16 18 20
Girth
8
85
80
Height
75
70
65
70
50
Volume
30
10
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 10 30 50 70
syx@ C@Uv xO=O l} =

| yxw o Q=O Q wtv V}=tv %64 pmW
w
=Q O N Q_v OQ tw `@=D u
QO u= D w |t xm OQ=O O Hw w panel = x@ |v=twoQ
s v pairs() ` = @ D QO Q m = u}= Q CW=O

|= @ "
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Dt x@ uwvm = "O wtv h} QaD
> pairs(trees, panel=function(x,y) fpoints(y~x) abline(lm(y~x))g)

w Oy=wN
"O @ 7$4 pmW j i Q w wDUO |= H=Q pY=L
" trees
O}vm xHwD QD = = xO=O | t=Q B v p t =F x@ "CW=O R}v | QDt=Q=B=v Qw]x@ u= D w |t w
=Q j i VR= @ Q xD@r=
> pairs(trees, panel=panel.smooth)

w Oy=wN
"O @ 8$4 pmW j i Q w wDUO |= H=Q pY=L
65 70 75 80 85
10 12 14 16 18 20
Girth
8
85
80
Height
75
70
65
70
50
Volume
30
10
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 10 30 50 70
xDi=} VR= @ Q \N w xO=O l} =

65 70 75 80 85
10 12 14 16 18 20
Girth
8
85
80
Height
75
70
65
70
50
Volume
30
10
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 10 30 50 70
| QDt=Q=B=v Q
VR= @ w xO=O l} =
sHvB pYi
|YYN |v wt Ov s} Q D w i Q=O v J U D
QPoyQ u}= R= =D OW=@ "O}vm|t x_Lqt =Q x]w@ Qt = O xi== x@ xO}J}B

| y )
m Q=Owtv OvJ =tW CtUk u}= QO
xDmv u}= Qm P =yv

x}=Q= R= p@k Q sy=Qi |t=Qo u=oOvv=wN
"OO o Q |vi
|= @ =
| yQ=O wtv s}UQD CyH |@U=vt = O
| yx }=
w |t x}=Q= A} QmU=
"O W CQ Y w x@ x]w@ Qt | y )
m= O xm CU= Q
|Qw
p=tDL= |=yPe=m s}UQD 15
R= |m} =yPe=m u}= QO "OQ=O |v=w=Qi OQ@ Q=m |S rwQw O}y w |U=vW=wy =
| yxO=O VR= @ |= @ p Q Q =tDL= = P =
| y e m
w =w w = P = u}= "CU= |tD} Q=or =}

OQ=O u o v o `= v= y e m w |]N Qo}O QwLt w CU= |r=tDL= T =}kt |=Q=O =yQwLt
xt}v Pe=m =@ O}=@v =Q =yPe=m u}= xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD "OQ@ s=v p@t=o w p=tQv w = Q = P =
n r w p t v | y e m R= u= D w |t xm
"CU= xO}OQo xO=iDU= xDWPo pwYi `@=wD w C=Q wDUO 'C a = q]= x}rm R= =ys}UQD u}= QO "O wtv \r.N
+ |tD} Q=o
131
p@t=o p=tDL= Pe=m 115
Qt= =
|O @ QO "O}vm|t x_Lqt O O =Wt
=Q x W x y =
| yxO=O Q@ xDi=} Q `} RwD
VR= @ w p@t=o p=tDL= Pe=m =Hv}= QO
"CU= Q} R w x Q_v
CQ Y @ w
OQ t | y m= O
# GumbelPlot.R
#
# Code for plotting annual peak "ow series on
# extreme-value (Gumbel) paper.
# # This code illustrates how to customize graph axes, and
# also how to use superscripts in axis labels.
#
# RDM 2007 Oct 25
# Specify Greata Creek peak "ows for 1971 - 1980

Q = c(1.23,2.37,0.085,1.69,1.2,0.898,0.176,0.96,0.212,0.266)
graphlab = "Greata Creek 1971-1980"
# Generate plotting positions
n = length(Q)
r = n + 1 - rank(Q) # highest Q has rank r = 1
T = (n + 1)/r
# Set up x axis tick positions and labels
Ttick = c(1.001,1.01,1.1,1.5,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,25
,30,35,40,45,50,60,70,80,90,100)
xtlab = c(1.001,1.01,1.1,1.5,2,NA,NA,5,NA,NA,NA,NA,10,NA,NA,NA,NA,15,
NA,NA,NA,NA,20,NA,30,NA,NA,NA,50,NA,NA,NA,NA,100)
y = -log(-log(1 - 1/T))
ytick = -log(-log(1 - 1/Ttick))
xmin = min(min(y),min(ytick))
xmax = max(ytick)
# Plot peak "ow series with Gumbel axis
plot( y, Q, ylab = expression( "Peak Flow (" m^3 s^-1 ")" ) ,
xaxt = "n", xlab = "T (yr)",
xlim = c(xmin,xmax),
pch = 21, bg = "red",
main = paste( "Annual Peak Flows,", graphlab ))
par(cex = 0.65)
axis(1, at = ytick, labels = as.character(xtlab))
# Draw a best-t line through the data
abline( lm(Q y), lty=1, col = "blue" )
# Draw grid lines
abline(v = ytick, lty = 3)
abline(h = c(0.5,1,1.5,2), lty = 3)
par(cex = 1)
Q |t pY=L
"OO o 1$5 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
133 |YYND w |vi Q=Owtv OvJ s}UQD 5 pYi
|v=w=QiCOtCOW Pe=m s}UQD 2 1 5
xm CU= K=w xD@r= w |t

"O W xO =iDU= =yQ=@oQ |oOvQ=@ |v=w=QiCOtCOW = |vLvt sUQ
| y |= @ Q Pe=m u}=
"CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u
| y )= O CU= |tD} Q=or pmW QwLt l} =Q} R "CU= \N
m " w x = |vLvt pmW
CQ Y @ y
# Graph paper for IDF analysis

#
# This code illustrates how to customize graph axes and
# how to produce grid lines.
#
# RD Moore 2007-Jan-23
#
par(cex=1,las=1)
ytick = c(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90,100,
200,300,400,500,600,700,800,900,1000)
yticklab = as.character(ytick)
xgrid = c(5,6,7,8,9,10,15,20,30,40,50,60,120,180,240,300,360,
420,480,540,600,660,720,840,960,1080,1200,1320,1440)
xtick = c(5,10,15,20,30,60,120,360,720,1440)
xticklab = c("5","10","15","20","30","60","2","6","12","24")
x=5
y = 10
plot( x, y, type="n",
xaxt="n",yaxt="n",
log="xy",
xlim=c(4,1440),
ylim=c(1,1000),
ylab = "INTENSITY (mm/hr)",
xlab = "Minutes DURATION Hours")
par(cex=0.65)
axis(1, xtick, xticklab)
par(cex=0.6)
axis(2, ytick, yticklab)
abline(v=xgrid)
abline(h = ytick)
par(cex=1)
Q |t pY=L
"OO o 2$5 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
Annual Peak Flows, Greata Creek 19711980
2.0
Peak Flow (m3s1)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.001 1.1 1.5 2 5 10 15 30 50 100
T (yr)
xDi=} Q `} RwD
VR= @ w p@t=o Pe=m V}=tv %15 pmW
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
INTENSITY (mm/hr)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
5 10 15 30 60 2 6 12 24
Minutes DURATION Hours
|v=w=QiCOtCOW Pe=m V}=tv %25 pmW

|=x}W=L `@=wD =@ x=Qty uw}UQoQ s}UQD 315
R}v Q}eDt wO |=x}W=L `@=wD xm O}y=wN@ Qo = =t= "CU}v w

|Q= WO Q m u = w}UQoQ \N =@ x=Qty Vvm =QB Q=Owtv sUQ
"CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u
| y )
m " }
= O O |t OwHw@ |@r=H |Q=O wtv Q sUQ OwHwt pmW
'OO o |wQ
## Create a scatterplot with marginal histograms ##

x { pmin(3, pmax(-3, rnorm(75)))
<
y { pmin(3, pmax(-3, rnorm(75)))

<
xhist { hist(x, breaks=seq(min(x),max(x),length=11) ,plot=FALSE)

<
yhist { hist(y, breaks=seq(min(y),max(y),length=11), plot=FALSE)

<
top { max(c(xhist$counts, yhist$counts))

<
xrange { c(min(x),max(x))
<
yrange { c(min(y),max(y))
<
nf { layout(matrix(c(2,0,1,3),2,2,byrow=TRUE), c(3,1), c(1,3), TRUE)

<
layout.show(nf)
par(mar = c(3,3,1,1))
plot(x, y, xlim=xrange, ylim=yrange, xlab="", ylab="",col=6, cex=1.5)
par(mar = c(0,3,1,1))
grid(col=3)
abline(lm(y~x-1), col="brown",lwd=2)
barplot(xhist$counts, axes=FALSE, ylim=c(0, top), space=0, col="red")
par(mar = c(3,0,1,1))
barplot(yhist$counts, axes=FALSE, xlim=c(0, top), space=0, horiz=TRUE,
col="blue")
"OO oQ |t pY=L 3$5 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
wD QO wD |=yQ=Owtv s}UQD 415
"CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u
| y ) = O
m "O wtv GQO Qo}O |Q=O wtv pN=O QO =Q Q=O wtv l} u= Dw |t CtUk u}= QO
# Nested graphics
library(e1071)
n { 1000
<
x { rnorm(n)
<
qqnorm(x, main=paste("kurtosis =", round(kurtosis(x), digits=2),

"(gaussian)"))
qqline(x, col="red")
op { par(g=c(.02,.5,.5,.98), new=TRUE)
<
hist(x, probability=T,
col="light blue", xlab="", ylab="", main="", axes=F)
lines(density(x), col="red", lwd=2)
box()
O
x W xO =iDU= e1071 xDU @ R= Q=O wtv u}= sUQ Q =vt
|= @ , "OO o Q |t pY=L 4$5 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
"CU}v OwHwt R = w
u @ R O N QO kurtosis() | O}W o m `@=D =Q} R "CU=
3
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
|= x}W=L `@=wD w u w}UQoQ V}=tv %35 pmW

3
2
1
0
1
2
3
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
wD QO wD =
Q=Owtv l} QO =yZQa QwLt wO s}UQD 515
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ w u}=

OQ t Q
|= @ "O W w |t =O}B R=}v Q=Owtv l} QO y Q wLt wO sUQ x@ =
Cq L R= |=xQ B QO =
# specify the data

x { c(1:10) y { x z { 10/x
< < <
# create extra margin room on the right for an axis

par(mar=c(5, 4, 4, 8) + 0.1)
# plot x vs. y
plot(x, y,type="b", pch=21, col="red",
yaxt="n", lty=3, xlab="", ylab="")
# add x vs. 1/x
lines(x, z, type="b", pch=22, col="blue", lty=2)
# draw an axis on the left
axis(2, at=x,labels=x, col.axis="red", las=2)
# draw an axis on the right, with smaller text and ticks
axis(4, at=z,labels=round(z,digits=2),
col.axis="blue", las=2, cex.axis=0.7, tck=-.01)
# add a title for the right axis
mtext("y=1/x", side=4, line=3, cex.lab=1,las=2, col="blue")
# add a main title and bottom and left axis labels
title("An Example of Creative Axes", xlab="X values", ylab="Y=X")
" }
O |t CUOx@ 5 $5 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
An Example of Creative Axes
10 10
6
Y=X
y=1/x
5 5
4
3.33
3
2.5
2 2
1.67
1.43
1.25
1.11
1 1
2 4 6 8 10
X values
=yZQa QwLt wO =@ Q=Owtv l} V}=tv %55 pmW

Q=Owtv l} QO CQ=QL xHQO wO s}UQD 615
C}=yvQ=i ?UL Q@ | Qo}O w O= oQ |Dv=U Q@ |m} 'OW=@ =yZQa QwLt wO |=Q=O xm CW=O |Q=O wtv w |t
u= D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ OQ t w u}= Q OvDUy

|= @ "
x {1:2
<
y { runif(2, 0, 100)
<
par(mar=c(4, 4, 2, 4))
plot(x, y, type="n", xlim=c(0.5, 2.5), ylim=c(-10, 110),
axes=FALSE, ann=FALSE)
axis(2, at=seq(0, 100, 20))
mtext("Temperature (Centigrade)", side=2, line=3)
axis(1, at=1:2, labels=c("Treatment 1", "Treatment 2"))
axis(4, at=seq(0, 100, 20), labels=seq(0, 100, 20) 9/5 + 32)
mtext("Temperature (Fahrenheit)", side=4, line=3)
box()
segments(x, 0, x, 100, lwd=20, col="dark grey")
segments(x, 0, x, 100, lwd=16, col="white")
segments(x, 0, x, y, lwd=16, col="light grey")
O |t CUOx@
" }
6 $5 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
100
212
176
80
Temperature (Centigrade)
Temperature (Fahrenheit)
140
60
104
40
20
68
32
0
Treatment 1 Treatment 2
=tO QwLt wO =@ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %65 pmW

139 |YYND w |vi Q=O wtv OvJ s}UQD 5 pYi
uw}UQoQ xLiY s}UQD 715
xrO=at Qo = uwvm = "OW=@ s}kDUt \N CQ Y @ w x Ov=wD|t y x u} @ u w}UQoQ x]@=Q OW xOy=Wt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty
QO u wvm = "CU= xLiY l} pmW x@ |Q=O wtv u
V}=tv 'OW=@ y = a1 x1 + a2x2 + b w x
CQ Y @ u w}UQoQ
uw}UQoQ s}UQD u}= QO "CU= xOW s=Hv= xLiY s}UQD R QOtrees w xO=O OQ t QO u w}UQoQ Q Q} R
|= @ | y )
m = O
"CU= xOW s=Hv= Height Girth w | y = Q}eDt ?UL Q@ Volume
library(scatterplot3d)
data(trees)
s3d { scatterplot3d(trees, type="h", highlight.3d=TRUE,
<
angle=55, scale.y=0.7, pch=16, main="scatterplot3d")

# Now adding some points to the "scatterplot3d"
s3d$points3d(seq(10,20,2), seq(85,60,-5), seq(60,10,-10),
col="blue", type="h", pch=16)
# Now adding a regression plane to the "scatterplot3d"
attach(trees)
my.lm - lm(Volume ~ Girth + Height)
<
s3d$plane3d(my.lm)
O |t CUOx@
" }
7$5 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
scatterplot3d
80
70
60
Volume
50
40
Height
90
85
30
80
75
20
70
65
10
60
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Girth
uw}UQoQ xLiY V}=tv %75 pmW

`H=Qt
1] Crawley, Micheal J., (2007) The R Book, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 942p.
2] Longhow Lam, (2008) An introduction to R, Business & Decision Amster-
dam, 212p.
3] Maindonald J. H., (2008) Using R for Data Analysis and Graphics Intro-
duction, Code and Commentary, Centre for Mathematics and Its Applications,
Australian National University., 96p.
4] Paradis E., (2005) R for Beginners, Institut des Sciences de l' Evolution
Universite Montpellier II France, 76p.
5] Rossiter D. G., (2007) Introduction to the R Project for Statistical Comput-
ing for use at ITC, International Institute for Geo-information Science & Earth
Observation Enschede (NL), 143p.
6] Seefeld, K., Linder, E., (2007) Statistics Using R with Biological Examples,
University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH Department of Mathematics &
Statistics, 325p.
7] Verzani John simpleR - Using R for Introductory Statistics, 114p.

Mousavi-R-lang in Farsi PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Mousavi-R-lang in Farsi PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CNwt CQmi =

QwBU=@a O}yW jQ@ w ? CavY x=oWv=O

160 Q=DWwv CU=Q} w

1 R |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =@ |}=vW pw= pYi

5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 241

6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............R QO =yxO=O 341

8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ R = = u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O = 441

10 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................ =yxO=O O}rwD 541

12 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................. =yxO=O uDWwv O w

14 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p= = uD w } i |wQ yxO=O W v 251

17 . . . . . . .. . . . . . ................. = Q yQ=O @ 161

17 . . . . . . .. . . . . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1161

21 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 261

27 . . . . . . .. . . . . . |]N CqO =at x=oDUO pL 3261

30 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ factor() ` = @ D 461

32 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .. =yCUQyi 661

38 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ ...R = u @R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 81

38 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .... Q \ W 181

39 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ . . . . xkr L 281

44 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . apply ` w w = @= D xO= v N 1281

48 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .... `@=wD 381

50 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2381

51 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 3381

57 Q=Owtv sUQ swO pYi

61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212

62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo | y = CtUk 312

63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... s y x@ C@Uv Q=O wtv OvJ C}aw 22

63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RH = t x QHvB OvJ O=H}= 122

64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =yQ=Owtv xOW R=@ = QHvB uDU@

64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xLiY l} |wQ = RHt Q=O wtv OvJ 322

65 . . . . . . . |w =Ut | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 1322

65 . . . . . . |w =Ut=v | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 2322

68 . . . . . . . . . .= yQ=O wtv u=mt u}}aD =@ xLiY s}UkD 3322

70 . . . . . . . . . ... . .... |HQ=N | y = s}_vD 1422

71 . . . . . . . . . ... . Q=O wtv l} | y = QDt=Q=B s}_vD 2422

72 . . . . . . . . . ... . . u} = K] ` w } B U @= D R= |=xQ B = 3422

85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . O} = x rwS | yQ=O wtv 4422

85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . Oa x = | )@ U | yQ=O wtv 5422

89 . . . . . . . . . ... . ........... =yQ=Owtv uO wtv xQ}NP 522

92 p=tDL= w Q=t swU pYi

92 . . . ...... ........................ |Q t= x}=B `@=wD 13

92 . . . ...... ................ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113

94 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . | =Y O | =tD = ` w iO D O= a= w r L= | y } R D 213

96 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Q wDU} s= o y 1213

97 . . . ...... ........... qT= C B m @ 2213

100 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . table() ` = @ D 3213

103 . . . ...... . . . . . . = Q =tD | =o ` =

104 . . . qqplot() w qqline() qqnorm() |m} Q ` w

106 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ecdf() ` = @ D 6213

108 . . . ...... . . . . . . = = =tD | =o ` = t o p L= r J @ D 7213

111 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | =Y Q} x wt iO D | o v v 313

112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . txQ l w i ] wO w } u tR 1513

116 uw}UQoQ |=ypOt sQ=yJ pYi

116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... wQ =C w w p t i | y }O H t 114

118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... = O `w |R Up t @= D 214

126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv xLiY sUQ 3214

126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... u w}UQoQ QO x OWto =

131 |YYND w |vi Q=Owtv OvJ s}UQD sHvB pYi

135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |= x}W=L `@=wD =@ x=Qty uw}UQoQ s}UQD 315

137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv l} QO =yZQa QwLt wO s}UQD 515

138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv l} QO CQ= L Q xHQO wO s}UQD 615

139 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... u w}UQoQ xLiY s}UQD 715

"Ovm|t Q=m w CU= ?Yv p@=k 1 =ywmU QFm = |wQ

QwBU=@a O}yW jQ@ w ? CavY x=oWv=O

160 Q=DWwv CU=Q} w

1 R |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =@ |}=vW pw= pYi

5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 241

6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............R QO =yxO=O 341

8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ R = = u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O = 441

10 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................ =yxO=O O}rwD 541

14 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p= = uD w } i |wQ yxO=O W v 251

17 . . . . . . .. . . . . . ................. = Q yQ=O @ 161

17 . . . . . . .. . . . . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1161

21 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 261

27 . . . . . . .. . . . . . |]N CqO =at x=oDUO pL 3261

30 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ factor() ` = @ D 461

32 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .. =yCUQyi 661

38 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ ...R = u @R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 81

38 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .... Q \ W 181

39 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ . . . . xkr L 281

44 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . apply ` w w = @= D xO= v N 1281

48 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ............ .... `@=wD 381

50 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2381

51 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 3381

61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212

62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo | y = CtUk 312

63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... s y x@ C@Uv Q=O wtv OvJ C}aw 22

63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RH = t x QHvB OvJ O=H}= 122

64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xLiY l} |wQ = RHt Q=O wtv OvJ 322

65 . . . . . . . |w =Ut | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 1322

65 . . . . . . |w =Ut=v | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 2322

68 . . . . . . . . . .= yQ=O wtv u=mt u}}aD =@ xLiY s}UkD 3322

70 . . . . . . . . . ... . .... |HQ=N | y = s}_vD 1422

71 . . . . . . . . . ... . Q=O wtv l} | y = QDt=Q=B s}_vD 2422

72 . . . . . . . . . ... . . u} = K] ` w } B U @= D R= |=xQ B = 3422

85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . O} = x rwS | yQ=O wtv 4422

85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . Oa x = | )@ U | yQ=O wtv 5422

89 . . . . . . . . . ... . ........... =yQ=Owtv uO wtv xQ}NP 522

92 p=tDL= w Q=t swU pYi

92 . . . ...... ........................ |Q t= x}=B `@=wD 13

92 . . . ...... ................ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113

94 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . | =Y O | =tD = ` w iO D O= a= w r L= | y } R D 213

96 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Q wDU} s= o y 1213

97 . . . ...... ........... qT= C B m @ 2213

100 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . table() ` = @ D 3213

106 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ecdf() ` = @ D 6213

108 . . . ...... . . . . . . = = =tD | =o ` = t o p L= r J @ D 7213

111 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | =Y Q} x wt iO D | o v v 313

112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . txQ l w i ] wO w } u tR 1513

116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... wQ =C w w p t i | y }O H t 114

118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... = O `w |R Up t @= D 214

126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv xLiY sUQ 3214

135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |= x}W=L `@=wD =@ x=Qty uw}UQoQ s}UQD 315

137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv l} QO =yZQa QwLt wO s}UQD 515

138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv l} QO CQ= L Q xHQO wO s}UQD 615

139 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... u w}UQoQ xLiY s}UQD 715

|U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =QJ 21

Q=Ri=sQv ?Yv RQ] 31

x_i=L QO <=}W= uOQm hPL w CUQyi 'O=H}= 141

> mode(A) mode(compar) mode(z)

R u=@ RQO =yxO=O R= |DtUk V}=tv 1441

=yxO=O R= s_vt |=yxr=@vO O=H}= 1541

=yxO=O R= |iO=YD |=yxr=@vO O=H}= 2541

=yxO=O uDWwv w uOv=wN 51

p}=i R= =yxO=O uOv=wN 151

read.table uOv=wN QwDUO 1151

T =Hv}= QO w CU= |k]vt `wv R= xm header = w

xU |}=yxO=O u}vJ uOv=wN |= @ " Q CU}v .xlsx =} w .xls = O wUB |va}