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Version 1.0
AA/MKE Christoph Haag
08.08.2006
Bosch Battery Manual
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 7
1.1 Warning and safety guidelines................................................................................... 7
1.2 Glossary........................................................................................................................ 9
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7 WARRANTY ....................................................................................... 99
7.1 General Information................................................................................................... 99
7.1.1 Warranty Cover............................................................................................................ 99
7.1.2 Warranty Periods ......................................................................................................... 99
7.1.3 Excess storage .......................................................................................................... 100
7.1.4 Warranty Refunding Methods .................................................................................... 101
7.2 Warranty Claim Process with the End-user .......................................................... 101
7.3 Technical Information on Battery problems ......................................................... 109
7.3.1 Manufacturing faults................................................................................................... 109
7.3.2 Non-manufacturing faults........................................................................................... 110
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List of Figures
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List of Tables
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1 Introduction
This manual provides comprehensive information on the function, features, design,
handling and testing of lead acid batteries. On the one hand the given information is
intended for internal use, e.g. for trainings, as reference book or as basis to create
further documents. On the other hand this handbook shall serve as a foundation and
reference document to create training and marketing materials for the customers.
Chapter 1 deals with warning and safety guidelines for lead acid batteries. Chapter 2
presents the working principle as well as the characteristic parameters of a battery.
The components of a battery and a comparison of different lead acid technologies
can also be found in chapter 2. The proceeding chapter 3 gives advices on how to
store batteries, how to maintain them during storage including the warehouse
incoming and outgoing inspection and finally how to transport batteries. Chapter 4
covers battery charging. At the beginning some theory about charge characteristic
curves is given. Later on it is described how to determine if charging is necessary
and how to correctly charge a battery. Chapter 5 gives a short overview about the
vehicle electrical system and its components. In brief problems of these components,
which can negatively impair the battery, are discussed. Finally you will find help on
the installation of the battery in the vehicle, putting the vehicle out of operation and
how to jump start another car. Different methods for testing batteries are described in
chapter 6. The last chapter 7, after introducing basic information about warranty,
contains advices on how to handle a warranty case with the end-user. Towards the
end of chapter 7 battery faults are discussed.
Keep acid and filled batteries out of reach of children. Keep out of reach
of children when working on the battery
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Danger of explosion:
- An explosive oxyhydrogen gas mixture is formed when batteries
are charged.
Corrosive hazard:
- Battery acid is extremely corrosive. The acid can cause burns and
blindness. Under normal operation conditions, there should be no
contact with the electrolyte (diluted sulphuric acid). Please note
that when the battery casing of a battery with fixed electrolyte is
destroyed or damaged, bound electrolyte in glass fiber mats or
jellified electrolyte is as corrosive as when liquid
- Wear protective gloves and goggles
- Do not tilt the battery permitting acid to leak out of vent openings
First aid:
- Drops of acid coming into contact with eyes should be rinsed for
several minutes using clear water. Then consult a doctor without
delay
- Drops of acid on the skin or clothes should be neutralized
immediately using acid neutralizer or soap suds and rinsed with
plenty of water
- If acid is swallowed, drink plenty of water and consult a doctor
immediately
Warning:
- The enclosure becomes brittle with time, therefore: Do not expose
batteries to direct sunlight.
- Discharged batteries can freeze so store in a place where they
are protected from frost.
- Never connect the positive terminal to the negative terminal
because it will cause a short circuit. A short circuit can cause
burns, fire or the explosion of the battery.
- It is dangerous to use tools such as hammers on the battery
terminal when connecting cables.
- Never rub with dry cloth on the battery casing. This might produce
sparks because of electrostatic discharges and can cause an
explosion
Disposal:
- Dispose old batteries at a battery collection point
- Never dispose old batteries as household waste
- If a battery with glass fiber materials is destroyed or damaged, the
released fiber material must be disposed in line with the official
local regulations
- Do not let electrolyte penetrate into the sewage system, the soil or
into groundwater.
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Exposure limits
- No exposure caused by lead and lead containing battery paste when handling
properly
- Possible exposure caused by sulphuric acid and acid mist during filling and
charging
1.2 Glossary
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Active Mass The material pasted onto the grids that takes part in the
charging and discharging reactions. Lead dioxide serves
as active mass at the positive electrode and spongy lead
as the active mass of the negative electrode
AGM Abbreviation for Absorbant Glass Mat. This is a mat of
microglass fibers which is used for fixing the sulfuric acid
in this special battery technology
Alternating current an electric current that reverses direction periodically. A
(AC) battery does not deliver alternating current
Ampere (A) a measure of the amount of electric charge flowing past a
circuit point at a specific time
Ampere-Hour (Ah) The quantity of electricity delivered in one hour by a
current whose average strength is one ampere. Ampere
hour is also used to quantify the storage capacity of a
battery by multiplying the current in amperes by the
discharge time in hours. (Example: A battery which
delivers 5 amperes for 20 hours: 5A x 20h = 100 Ah
capacity)
Calcium-Silver High technology maintenance-free battery with lead-
calcium-silver alloy grids, which provide long life and low
water consumption
Capacity The available quantity of electricity of a battery or cell
measured in ampere hours. The capacity depends on the
battery temperature and the discharging current. It is
therefore important to state not just the capacity, but also
the discharging current and temperature
Cell The smallest unit of a battery, consisting of a positive and
a negative electrode, a separator and the electrolyte. It
stores electrical energy and forms the fundamental
cornerstone of a battery if it is placed into a case and
equipped with electrical connectors. The capacity of a cell
is determined by its size. The cell voltage, however,
depends on the electrochemical system of the element
Cell connectors They connect the different elements in series. The plate
straps of individual cells are connected by the shortest
path that is directly through the cell partition. This
decreases the batterys internal resistance and weight
Central degassing Gases formed in the battery can escape centrally through
vent one channel in the battery cover
Charge state Remaining capacity (in %) referred to the rated capacity.
The state of charge can be determined by measuring the
specific gravity of the electrolyte or the open circuit
voltage
Charging factor Ratio between the charged energy and the energy
discharged earlier (in the case of a lead accumulator, lies
between 1.05 and 1.20 depending on the model)
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Parallel connection a closed circuit in which the current flow divides into two
or more paths before recombining to complete the circuit.
In a parallel connection of batteries (usually the batteries
have the same voltage and capacity) all positive terminals
are connected to one conductor and all negative terminals
are connected to another conductor. If two 12V batteries
of 50Ah capacity each are used in a parallel connection,
the circuit voltage is 12V and the capacity of the
combination is 100Ah
Paste Mixture of various compounds, (e.g. lead oxide, water,
sulfuric acid) which is pasted onto the positive and
negative grids. A distinction is made between positive and
negative pastes depending on the recipe. These pastes
are then transformed into positive and negative cured
masses. See active mass
Pasting The manufacturing process where the grids are coated by
the paste is called pasting
Plates Flat, typically rectangular components that contain the
active mass and a grid, which has an electrical function,
carrying electrons to and from the active mass. Plates are
either positive or negative, depending on the active mass
they hold
Polypropylene case The case holds the plates, straps and electrolyte and is
divided into 3 or 6 sections or cells, for batteries of 6 or 12
volts respectively
Pores Cavities in an active battery mass
Purified water Distilled or demineralized water for compensating the
water losses in batteries requiring maintenance
Safety ventilation A recloseable ventilation that reduces abnormal gas
pressures arising from misuse
Self discharge describes the fact, that every battery becomes discharged
without any consumer connected to it. Depending on the
batterys technology the self discharge varies in its speed
(for example calcium-silver technology batteries have a
lower self discharge than antimony batteries)
Separator A device used for the physical separation and electrical
isolation of electrodes of opposing polarities. The
separator generally consists of a porous PP/PE foil. In
certain cases, the separator can also be used for
absorbing the electrolyte. In this case it is an absorbant
microfiber glass mat (AGM)
Series connection a circuit having its parts connected serially. There is only
one path for the current flow. Batteries in series
connection are connected with the negative pole of the
first battery to the positive pole of the second battery, the
negative pole of the second battery to positive pole of the
third battery, etc. If two 12V batteries of 50Ah capacity
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2 The Battery
A battery is an electrochemical device which transforms chemical energy into
electrical energy and vice versa. A battery can store electrical energy for future use.
The transformation process is reversible, which means that a battery can be charged
and discharged for several hundred times.
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released into the electrolyte, very quickly results in a condition of equilibrium. After a
certain period, this return force exactly equals the solution pressure.
lead electrode
Pb
Pb ++
electron
Pb
lead ion lead atom
Pb ++
electrolyte
If two electrodes of different materials (for instance, lead [Pb] and lead dioxide
[PbO2]) are immersed in a common electrolyte, different potentials develop at the
individual electrodes with respect to the electrolyte. The difference in potential
between the electrodes themselves is the cell voltage. The voltage depends on the
used materials and on the conductive liquid, it does not depend on the quantities of
these elements in the battery. In the case of a lead-acid battery, the reaction between
lead dioxide (positive plate), spongy lead (negative plate) and sulfuric acid generates
2,1V per cell.
If an external voltage is applied across the electrodes, depending on the direction of
current, further electrical particles can be released into the electrolyte or they can
return from the electrolyte to the lead electrode. It is this fact which makes it possible
to recharge the lead-acid storage battery (secondary cell).
In a charged lead cell, the positive electrode consists of lead dioxide, and the
negative electrode of pure lead. The electrolyte is diluted sulphuric acid. In the
aqueous solution, the sulphuric-acid molecules split into positively charged hydrogen
ions and negatively charged residual acid ions. The splitting of the sulphuric-acid
molecules is the prerequisite for the electrolyte's conductivity and therefore for the
flow of charge or discharge current. When discharge current flows, the positive
electrode's lead dioxide and the negative electrode's lead are converted to lead
sulphate (PbSO4). In a discharged lead cell (Figure 2), both electrodes consist of lead
sulphate.
The particle transfers involved in the charge and discharge of the lead cell are
described in the two paragraphs below in more detail.
2.2.2 Charging
To charge the lead storage cell, its positive electrode is connected to the positive
pole of a DC source, and its negative electrode to the negative pole. Contrary to the
discharging process described later on, electrical energy must be introduced here in
order to force the cell to charge so that it has a higher energy level at the completion
of charging than at the beginning. Figure 2 to Figure 4 demonstrate in schematic form
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the processes which take place between the individual particles in the electrode
mass and the electrolyte.
The source of charging current draws electrons from the positive electrode and
forces them to the negative electrode. Due to the electrons which have been forced
to the negative electrode by the source of charging current, zero valent (metallic) lead
is formed at this electrode from the bivalent positive lead atoms, whereby the
(PbSO4) lead-sulphate molecules are broken down. At the same time, the negatively
charged residual-oxygen ions (SO42-) are released from the negative electrode into
the electrolyte.
At the positive electrode bivalent positive lead (Figure 3) is transformed into
tetravalent positive lead due to the removal of electrons, whereby the lead compound
PbSO4 (lead sulphate) is split electrochemically by the applied charging voltage.
The tetravalent positive lead combines with the oxygen removed from the water
(H2O) to form lead peroxide (PbO2).
At the same time, the sulphate ions released at the positive electrode during this
oxidation process (from the lead compound PbSO4), and the hydrogen ions (from the
water), pass into the electrolyte. As mentioned above, sulphate ions also enter the
electrolyte from the negative electrode. As a result of the charging process therefore,
the number of hydrogen ions and sulphate ions in the electrolyte is increased.
In other words, fresh sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is formed and the density of the
electrolyte increases. In a charged cell, the density is normally =1.28 kg/l
corresponding to an electrolyte comprising about 37% sulphuric acid and about 63%
water.
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This means that the state of charge can be determined by measuring the electrolyte's
specific gravity.
Charging is complete when:
- The lead sulphate at the positive electrode has converted to lead dioxide
(PbO2), and
- The lead sulphate at the negative electrode has converted to metallic lead
(Pb), and when
- The charge voltage and the electrolyte's specific gravity remain constant even
though charging continues.
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The flow of electrons leads to the tetravalent lead at the positive electrode changing
to bivalent positive lead, and to the breakage of the bond between the previously
tetravalent lead and the oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms thus released combine
with the hydrogen ions from the sulphuric acid and form water. The specific gravity of
the electrolyte decreases. An empty battery has a specific density of below
=1.12kg/l. This is equal to an acid content of about 17%.
At the negative electrode, bivalent positive lead also forms as a result of electrons
moving from the metallic lead to the positive electrode (Figure 5). The bivalent
negative sulphate ions (SO42- from the sulfuric acid) combine with the bivalent
positive lead at both electrodes so that lead sulphate (PbSO4) is formed as a
discharge product at each electrode.
Both electrodes have now returned to their initial condition: the chemical energy
stored in the cell has been transformed back into electrical energy by the discharge
process.
Table 1 provides an overview of the processes concerned in the discharge of a
battery. When charging, the processes are reversed.
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Same as the cell voltage, the OCV depends on the batterys state of charge and the
electrolyte temperature. If an OCV is measured shortly after a charge or discharge
process, it is not possible to conclude on the state of charge. The battery need to be
left to stand, sometimes up to 24 hours until a steady state is reached. To measure
the electrolytes specific gravity is more suitable for determining the state of charge,
but can only be conducted on older batteries, which have accessible screw-in plugs.
g g g
D(20C ) = 1,235 + 0,0007 3 (40C 20C ) = 1,249 3
cm 3
cm C cm
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2,2
2,15
2,1
2,05
2
U Z [V]
1,9
1,85
1,8
1,75
1
3
02
04
06
08
12
14
16
18
22
24
26
28
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
Specific Gravity Approx. OCV [V] Specific Gravity Approx. OCV [V]
[g/cm3] [g/cm3]
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400
350
300
250
water loss [g]
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Overcharging and gassing directly impairs the battery's service life. Therefore it is
important that the voltage regulator is working properly and thus the charge current
does not lead to overcharging, gassing, corrosion or loosening of active mass.
2.3.9 Capacity
Available Capacity
The capacity K is the quantity of electric power which the battery can deliver under
specified conditions. It is the product of current and time (ampere-hours Ah).
The battery's capacity is determined essentially by the quantity of active material
used in its construction. For high powers (such as needed when starting an IC
engine), the active material must have large internal and external surfaces (a large
number of large-area plates). The large internal surface area is produced by a special
form of electrochemical preconditioning, known as "forming at the manufacturers site
during the production process.
However, the capacity is not a fixed parameter but depends, among other things, on
the following factors (Figure 10 and Figure 11):
- Level of the discharging current
- Specific gravity and temperature of the electrolyte
- Discharging process as a function of time (the capacity is higher when a pause
is made during discharging than when the discharge process is continuous)
- age of the battery (due to the loss of active material of the plates, the Ah
capacity decreases as the battery approaches the end of its service life)
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The discharge current plays a particularly important role, whereby the higher the
discharge current is, the lower the available capacity.
In the example shown in Figure 10, the available capacity of 44 Ah can be used for
up to 20h with a discharging current of 2.2 A. A load of 150A (an average starter
current) leads to a drop of the available capacity to approx 20Ah. The battery would
be empty within 6-8 minutes. The reason for this is that at low discharging currents
the electrochemical processes can take place slowly and penetrate deeply into the
plate pores, whereas high discharge currents cause these processes to take place
mostly on the surface of the plates.
Temperature influence
With an increasing temperature the discharging voltage and the capacity increase,
whereas they drop when temperatures decrease (see Figure 11 and Figure 12).
Among other things, the increase is the result of the reduction in the electrolyte's
viscosity at higher temperatures and the attendant drop in internal resistance. The
decreasing capacity and discharging voltage are due to the fact that the lower the
temperature, the less efficient are the electrochemical processes in the battery.
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Figure 12 Terminal voltage when discharging with a high current at -18C and 27C
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The nominal capacity is a measure for the energy which can be stored by a new
battery. The capacity depends on the quantity of active material used in the battery
and on the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
For instance, a new 44Ah battery can be discharged with a current of 2.2A for at least
20 hours (44 Ah/20 h = 2.2 A) until the final discharge voltage of 10.5V is reached.
The nominal capacity K20 is therefore a highly important battery parameter for the
permanent loads in the vehicles electrical system.
Figure 13 Influence of temperature on starter speed and required minimum start speed
Curve 1a shows the rotational speed of the starter as a function of the temperature
with a battery, which is 20% discharged (Curve 1b shows the rpm achieved with a
heavily discharged battery). Curve 2 on the other hand, shows the minimum starting
speed needed by the engine. At low temperatures the starting power needed by the
engine is correspondingly higher due to the increase in frictional resistance in the
engine (for instance the increase in lube-oil viscosity).
The intersection S1 of curves 1a and 2 defines the cold-starting limit (min.
temperature) for a battery which is 20% discharged. In other words at lower
temperatures or with a battery which is even further discharged, it is impossible to
start the engine. The power which the battery (and respectively the starter) delivers is
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less than the power needed to start the engine. The more the battery is discharged,
the more the cold-start limit (intersection S2) is shifted to higher temperatures.
The cold start performance ICC (formerly IKP) is denoted in amperes. It highly depends
on the total surface area of the active material (number of plates, surface-area of the
plates) because the larger the contact area between the lead material and the
electrolyte, the higher the current that can be delivered for a short period. The plate
spacing and the separators material are two variables, which affect the speed of the
chemical processes in the electrolyte and which also determine the cold cranking
amperes.
These factors are represented in the internal resistance Ri of the battery. For a
temperature of -18C and a fully charged 12V battery, Ri can be estimated as follows:
Ri <= 4000/lCC (m), where lCC is stated in amperes
The cold start performance is defined according to different standards in different
countries, so it is often not possible to directly compare the cited figures with each
other.
Following table gives an overview about standards, which regulate the cold start
performance:
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Example for
Bosch Silver
Abbrevia 574 012 068
tion Full name Standard Used in Cold start performance definition (12V; 74 Ah)
EN European Norm EN 50342 Europe, China discharge down to 1.25V per cell over a period of 10 680 A
seconds at -18C
DIN German Industrial Standard Formerly used in discharge down to 1.5 volts per cell over a period of 30 400 A
(Deutsche Industrie Norm) Germany; seconds at -18C
replaced by EN
SAE Society of Automotive J537 USA, Middle East discharge down to 1.2 volts per cell over a period of 30 640 A
Engineers seconds at -18C
IEC International electro technical IEC 60095 discharge down to 1.4 volts per cell over a period of 60 465 A
Commission seconds at -18C
JIS Japanese Industrial Standard D 5301 Japan This standard contains a table which defines for each 115F51
battery type the cold cranking performance. E.g. the battery
type 50D20L has to have a min. voltage of 9.6V after 5s
when discharging with 150A at -15C. When further
discharging it has to hold its voltage above 6V for 4min.
CCA Cold cranking amperes Discharge down to 1.2V per cell over a period of 30
seconds at 0F
MCA Marine cranking amperes Discharge down to 1.2V per cell over a period of 30
seconds at 32F
HCA Hot cranking amperes Discharge down to 1.2V per cell over a period of 30
seconds at 80F
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To convert cold start performance values between different standards, following table
can be used:
SAE EN IEC DIN JIS SAE JIS SAE
155 145 100 90 26A17 225 55D26 348
200 180 130 110 26A19 201 65D26 413
250 230 160 140 28A19 248 75D26 490
300 280 195 170 32A19 294 80D26 582
350 330 225 200 26B17 225 65D31 389
400 360 260 225 28B17 246 75D31 447
450 420 290 255 34B17 279 95D31 622
500 480 325 280 28B19 247 95E41 512
550 520 355 310 34B19 272 105E41 577
600 540 390 335 36B20 274 115E41 651
650 600 420 365 38B20 332 130E41 799
700 640 450 395 46B24 325 115F51 638
750 680 485 420 50B24 390 145F51 780
800 760 515 450 55B24 433 150F51 916
850 790 550 480 32C24 238 170F51 1045
900 860 580 505 50D20 306 145G51 754
950 900 615 535 55D23 356 165G51 933
1000 940 645 560 65D23 420 180G51 1090
1050 1000 680 590 70D23 490 195G51 1146
1100 1040 710 620 75D23 520 190H52 924
1150 1080 745 645 48D26 278 245H52 1532
1200 1150 775 675
1250 1170 810 700
1300 1220 840 730
1350 1270 870 760
1400 1320 905 790
1450 1360 935 815
1500 1410 975 820
1540 1450 1000 870
Table 4 Cold Cranking Power Conversion Table SAE-EN-IEC-DIN-JIS (all values in A)
under field conditions; as a result batteries are also tested in the vehicle during
operation.
Below three tests, two laboratory and one field test, are described and some test
results for different battery technologies are presented.
OE Test
The battery has to undergo following charge and discharge cycle. The battery is
discharged with I=0.25 x capacity for 1 hour and afterwards charged for 3 hours with
a constant voltage of 14.8V.
After 32 of these charge/discharge cycles a high current discharge test with the
nominal cold cranking value is performed. Within 30s the voltage must not drop
below 7.2V. Subsequent the battery is charged for 24h.
This procedure of 32 cycles, a high current discharge and recharging is one test
cycle.
Five test cycles at a temperature of 40C are performed, then the battery is cooled
down to -18C. At that temperature further test cycles are done until the battery can
not fulfill the high rate discharge test anymore (U30s > 7.2V).
The number of passed test cycles is the test result.
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4000
3500
3000 3344
number of cycles
2500
2000
1976
1500 1806
1000
500
0
Hybrid PbCa PA G
batte ry-te chnology
100000
90000 95000
80000
70000
miles before failure
60000
50000
40000 43000
30000
30000
20000
10000
0
PA G Hybrid PbCa
batte ry-te chnology
Figure 15 Hybrid, Calcium and Silver battery performance in Las Vegas Test
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2.3.14 Self-Discharge
All wet (filled) batteries will slowly self discharge whether they are in service or only
stored. In a battery, although without any consumers connected to it, chemical
reactions go on as if an inner electrical circuit is closed. Impurities are the reason for
the self discharge. Antimony, which is used as alloy to harden the lead grids, is one
of these metallic impurities, which causes self discharge. For older battery
technologies a relative high amount of antimony was used, thus leading to a high self
discharge rate. In modern starter batteries the antimony content is much lower,
because it is replaced by other alloys as e.g. calcium. So the self-discharge rate of
modern batteries is less then 0.1% of the batterys capacity per day.
Besides the antimony content (the battery technology), the self-discharge rate mainly
depends on following factors:
- temperature:
higher temperature accelerates the chemical processes in the lead acid
battery, thus leading to an increasing self discharge rate
- batterys age:
the older the battery the higher the self discharge rate
- humidity:
high humidity leads to a higher self discharge rate
The most important two factors for self discharge are the average storage
temperature and the grid technology.
In the following two diagrams the relationship between temperatures and self-
discharge and the self discharge rate for different battery technologies are presented:
100
90
Average
80 storage
temperature
State of Charge [%]
70 5-10C
10-15C
15-20C
60 25C
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Time [months]
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Selfdischarge of different
Battery T echnology
100
90
80
State of Charge [%]
70
60
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Time [months]
During the self discharge process same as during a normal discharge, lead sulfate is
built at the positive and negative plates, which is finely distributed across the plates.
But the longer the battery is left in a discharged stage, the fine sulfate crystals
develop into larger ones, which can only hardly be transformed back to lead dioxide
or lead. This phenomenon is called sulfating and negatively impairs the performance
and service life of the battery.
The self-discharge phenomenon is particularly significant for vehicles used only
during specific seasons (agriculture, forestry, and construction sites). It is also
important for second cars and mobile homes, which are rarely driven or not driven at
all in winter. It also applies to new and second hand vehicles, which have to be
parked for long periods due to seasonal fluctuations in sales or due to long
transportation times.
In all these cases it is important that the battery has a high state of charge when the
vehicle is taken out of operation and it must be disconnected from all consumers (e.g.
by disconnecting the ground cable).
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Parameters according to EN
The European norm EN 50342 stipulates parameters, which describe the batteries
performance. The most important parameters are:
- nominal voltage (e.g. 12V)
- nominal capacity (e.g. 44Ah)
- Cold cranking performance (e.g. 360 Ampere)
In the USA parameters according to SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) are used
and in Japan according to JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard). This leads for example
to different measurement methods for the cold cranking performance as explained in
chapter 2.3.11.
5 44 059 036
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ETN Part
0 093 S 5 44 1N
Bosch Code Number Product Line Battery type Capacity Serial No.
for Battery Type 14 6V battery These two digits represent
57 12V battery the capacity K20. In the case
8 special battery above 44Ah. For a capacity
9 traction battery of more than 100Ah the
previous digit will be
increased by 1 for every 100
Ah (in the range 14,
respectively 57)
Short Code
To make it easier for customers to find a suitable battery for a certain vehicle, a short
code with two digits was implemented. The short code is much easier to remember
and thus more convenient for customers.
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Gel batteries
A 13-digit manufacturing code is embossed on the cover. The manufacturing date is
also printed on the front label of the battery.
1st to 3rd digits: always D00
4th digit: Year of manufacture
5th and 6th digits: Month of manufacture
7th to 13th digits not relevant
The table below shows the manufacturing date codes for the period from 1993 to
2005:
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
January 361 461 561 661 761 861 961
February 362 462 562 662 762 862 962
March 363 463 563 663 763 863 963
April 364 464 564 664 764 864 964
May 365 465 565 665 765 865 965
June 366 466 566 666 766 866 966
July 367 467 567 667 767 867 967
August 368 468 568 668 768 868 968
September 369 469 569 669 769 869 969
October 370 470 570 670 770 870 970
November 371 471 571 671 771 871 971
December 372 472 572 672 772 872 972
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Bosch Battery Manual
terminal
cover
lid
cell terminal
positive connector
plate set plate
strap
case
negative grid
negative plate
positive plate in
pocket separator
positive grid
Thus short-circuits are avoided. The design with slug ribs is necessary for
conventional batteries because separators are used, which do not enclose the plates
at their lower end as pocket separators do.
The battery case is divided into cells by partition walls. These cells are the basic
element of a battery. They contain the cell packs with the positive and negative
plates, as well as the separators between them. The cells are connected in series
using cell connectors, which provide the connection through openings in the partition
walls.
Battery cases of modern starter batteries have no longer sludge ribs. The plates
reach down to the floor of the case (increased plate surface) and they have contact
along their full length with the battery case (increased stability).
The battery case for AGM (absorbent glass mat) technology has stronger and thicker
walls, because the plates with the separators between them are installed under
pressure into the case. This is possible because of the compressible glass fiber
fleece used as separator material.
Depending upon the available space and the layout of the equipment in the vehicle,
batteries with various dimensions and terminal configurations are needed. These
requirements can be fulfilled by the appropriate arrangement of the cells (lengthways
or transverse installation) and their interconnections. An overview of the most
common connection designs is given in Figure 22. Consequently the design of the
battery case differs accordingly.
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Bosch Battery Manual
Block and mono lids exist in different versions and with different features. Older
battery types especially batteries which require maintenance have screw-in plugs,
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Bosch Battery Manual
which are accessible to top up the battery with water. These screw-in plugs have
vents to release gases from the inner of the battery.
Later (especially for maintenance free batteries) a central degassing channel was
developed. All cells are connected to that central gas channel and charge gases can
escape through a central vent hole. The battery has two of these vent holes, allowing
a more flexible installation in different vehicles. One vent hole will be closed by a
small plug, the other vent hole will be connected to a vent pipe. This design allows
the installation of the battery inside the vehicle. Dangerous gases are carried out of
the vehicle through the vent pipe.
If a battery is 100% maintenance free, the screw in plugs are not accessible. In these
cases they are e.g. sealed by a label or the plugs are located in a trough and covered
by another small closure.
Modern 100% maintenance free batteries are often equipped with a labyrinth lid. In
this case the cover consists of two parts (Figure 24). The second smaller part
contains the central degassing channel and covers with its labyrinth mechanism the
openings to the cells. In this case no plugs are used anymore.
Lids with a central degassing channel can be fitted with flame arrestors. Firstly they
hold the electrolyte back if the battery is tilted or turned upside down. Secondly
sparks and flames are retained from backfiring into the battery.
Valve regulated lead acid batteries (VRLA) as e.g. Gel and AGM batteries are
equipped with special security valve plugs. Under normal operating conditions theses
batteries are able to avoid the generation of charge gases by an internal loop
process. Only if strongly overcharged, the loop process fails and the security valves
open to release overpressure. These valve plugs are one time fitted during the
manufacturing process and will not be removed afterwards.
Figure 24 Labyrinth lid with central degassing channel and flame arrestor
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Bosch Battery Manual
labyrinth
flame arrestor
In addition a power control system (SOC Indicator, see Figure 26) can be installed
either somewhere in the lid or in one of the screw-in plugs. The power control system
works like a hydrometer, using an optic and one or two small colored balls to give
information about the batterys status. The following picture shows a power control
system used in truck batteries. It consists of a cage, which holds a small green ball,
and an optic. In a fully operational battery more than half of the optic reaches into the
electrolyte. If the battery is fully charged (thus the acid density is high) the ball swims
in the upper right area of the cage and through the optic its green color can be seen.
If the batterys state of charge is low (thus the acid density is low) the ball is in the
lower left area of the cage and cannot be seen through the optic. The user can only
see a black color coming from the cage. If the electrolyte level is low and does not
cover the optic anymore, the user will see a grey or white color. In this case the
battery is used up and has to be replaced by a new one soon.
optic
cage ball
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Bosch Battery Manual
The plates, so-called grid plates, are constructed of lead grids (the carrier of the
active mass, Figure 28), and the active mass itself, which is pasted onto them.
The active mass of the positive plate contains lead dioxide (PbO2, dark brown), and
that of the negative plate contains pure lead in the form of spongy lead (Pb, metallic
grey). The active mass, which is subjected to chemical processes when current flows
through it, is porous and therefore provides a large effective surface area.
In a cell pack, all positive plates are welded together with a plate strap as well as all
the negative plates (Figure 20 and Figure 34). These straps are made of lead and
hold the individual plates mechanically in position. Normally, each element has one
more negative plate than it has positive plates.
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Bosch Battery Manual
Grid alloys
The grids are made of lead, alloyed with different chemical elements to obtain certain
characteristics. The grid alloys can be divided into: lead-antimony (PbSb), lead-
calcium (PbCa) and lead-calcium-silver (PbCaAg) often only named as lead-silver.
Besides these main and characteristic alloys all grids contain additional substances,
which are not explicitly mentioned, when talking about the different grid technologies.
the battery rests at a low acid density. The optimized grid geometry in addition with
the optimized electrical conductivity, allows a better utilization of the active mass,
which amplifies this effect.
Silver PbCaAg PbCa Very low 100% low Yes Low grid
Maintenance corrosion;
free +20%
lifespan;
higher
cold
cranking
power
Grid design
The grid geometry varies depending on the production process, the manufacturer
decided to use. A manufacturing process, where the grid is expanded from a lead
strip does not allow a frame around the grid. If the grid is produced by a casting
process it is possible to design other grid line geometries and have a frame around
the grid.
Following picture shows the different geometry of an expanded (on the left) and a
cast grid:
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Each grid has a lug, with which it is attached to the cell connector (see Figure 20 and
Figure 30). If the lug is positioned more to the center of the plate (the lug can never
be placed exactly in the center, because of the two cell straps as shown in Figure
20), it is called center lug. A center lug provides a more balanced fixing of the grid
plates inside the battery casing. This fixation allows an even thinner (about 30%
thinner compared to plates with a non-center lug) but stronger design of the plates
and therefore an increasing number of plates can be used. This leads to a further
increase in cold start performance without any loss of quality.
"Robust-design" battery versions have shorter and thicker positive plates with a
stronger frame. The shorter grid plates allow a larger volume of electrolyte above the
plates. Thereby the plates are always covered with electrolyte and protected against
corrosion. Such kinds of batteries are generally "tougher" in practical applications.
Active mass
The active mass is that part of the battery plates which changes chemically when
current flows during the charging and discharging processes. The mass is porous
and thus has a large surface area. The negative plates of a 100Ah battery for
example have a surface area of approximately 2000m2, the positive plates of about
30,000m2.
The active mass is produced as follows: Water, dilute sulphuric acid, and where
required other materials together with short plastic fibers are added to lead oxide,
which usually contains 5...15% of finely distributed metallic lead ("Grauoxid", literally
"grey oxide"). A dough-like mass is formed in a mixer or kneader. Alkaline lead
sulfates are produced in this way, whereas parts of the lead oxide and metallic lead
remain in their original forms. This dough-like mass is then pasted onto the grids and
left to harden.
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The subsequent process, the so called forming process, changes this mass
electrochemically into the active mass. This process takes place at the manufacturer.
The physical and chemical properties of lead are as following:
pH-value(25C): 7-8 (100 mg/l water)
solidification point: 327C
boiling point: 1740C
solubility in water: low (0.15 mg/l) (25 C)
density (20 C): 11.35 g/cm
vapour pressure (20 C) -
Lead and lead-containing battery paste is poorly soluble in water. Lead can be
dissolved in an acidic or alkaline environment.
2.5.4 Separators
Since weight and space-saving considerations are important for the design of
automotive batteries, the positive and negative plates are placed very close to each
other. Usually the space between the positive and negative plates is 0.8-1.5mm.
They must not touch each other neither when they bend nor when particles crumble
away from their surface. Otherwise the battery is immediately destroyed by the
resulting short-circuit.
Partitions (separators) are installed between the individual plates of the elements to
ensure that there is enough space between plates of opposite polarity and that they
are electrically insulated from each other. However, these separators must not
noticeably oppose the ion migration and they must be of acid-resistant, porous
material through which the electrolyte can pass freely. Such a microporous structure
prevents the very fine lead fibers penetrating the separators and causing short-
circuits.
Nowadays polyethylene foil, which is non-oxidizing and acid-resistant, is used as
separator material. This is brought into a pocket form, which surrounds (and
separates) the negative and positive battery plates (Figure 31). It prevents the active
material crumbling off the plates, as well as short-circuits at the bottom and at the
side edges of the plates. The average pore diameter is 10 times smaller than that of
conventional separators, which is an effective measure in preventing short-circuits
through the separator and it reduces the electrical resistance.
In former times and for conventional batteries the separators where not formed as
pockets. Only separator sheets were placed between the plates and consequently
they did not offer any protection against short circuit at the edges of the plates.
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For AGM batteries (absorbent glass mat) the separators are made of 100% micro
glass fiber fleece. The fleece is formed around the plate like a pocket separator
(Figure 32). It does not only separate the negative and positive plates, but it is also
the medium for storing and fixing the electrolyte. Each plate set is installed under
pressure into the battery case. This ensures even contact between the separators
and the plates, even acid distribution and avoids gassing as well as acid stratification.
The design with the compressed separators also leads to an improved paste
adhesion to the grid.
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2.5.5 Electrolyte
Battery electrolyte is a mixture of 64% distilled water and 36% sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Batteries today have an electrolyte with a specific gravity of about 1.270 g/cm3 (at
20C, 68F) when fully charged. Specific Gravity is the weight of a given volume of
liquid in comparison to the weight of the same volume of water. The higher the
specific gravity of a liquid the denser (thicker) it is.
The electrolyte permeates the pores in the plates and separators, and fills the free
space in the cells. Thus the lead oxide and lead particles of the active mass are
always in touch with the electrolyte.
When sulfuric acid is diluted in water the acid molecules split into positively charged
hydrogen ions (H+) and negatively charged acid-rest ions (SO42-). The splitting is
necessary to make the electrolyte conductive and to allow the chemical reaction
during the charge and discharge process.
The physical and chemical properties of sulfuric acid are as following:
pH-value(25C): 0.3 (49 mg/l water)
solidification point: -35 to -60 C
boiling point: approx. 108 to 144C
solubility in water: complete (25 C)
density (20 C): (1.2 to 1.3) g/cm
vapour pressure (20 C) 14.6 mbar
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Bosch Battery Manual
Conventional Batteries
Conventional batteries are designed with sludge ribs at the bottom area of the case.
Between the ribs lead sludge can accumulate without generating short circuits. This
design is necessary since no pocket separators are used, which would enclose the
bottom end of the plates. As grid alloy a relative high antimony content is used
(4...5%). On the one hand the antimony brings down the gassing voltage, thus the
gassing process starts earlier and the water loss is higher. Water need to be added
regularly through accessible screw-in plugs. On the other hand the antimony makes
the battery more cyclic durable. Because of the maintenance requirements a lid with
accessible screw-in plugs is used.
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Low-Maintenance Batteries
Low maintenance batteries are equipped with pocket separators. No sludge ribs are
necessary, thus the battery case has a flat bottom. The additional space is used by
larger plates. The larger plate surface area allows higher current drains and the flat
case bottom brings more stability, because the plates can stand along their full length
on the bottom.
The grid is alloyed with a lower antimony content than it is in conventional batteries
(<3.5%). The water consumption is lower, but still exceeds 4g/Ah, which is the limit
according to EN for maintenance free batteries. The lower antimony content also
reduces the self discharge rate, especially when the battery becomes older.
Because batteries with lead antimony grids have a higher cyclic durability they are
used in LCV and taxis. Also for motorcycles antimony batteries can be applied,
because the seasonal usage requires a more cyclic durable battery.
The advantages of a higher cyclic durability are often compensated by the
disadvantages of grid corrosion, resulting in a shortened lifetime. The reason is, that
grids with lead-antimony alloy are subject to a higher corrosion than grids with
calcium or silver alloy, used in battery technologies as described below.
Nowadays conventional batteries are seldom used in new vehicles, because they are
not maintenance free. In addition a passenger cars starter battery does not need to
be extreme cyclic durable.
batteries are antimony free. The water consumption is reduced to less than 1g/Ah, so
that during the whole lifespan no electrolyte needs to be added.
Bosch 100% maintenance free batteries have optimized grid geometries. Cast
positive grids with a surrounding border, an improved grid line layout and a center lug
allow thinner but more stable grids. The amount of plates can be increased therefore
the cold cranking performance is improved.
On 100% maintenance free batteries often the lid is designed with a labyrinth and it
has a central gas vent and flame arrestors. This design minimizes the water
consumption, prevents the spilling of electrolyte in case the battery is tipped-up for a
short time and prevents backfiring in case of sparks. The cover is equipped with
handles, which facilitate easy and safe transportation of the battery.
The low self-discharge level allows all maintenance-free batteries to be filled with
sulfuric acid at the factory. The filling procedure can take place under optimal
conditions, avoiding dangerous spilling of acid at wholesalers or car repair shops.
A 100% maintenance-free starter battery with lead-calcium-silver technology features
a higher starting power (approx 30% more) than a conventional battery. Basically
speaking, this is due to the thin but stronger plate design, which allows more plates to
be installed and the increased plate surface because of omitting the sediment
chambers.
Furthermore, thanks to the lead-calcium alloy used for the plate grids, the 100%
maintenance-free battery's starting power remains practically unchanged for years. It
only drops below the figure of the norm for new batteries when it almost reached its
end of service life. Whereas the 100% maintenance-free battery is still above the
given norm value after 75% of its service life, the conventional battery drops below
this figure considerably sooner (at approx. 40% of its service life). In practice a
conventional starter battery has already lost about a third of its original starting power
after 75% of its useful life (Figure 35).
In Figure 35 the graphs are scaled to a service life of 100%, so the difference in
lifespan between conventional, calcium and calcium-silver batteries can not be seen.
Lead-calcium batteries show a 1.4 times higher and lead-calcium-silver batteries a 3
times higher service life compared to conventional starter batteries.
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Nowadays 100% maintenance free batteries are state of the art and used in almost
all new vehicles by the original equipment manufacturers in Europe.
Also for commercial vehicles 100% maintenance free batteries with a calcium-
calcium or a calcium-silver technology are available. These batteries can be
equipped with a labyrinth lid and flame arrestors (as e.g. the Bosch CV battery
Tecmaxx)
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55
Bosch Battery Manual
13,0
test criteria : charge: 5h 14,8 V / 5 x i 20
12,5 discharge: 2h 5 x i 20
12,0
voltage (V)
11,5
10,0
9,5
9,0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
number of cycles
30
25
Lifespan up to
2,5 - 3 fache
Lebensdauer
3 times
20
lifespan
Lebensdauer
(months)
[Monate] 15
10
AGM H8
AGM H6
PAG H8
Hybrid H8
Battery type
Batterietype
Figure 37 Service Life of AGM, PAG and Hybrid Batteries during taxi field test
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Bosch Battery Manual
plates
Platten
plates
Platten
Lead - acid
nasse battery
Batterie AGM
AGM- battery
Batterie
Figure 38 Larger Plate Design of AGM batteries
The higher cold cranking values and the higher cyclic durability allows a downsizing
of the battery. This means a smaller battery with lower weight and capacity, but the
same cold cranking amperes can be used for the same application. E.g. a
maintenance free lead acid battery with 110Ah, 850 A CCA and a weight of 28.2 kg
can be replaced by an AGM battery with 92Ah, 850 CCA and only 26.4kg weight
(See samples in Figure 39):
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Antimony batteries as e.g. semitraction batteries are often sold as dry charged,
because as filled battery their maximum storage time would be too short.
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Unloading
All Bosch batteries are wrapped in plastic and placed on wooden pallets. In order to
unload the truck correctly, the batteries should be moved using a forklift/pallet carrier.
The forklift/pallet carrier or any other means of transportation used for unloading
should have metal protection on the surface and the user is obliged to wear safety
shoes and glasses. Unloading of the pallet should take place in presence of the
carrier.
After unloading before storing the batteries following should be checked:
- Age of the battery counting from the manufacturing date
- Open circuit voltage
- If the battery has accessible screw-in plugs check the electrolyte density
- For non maintenance-free batteries check if the electrolyte level is between
the max and min marks engraved on the battery case
- Visual inspection (case, cover, terminals, SOC indicator, colors, labels)
The values for maximum age, minimum voltage, etc. depend on the battery
technology, the average storage temperature and on the tier of the logistic chain.
Recommendations are given in the tables in chapter 3.4.
Following picture shows an example of an incoming inspection checklist of a regional
warehouse. For other tiers of the supply chain the checklist has to be modified
concerning the minimum voltage levels and the maximum battery age.
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Bosch Battery Manual
Supplier name:
Shipment data:
Bosch battery partnumber:
Battery name:
Production code:
(All test should be done with at least 5 batteries per part number
Test results Remark (Decision taken by Product Manager)
or 3 batteries per pallet)
Battery age ____ months If older than agreed with the supplier, reject
Weight of battery ________ / ________ / ________ / ________ / ________ If difference is more than 15% battery on hold
Leackage of batteries No leackage / Leakage If there are leacks, battery should be scraped
Outside of batteries: Case/ Cover No Damages / Damages If there are damaged, battery should be scraped
Outside of batteries: Terminal/ Indicators No Damages / Damages If they are damaged, battery should be scraped
Outside of batteries: Colors/ Label positioning Good / Bad If they are bad battery should be scraped
In all cases where the batteries are not OK please contact local Bosch battery product manager who will inform Bosch central marketing and supplier.
3.2 Storage
For an adequate storage, please pay attention to the following advices:
The floor area for stocking the batteries should have an easy access for forklift/pallet
carriers. The warehouse should be prepared and established for the use of these
forklift/pallet carriers. The batteries should be placed into and removed from stock
only by authorized persons who use safety equipment and safety clothing.
A battery should be stored on wooden pallets or racks in a horizontal position (Do not
lay down or tilt). Do not store them on the floor because small stones or sharp points
on a concrete floor can damage the battery case and cause leakage.
Make sure handles are left in a flat (down) position. Upright handles are more likely
to be damaged.
The battery should be kept in a dry place and not be exposed to direct sun light. The
average storage temperature should be 15C. Higher storage temperatures lead to
higher water consumption, higher corrosion and higher self discharge. In countries
with high average temperatures the storage temperature should not exceed 35C.
The maximum storage times deteriorate if stored at high temperatures.
Stacking
Do not stack unwrapped batteries on top of each other to avoid scratching and
tearing labels.
Shrink wrapped batteries or batteries packed in single carton boxes may be stacked
to not more than 3 layers. It is recommended to use cardboard or Styrofoam as
additional layer between the batteries.
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Batteries with terminal posts protruding the batterys lid should not be stacked at all
unless special provisions are taken to protect the terminals and make a stable
stacking possible.
From the manufacturer batteries are sometimes stacked up to 5 or 6 layers for
transportation. If a re-commissioning at one of the tiers of the supply chain is
necessary, the manufacturers maximum stacking height for a battery type should not
be exceeded.
The First in First out procedure has to be strictly applied. FiFo means, the first
battery to come into stock should be the first to go out.
FiFo manually:
- place the oldest batteries in front
- if stored on pallets place the oldest batteries in working height. 3rd or 4th
pallet from the ground
The main reason for excessive storage of batteries is disobeying the FiFo principle!
Batteries, which were stored excessively will not reach their full lifetime and
performance values and thus must not be sold to the end-user.
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12,8
12,7
12,6
12,5
recharge limit regional warehouse 5-10C
10-15C
U 0 [V]
12,4
recharge limit 1st trade level 15-20C
25C
12,3
12,2
limit for installation into vehicle/recharge limit 2nd trade level
12,1
12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
storage time counting from manufacturing date [months]
For example if a battery would be stored at 15C all the time from its production date
on, an OCV check and recharging would not be necessary if the battery would reach
the end-user before 15 months are passed counting from the manufacturing date. Of
course this represents the optimal case and assumes that the battery was fully
charged by the manufacturer and that the storage temperature was held constant
also during transportation. Long transports by sea, waiting times for and after
transport or for customs control are uncertainties, which influence the discharge
curve and may require an earlier voltage check plus recharging.
Because of that an incoming inspection as described above and regular voltage
checks are recommended.
The frequency of the voltage check depends on the average storage temperature.
For an average storage temperature of 10-25C the OCV should be checked on a
two-monthly basis. For a temperature range of 25-35C monthly voltage checks are
suggested.
Following voltage limits for recharging are suggested:
Regional Warehouse 12.5V
First Trade Level 12.4V
Second Trade Level 12.2V
The limit of 12.2 volt for the second trade level corresponds to the minimum voltage
level at which a battery should be installed in a vehicle, respectively sold to the end
user.
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Bosch Battery Manual
During the total storage time at the different tiers of the supply chain till the battery
reaches the end-user, a battery should never drop below 12 volts. Otherwise the
battery will sulphate and corrode, what cannot be completely reversed by charging.
Thus a battery, which dropped below 12V during storage, will not give the expected
performance and life time to the customer. Batteries, which dropped below 12V
should be scraped to avoid selling batteries with irreversible permanent damages.
The recommended maximum storage times for wet batteries can be found in the
overview in subchapter 3.4. Agreements between the suppliers along the supply
chain should be made to avoid selling bad batteries to the next trade level and finally
to the end-user. Batteries exceeding the total maximum storage life have to be
scraped and must not be sold to the end-user.
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Batteries filled for the next trade level have to be marked with the filling date to allow
FiFo stock procedures.
Note that performance checks on newly-commissioned dry-charged batteries with
modern electronic digital testers using conductance technology are not
recommended. Examples are testers supplied by Midtronics or Bosch. The results
can be misleading until the battery has undergone some service use.
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4 4 4 4 1 1
Incoming Inspection (min. three batteries per pallet):
Regional Warehouse
Refuse batteries, if
max. battery age is exceeded and/or OCV<12.6V
Check OCV every
2 months 1 month
If OCV12.5V recharge the battery!
Outgoing Inspection:
Strictly apply FiFo
9 6 8 6 2 2 Only sell batteries with an OCV12.5V
Incoming Inspection (min. three batteries per pallet):
Refuse batteries, if Do not let the OCV
1st trade level
2 months 1 month
If OCV12.2V recharge the battery!
Outgoing Inspection:
Strictly apply FiFo
18 12 15 12 6 6 Only sell batteries with an OCV12.2V
The given values are recommendations. Agreements between supplier and customer should be made for max. battery age and min. OCV
Silver AGM Batteries Gel Batteries Conversion of OCV and specifig gravity
Bosch Silver Bosch Hightec Bosch AS Gel OCV [V] Specific Gravity [g/cm3]
Bosch Asia Silver Optima 12,2 1,19
Bosch Tecmaxx 12,4 1,23
Bosch Tecmaxx HDE Bosch Battery Brands Sb/Sb 12,5 1,24
Bosch white CV 12,6 1,26
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9 9
Regional Warehouse
18 18
Only fill the battery
directly before the
shipment to the next
1st trade level
26 26
(accumulated max.
2nd trade level
storage time)
36 36
If the total storage time is exceeded,
scrap the battery!
3.5 Transportation
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Safety equipment:
- barrier tape black and yellow (to mark off areas), safety glasses, gloves and
safety blankets
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Wet, filled with Bosch Silver UN number 2794 UN number 2794 UN number 2794
acid Bosch Silver Plus
Bosch Asia Silver No dangerous goods, when certain Dangerous good! Dangerous good!
Bosch Tecmaxx precautions are taken in accordance
Bosch Standard with the special provision 598 a
(Remark A)
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Remark A
Special provision 598 of ADR:
The following are not subject to the requirements of ADR:
(a) New storage batteries when
- they are secured in such a way that they cannot slip, fall or be damaged
- they are provided with carrying devices, unless they are suitably stacked (e.g.
on pallets)
- there are no dangerous traces of alkalis or acids on the outside
- they are protected against short circuits
(b) Used storage batteries when:
- their cases are undamaged
- they are secured in such a way that they cannot leak, slip, fall or be damaged,
e.g. by stacking on pallets
- there are no dangerous traces of alkalis or acids on the outside of the articles
- they are protected against short circuits
"Used storage batteries" means storage batteries carried for recycling at the end of
their normal service life.
Remark B
The manufacturer is responsible for performing the below mentioned tests. The
fulfilment of the special provision is then mentioned in the safety data sheets by the
manufacturer.
Special provision 238 (a):
(same contents as corresponding IATA special regulations A67)
Batteries can be considered as non-spillable provided that they are capable of
withstanding the vibration and pressure differential tests given below, without leakage
of battery fluid.
Vibration test: The battery is rigidly clamped to the platform of a vibration machine
and a simple harmonic motion having an amplitude of 0.8 mm (1.6 mm maximum
total excursion) is applied. The frequency is varied at the rate of 1 Hz/min between
the limits of 10 Hz and 55 Hz. The entire range of frequencies and return is traversed
in 95 5 minutes for each mounting position (direction of vibration) of the battery. The
battery is tested in three mutually perpendicular positions (to include testing with fill
openings and vents, if any, in an inverted position) for equal time periods.
Pressure differential test: Following the vibration test, the battery is stored for six
hours at 24 C 4 C while subjected to a pressure differential of at least 88 kPa. The
battery is tested in three mutually perpendicular positions (to include testing with fill
openings and vents, if any, in an inverted position) for at least six hours in each
position.
238 (b)
Non-spillable batteries are not subject to these Regulations if, at a temperature of
55C, the electrolyte will not flow from a ruptured or cracked case and there is no free
liquid to flow and if, when packaged for transport, the terminals are protected from
short circuit.
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4 Battery Charging
U I
t t
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Bosch Battery Manual
U
I=
R
A high voltage leads to a high current and shortens the charge duration. Indeed a
high voltage also results in higher water consumption. Thus high voltages are only
used for a limited time to speed up charging. As maximum charge voltage 2.4V per
cell should be applied.
A too low voltage results in an acid stratification, because the gassing is not strong
enough to stir up the electrolyte.
U Charging with constant voltage until the current does not decrease
noticeably for a certain period of time (manual cut-off)
Ua with automatic cut-off
U I
t t
U I
t t
Simple standard chargers usually use the W-charge curve, because this
characteristic can be technically realized in an easy and simple way. A disadvantage
is that the charging current drops long before the gassing voltage is reached. Thus it
takes a very long time to fully charge a battery.
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U
I U I U
2,4 V
t t
IUIa a) I Charging with (high) constant current until the gassing voltage of 2.4V
per cell is reached.
b) U Charging with constant voltage (2.4V per cell) until a specific current
is reached or until the current does not noticeably change anymore.
c) Ia Charging with a low constant current, which leads to a higher voltage
due to the increasing internal resistant of the battery. The occurring
gassing will mix up the electrolyte. The charge cycle will be automatically
shut off.
U I
I U Ia I U Ia
2,4 V
t t
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IUoU a) I Charging with (high) constant current until the gassing voltage of 2.4V
per cell is reached.
b) Uo Charging with constant voltage (2.4V per cell) for a limited time o
c) U Charging with a lower constant voltage (approx 2.3V per cell) as
trickle charge phase
U I
I Uo U I Uo U
2,4 V
t t
I1U1I2aI3aI3
a) I1 Charging with constant current (I=10-15% of nominal capacity) until
the gassing voltage of 2.4V per cell is reached
b) U1 Charging with constant voltage (2.4V per cell) until a specific current
is reached
c) I2 Charging with a constant current (I=approx. 1% of nominal capacity)
for a limited time (approx. 65% of the duration for phase I1U1)
d) I3aI3 Trickle charge phase with I=1% of nominal capacity with an
automatic cutoff. This phase reactivates as soon as the battery self
discharges below a certain voltage
U I
I1 U1 I2a I3a I1 U1 I2a I3a
2,4 V
t t
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U I
W U W U
2,4 V
t t
U I
W Uo U W Uo U
2,4 V
t t
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U I
W U Ia W U Ia
2,4 V
t t
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Remarks:
All mentioned values are valid for an ambient temperature of 25C +/-5C. The
density value changes with the temperature: 0,01g/cm3 per 14K temperature
difference
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When measuring the voltage it is necessary to wait until the battery is in a steady
state. After e.g. a previous charging process a voltage excursion occurs, which can
be removed by:
- let the battery rest for approx. 60-120 minutes. If there is enough time, let the
battery rest for 24 hours.
- or discharge the battery with 200A for 15 second
For a new battery following table is a rough guide to show the relationship between
the open circuit voltage and the state of charge. If the battery is older and already
parts of it became sulfated, the below mention values do not any longer express the
real state of charge. Such a partly damaged battery will have a high OCV, but under
load the voltage will drop quickly.
12.75 100
12.60 85
12.40 65
12.20 55
12.00 40
Table 12 Determination of recharging point by OCV
If the voltage is below 12.4V, the battery must be recharged. This voltage level also
protects the battery from freezing when exposed to temperatures of up to -15C.
The above stated OCV are based on a measurement temperature of 25C +/-5C.
In case the battery has a temperature differing +/- 10C the temperature should be
compensated as follows:
Temperature >25C by +1.2mV/C
<25C by 1.2mV/C
Example:
OCV 12.51 V at a measurement temperature of +40C.
The OCV based on 25C has to be calculated as follows:
Temperature difference 40-25=15C
15C X 1,2mV/C= 0,018V
OCV based on 25C is 12.51 0,018 = 12.49V
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Charging in series
If more than one battery shall be recharged the batteries can be connected in series,
this means, the negative pole of the first battery connected to positive pole of the
second battery, the negative pole of the second to the positive pole of the third, etc.
This leaves the positive pole of the first battery and the negative pole of the last
battery open. Only batteries of the same type, same capacity, the same state of
charge and the same age should be charged in the same circuit. This will prevent
less discharged batteries from being overcharged. If possible, all batteries which
need to be recharged should have their density checked, in order to determine their
state of charge. If the density can not be checked, the OCV has to be measured.
The batteries should be placed with a minimum space of 20 mm between each other
for charging.
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If others than the above mentioned chargers are used, following advices should be
taken into account:
Chargers using only one of the following charge curves should NOT be used:
- W-curve
If there is no voltage limitation or any automatic cutoff, a simple charger
using only the W-principle should not be used.
- I-curve
Such chargers do not have any voltage limitation or automatic cutoff!
- U-curve
A constant voltage power supply is having a U-curve. If they have no
current limitation, they should not be used to charge lead acid batteries.
Chargers, with modified mixed curves including the above mentioned ones, can also
be applied. E.g. I1U1I2aI3a, WoWa, IUIa, etc. In general one of the above
mentioned characteristics modified by an automatic cutoff or the use of different
trickle charge phases can be applied.
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Single recharge
If gel batteries are recharged by importers, by different trade levels e.g. during
storage or by service workshops for testing purposes all in chapter 4.4.1 mentioned
chargers (except from SL 24100 E) can be used.
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b) WUoU
Same values as given above for IUoU.
c) IUIa
IU-main charge phase:
I=15-40A per 100Ah capacity (K20)
U=14.1-14.4V
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It is good practice to wait for about 20 minutes for the gases to clear before removing
the leads from the battery as some chargers remain live and can cause a spark.
Check the acid level in case of maintainable batteries and top up with purified water if
necessary.
Refit vent-plugs or gas pipes if these have been removed. Wash the battery with hot
water and dry it.
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5.1 Starter
The starter is a powerful electric motor, with a small gear (pinion) attached to the end.
When activated, the pinion is meshed with a larger gear (ring), which is attached to
the engine. The starter motor then spins the engine over so that the piston can draw
in a fuel/air mixture, which is then ignited to start the engine. When the engine starts
to spin faster than the starter, a device called overrunning clutch (bendix drive)
automatically disengages the starter gear from the engine gear.
If the starter motor has a defect, it will need extra high power from the battery. In this
case the battery becomes strongly discharged or in worst case it cannot crank the
engine at all. Irreversible damages to the battery are possible.
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5.2 Alternator
An alternator is a device, which transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Thus it supplies electric power for the vehicle electric systems and it recharges the
battery when the engine is running at higher rotation speed, so that more energy is
generated than the consumers need.
The basic working principle of the alternator is the electrodynamic principle. When an
electric conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a potential is generated
(induced) in the conductor. For the induction it is not important whether the conductor
is moved through a magnetic field or the conductor is static and the magnetic field is
moving. The generators used for vehicles operate as three-phase alternator.
If the alternator is not working properly it will not supply enough energy to all
consumers. Consequently the battery becomes discharged and irreversible damages
to the battery are possible.
Possible problems related to the alternator are:
- The belt which connects the engine to the alternator is loose
- Brushes are worn out
- Bearings or bushes are worn out
- Rectification and excitation diodes are in bad conditions
- Bad connection between cables and alternator
- Bad connection between battery and cables
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A no-load current of <50mA is ok. In some vehicles higher no load currents can
occur. For further information on vehicle specific acceptable no-load currents consult
your Bosch service hotline or the vehicle manufacturer.
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As a reference the following table shows typical no-load currents for different
consumers:
Consumer Max. no-load
current (mA)
Navigation system 5
Alarm 10
Window opening mechanism 5
Ignition system 5
Injection system 5
Digital clock 3
Radio with code system 3
Analogue clock 7
Table 15 Maximum no-load currents of different consumers
The values above refer to the maximum consumption per single equipment. If the
vehicle has an electrical window opening mechanism in each door and if it is a four-
door vehicle, the resulting no-load current of the whole window opening system is 4 x
5mA = 20mA. If the vehicle has a digital clock integrated in the radio with code
system, then there is a load of 3mA from the clock + 3mA from the code system
=6mA, and so on.
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12 V 12 V
(3)
(4)
Important:
Away from the battery
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battery case and the support area can cause wear and tear of the case, furthermore
the case can break and electrolyte can leak.
Clean the battery terminals and terminal clamps, grease them lightly with acid-free
grease. When installing, connect the positive terminal (+) first, followed by the
negative terminal (-). Ensure that the terminal clamps are securely fastened.
Accessory parts such as hose connections, terminal holders or terminal caps from
the old battery should be used. Use the filler plugs supplied.
At least one went must always remain open to prevent the danger of explosion.
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6 Battery Testing
The battery tester delivers the best results if no charging or current consumption has
taken place on the battery for at least one hour prior to the test. Charging the battery
leads to a temporarily excessively high voltage and the battery tester would assess
the battery with a result that is too critical. On the opposite if the battery test would be
done shortly after the battery has been discharged with a high load or during a
current drain, the test would assess the battery as too good.
Letting the battery leave to stand after charging lets the surface charge dissipate into
the active mass and thus ensures accurate testing. Also a high rate discharge tester
can be used to remove the surface charge and afterwards a test can be done as
normal. Especially if a deeply discharged battery is returned and subsequently
recharged, a high rate discharge should be done before testing the battery with the
BAT121.
Principally the BAT 121 indicates correct test results for all kind of 12V starter
batteries (also on AGM and Optima starter batteries (except from small traction
batteries)). Unfortunately all types of batteries need to be used for some days under
normal cyclic conditions until they achieve their entire capacity, which has technical
reasons and does not point out a defective battery. Thus a new unused battery can
have much less capacity and performance than nominally stated. If the cold cranking
performance is measured with the BAT 121, the test result can be misleading. It is
recommended to judge new and unused batteries, e.g. when doing an incoming
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inspection before putting the batteries onto stock, based on an open circuit voltage
measurement only.
It has to be emphasized, that the reason for misleading test results, if the battery did
not rest long enough or if a new and unused battery is tested, is not the BAT121
itself. Responsible are the chemical and physical properties of the lead acid
technology. Other battery testers have to cope with the same problems and will give
the same false readings.
The BAT121 cannot be used for batteries with a stated cold start test current smaller
than 50A. E.g. motor bicycle batteries might have a lower cold start test current and
thus cannot be tested with the BAT121.
Batteries can be tested with the BAT 121 down to a voltage of approximately 9 Volts.
Such a low voltage or in fact a voltage below 10.5V, rather comes from outside
influences than from a battery defect. Batteries do not self-discharge themselves to
such low voltages.
Any battery returned with such a deficient state of charge has been operated under
abnormal conditions and has probably been subjected to a prolonged low rate
discharge. Before testing the battery needs to be recharged.
A battery with an OCV below 12.2V is technically flat and needs to be recharged
before going back into service. If the battery is left in a low charged condition for a
few weeks, sulfating will start on the plates. This will decrease the batterys ability to
become charged and in some cases it prevents it completely.
The battery terminal post should be cleaned before the BAT121 will be connected to
it. Pay attention to have a good electrical connection between the tester and the
battery terminal posts.
Conventional wisdom states that one or two cells with low specific gravity are a sure
sign of a dead cell or cells. Equally, when one or several cells boil under a high rate
discharge it is usually judged as a cell fault. These two judgments can be misleading
but the BAT 121 is an accurate means of analyzing real short-circuits. It is quite
possible to diagnose faulty cells using conventional testing procedures, but the BAT
121 does not show a bad cell result. In this case the BAT 121 is correct.
The test program calculates the results "good" or "replace" from the charge level of
the battery (derived from the battery voltage) and the currently available start
performance of the battery. Thus it is possible that a battery with a start performance
of 45% will be classified as "good", while another with a start performance of 75% will
be classified as bad ("replace").
The start performance states the proportion of the determined cold test current and
the cold test current entered for the battery. Start performance may exceed 100%.
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1) If the replace battery reading appears after testing a relatively new battery (less
than 18 months old), it is almost certain that this battery will not need to be
replaced.
This is a symptom of a negative load balance within the car. The negative load
balance is associated with excessive town/low speed driving with most/all the
electrical consumers running. In these situations the energy produced by the
alternator is insufficient to recharge both the battery and power all the electrical
consumers. As a result the battery is slowly becoming discharged and it will
eventually reach a point where starting becomes a problem. This is not necessarily
a fault of the car or the battery but the environment and driving cycle in which it is
used. This situation can also arise if the vehicle has been resting for a long time
and then has only been used for relatively short trips at low average speeds.
In such cases the battery need to be completely recharged and afterwards rest for
at least 60 minutes. Best would be to let the battery rest for 24 hours. A
subsequent test will almost certainly show the reading good battery.
Test procedure
1. Is there one cell with a low specific gravity, while the other cells have 1.25g/cm3 or
above?
YES Replace the battery under warranty
NO Continue with 2.
Cell 1 2 3 4 5 6
1.28 1.28 1.14 1.28 1.28 1.28
- +
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2. Is the electrolyte discoloured (dark brown), or do the terminal caps blacken on the
inside, and/or is there evidence of excessive water consumption?
YES Damaged caused by overcharging. Test voltage regulator. Warranty will
be rejected.
NO Continue with 3.
3. If the specific gravity is the same in all cells, but reading 1.24g/cm3 or lower,
charge the battery. Is the charge acceptance at least 1/20th of the nominal
capacity? (e.g. 100Ah battery: 100 x 1/20 = 5A)
YES Charge the battery then proceed with a high rate discharge test. If after
a full recharging a reading of 1.24g/cm3 is not achieved, then there is
no reason for a warranty claim. The battery is simply ageing and
therefore having less than 100% performance.
NO Damage caused by deep discharge or undercharging. Check the
vehicles electrics (i.e. the voltage regulator, alternator, fan belt, etc.).
Warranty claims will be rejected.
4. Is the specific gravity the same in all cells and above 1.25g/cm3?
YES Continue with a high rate discharge test
NO charge the battery, then proceed with a high rate discharge test
Note: If the specific gravity is higher than 1.29g/cm3 the electrolyte level has probably
been filled up with a mixture of sulfuric acid and water. This will lead to a chemical
reaction which is not equilibrated and it can reduce the battery service life. The
battery may only be filled up with distilled water!
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Results
- Voltage remains stable. Good battery, no fault found
- Voltage drops below 9.6volts. Replace the battery under warranty.
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7 Warranty
Link to the handbook valid for region Middle (in German language)
http://www.ka.de.bosch.com/kdg/de/KD%20fuer%20Kfz/GW-Handbuch.htm
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chapter 7.1.4), it is possible that the warranty period recommences after replacing the
battery.
The warranty periods for different battery types and different applications may vary.
As shown in the table below it can be useful to distinguish the warranty periods by
application. Specific values have to be stipulated in the local countries terms and
conditions.
Application Battery line Alloy Warranty Period
Passenger cars Bosch Silver Plus Silver 24 months
Bosch Silver Silver 24 months
Bosch Asia Silver Silver 24 months
Centro Hybrid/Antimony 24 months
Commercial TECMAXX Silver 24 months
vehicles RF Antimony 24 months
HD Antimony 24 months
HD-Extra Antimony 24 months
Centro Hybrid/Antimony 24 months
Motorcycles Gel Calcium 24 months
Standard Antimony 24 months
Traction + lighting Gel Calcium 12 months, max.
600 cycles
Standard Antimony 12 months, max.
400 cycles
Taxis HD Antimony 24 months
100 Tkm or
2.400hrs
Special Optima 24 months
applications
Table 17 Sample for warranty periods depending on application and product type
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1 no
Receipt
available?
yes
Within 2 no
warranty
period?
yes
3 no
Right usage of
the battery?
yes
Visual check 4 bad
of battery
condition?
good
5 Reject warranty
Testing the battery with
a BAT121
6
Testing the vehicle
electrical system
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A
5
Check the battery
with BAT121
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no
no Reject warranty
no
no
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Electrolyte discoloured
yes or terminal caps
blacken or high water
consumption?
Reject warranty no
9 Charge Battery
no yes
Test failed?
Finish charging
yes
no
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An important part of the whole battery warranty procedure is the dialog with the
customer. Only if asking the right questions to the costumer, the batterys usage and
the reason for the battery failure can be found out. In many cases the battery is
defective and the reason is not the battery itself but occurs from the vehicle or a
wrong handling. Only if the reason for the failure is found, a trouble free operation
can be assured for the future. The numbers used for the following process
description match the numbers in the process flow diagrams.
3. Battery usage
It is a very important step to find out more about the usage of the battery. For
which application and how does the customer use the battery?
Already at this point it often appears to be not a manufacturing or a material
fault but an inappropriate battery was used. Here it is essential to advise the
customer and help choosing the correct battery for the future, thus further
battery failures can be avoided.
Following questions can be asked in the case of passenger car batteries:
What is the reason for the claim?
In which kind of vehicle do you use the battery?
- Taxis and LCVs
The electrical consumption of these vehicles is often very high. The use
of cyclic resistant (antimony) batteries is suggested. The warranty can be
limited to a certain amount of km or operating hours for this kind of
application.
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- RV
An extreme cyclic load is applied to the battery. Warranty claims can be
rejected. The use of a traction and lighting battery is suggested.
- Lift trucks, tractors, construction machines
The mechanical load due to vibrations is high in these vehicles. The use
of vibration resistant batteries is suggested. The warranty period can be
reduced to a certain amount of operating hours for this application.
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- if the terminal posts are impressed or show other visible damages (e.g.
from over tightening the cable connectors)
- if the terminals are molten, which is a sign for an external short circuit
- if the Power Control System shows a transparent reading, which
indicates an excessive consumption of the electrolyte. This is usually a
sign for overcharging
If a high rate discharge tester is available or if the battery has accessible screw-in
plugs, the battery can be removed from the vehicle and following process steps can
be performed:
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8. Testing the specific gravity of the electrolyte for batteries with accessible
screw-in plugs
See chapter 6.2 for the instructions of a specific gravity test
Internal break
The battery will have good specific gravity readings but no terminal voltage can be
measured.
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Deep discharge
A battery is deeply discharged when the total capacity is used up. The longer a
battery is left in this state, the higher is the damage of the active mass. The plates
begin to sulfate and charging becomes impossible. This damage is irreversible.
Possible reasons for deep discharge are:
- see the reasons for a low state of charge
- the light or other consumers were not shut off
A battery with a good state of charge usually has a no-load voltage of >12.6V. Thus
the no-load voltage of each cell is approximately 2.1V. If there is a short circuit of a
single cell, it leads to a reduction of the terminal voltage by approx. 2.1V to a typical
short-circuit voltage of 10.5V. The probability for two cells of one battery having a
short circuit is very low. In case of two short circuit cells the OCV drops by 4.2V to a
value of 8.4V. To exclude influences to the terminal voltage by long transportation
and storage times, by two short circuit cells and so on, only batteries with a no-load
voltage below 8 Volts are recognized as deeply discharged and warranty claims will
be rejected.
Deep discharge particularly occurs when the vehicle is used seasonally like
motorcycles or RVs. Deep discharge can be prevented by disconnecting the battery
from the vehicle electrical system (see chapter 5.7 and 5.8). The battery should then
be checked, if necessary recharged and stored in a cool and dry place.
Sulphation
If a battery is allowed to stand in a discharged state for an excessive amount of time,
a chemical reaction, called sulphation, takes place, which can permanently impair
performance. During the discharge process, lead sulfate is built at the positive and
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negative plates, which is finely distributed across the plates. The longer the battery is
left in a discharged stage, the fine sulfate crystals develop into larger ones, which can
only hardly be transformed back to lead dioxide or lead. Sulphation can be seen as a
fine white/grey coating on the plates. In most cases this signifies irreversible damage
and the battery will not be serviceable. 80% of all battery failures are related to
sulfation.
This damage can occur either during storage or if the battery is installed in a vehicle
(or equipment) that is not used for a long period of time, for example a tractor,
motorcycle, or boat. In vehicles there is a permanent drain on the battery from the
clock, alarm etc. As a result the level of charge in the battery decreases, and after a
period of time sulphation will build up on the plates. But also a disconnected battery
will start sulfating because of its self-discharge.
The causes for sulphating can be summarized as:
- Batteries sit too long between charges
- "Deep cycling" an engine starter battery. These batteries can not stand deep
discharge
- Undercharging of a battery will allow sulfation. Undercharging can also come
from incorrect charging levels and settings
- Low electrolyte level - battery plates exposed to air will immediately sulfate
The sulphation (lead sulphate) hinders the chemical reaction between the acid
(electrolyte) and the active mass (lead compound) in the plates and prevents the
battery from operating as normal. Even after recharging the voltage will be low
(<12.4V) but the cells will generally have even readings. Sulphation is not a
manufacturing fault.
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Acid Stratification
A common cause of battery failure is acid stratification. The electrolyte on a stratified
battery concentrates on the bottom, causing the upper half of the cell to be acid poor.
This effect is similar to a cup of coffee in which the sugar collects on the bottom when
the waitress forgets to bring the stirring spoon. Batteries tend to stratify if kept at low
charge (below 80%) and never have the opportunity to receive a full charge. Short
distance driving while running windshield wiper and electric heaters contributes to
this. Acid stratification reduces the overall performance of the battery.
Figure 47 illustrates a normal battery in which the acid is equally distributed from top
to bottom. This battery provides good performance because the correct acid
concentration surrounds the plates. Figure 48 shows a stratified battery in which the
acid concentration is light on top and heavy on the bottom. A light acid limits plate
activation, promotes corrosion and reduces performance. High acid concentration on
the bottom, on the other hand, artificially raises the open circuit voltage. The battery
appears fully charged but provides a low cold cranking power. High acid
concentration also promotes sulfation and decreases the already low conductivity
further. If unchecked, such a condition will eventually lead to a battery failure.
Fully charging the battery, applying a shaking motion or tipping the unit over tends to
correct the problem.
Overcharging
Overcharging is often related to an inadequate high temperature in the engine
compartment. Also a defective voltage regulator is often the reason for overcharging.
Characteristical for overcharging is a high corrosion of the grids, loose positive active
mass, damaged active mass as well as noticeable high water consumption. When
examining an overcharged battery, often a low level of electrolyte can be found and
quite often a black coating is visible on the filler caps. Due to excessive water
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consumption the specific gravity of the electrolyte can raise to values of 1.3g/cm3 or
above. High temperature leads to a lower internal resistance of the battery, which
results in a higher charging current and thus increases the effect of overcharging.
Physical damage
If the battery is installed and fixed incorrectly, if the connector leads are hammered
onto the terminals, or if the leads are not properly fastened, the battery will have
obvious damage to the casing or the terminals. The terminal posts can also be
molten if the battery was subject to a short circuit.
Incorrect application
The batteries recommended by Bosch are those equal to or above the OE
specification. Choosing a battery with less capacity or a less powerful battery will
result in a shorter service life and early failure. Usually it will lead to a low state of
charge with the above mentioned effects.
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