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saturation temperatures of -10C are tested. Heat transfer Dobson and Chato concluded that annular correlations is
data under working conditions that the refrigerant to tube suitable for mass flux over 500 ) or mass flux
wall temperature difference varied from 5C to 2 C was less than 500 ) but with Frso over 20. For a
recorded. An open carbon dioxide condensation loop, mass flux less than 500 ) with Frso less than 20,
which is based on the original design of Ossama (2010), wavy flow correlation can be used. Therefore, Frso=20 is
was built in Thermodynamics laboratory of University of nominated as a transition value from wavy flow to
Auckland to investigate the carbon dioxide heat transfer annular flow by Dobson and Chato. Nellis and Klein
characteristics under above stratified flow regimes. Its (2009) separated the wavy flow group to stratified and
maximum design test range of refrigerant mass flow rate stratified wavy, also added Frso=6 as transition value.
is to ). These modifications have been implemented in the
procedure Cond_HrizontalTube of EES software. The
Literature Review Frso number is given by
2
through a mass flow meter, a throttle valve and a sub-
cooler that assures that liquid carbon dioxide leaves this
tank with a measured level of sub-cooling. In order to get
the desired two phase vapour quality of carbon dioxide, a
pre-heater with accurate energy input is used to heat the
liquid carbon dioxide before it enters into the test section.
Space limitations within the laboratory required this pipe
to have a 180 bend before the test section. In order to
minimise the possibility of the bend creating disturbance
to the flow patterns, there is an adiabatic and 0.8 meter
long calming section for the flow before the test section.
3
Experimental Procedure
( ) (3)
At the start of each test, dry ice was added to both the
sub-cooler and glycol water baths. At this time the
( ) ( )
carbon dioxide leaving the sub-cooler was below its (4)
saturation temperature, this value was recorded and used ( )
to determine the energy to be added in pre-heater. At this ( )
stage, the glycol water bath temperature was controlled
and set equal to the carbon dioxide saturation where , , , , , , ,
temperature. are the overall heat transfer coefficient, the
outside tube surface area, the logarithm mean
The carbon dioxide flowing through the open loop was temperature difference, the mass flow rate of glycol
discharged to the environment while the system pressure water, the specific heat of glycol water, the inlet
was stabilised and any residual air was purged from the temperature of glycol water, the outlet temperature of
system. When the operation conditions became steady, glycol water, the inlet temperature of carbon dioxide and
dry ice was added into the sub-cooler bath to maintain the outlet temperature of carbon dioxide, respectively.
the sub-cooled status of carbon dioxide before it flowed
into pre-heater. The mass flow rate and system pressure The overall heat transfer coefficient for the tube is given
were then changed to the required working conditions by by equation 5:
adjusting the throttle valve and back pressure regulator.
The pre-heater was switched on and adjusted to provide (5)
the required vapour quality at entry to the test section.
The refrigeration system was started at the beginning of In E Equation 5, where , , are glycol water
each test and the temperature of the glycol water mixture side convection heat transfer coefficient, the conductivity
was set to the required values. The brine pump was then of copper tube, the length of heat exchanger and the
started and the glycol water was directed to the test external and internal diameter of the tube respectively.
section. At this time, the carbon dioxide pressure and
mass flow rate were stabilized manually while glycol Due to the design constraints in the current test rig, the
water temperature gradually increased. In a typical test inner tube wall temperature cannot be measured directly.
the wall-to-refrigerant temperature differences fall from Consequently, the quasi-local heat transfer rate of carbon
5C to 2C in a 15 minute period. dioxide was determined by using correlations to evaluate
the glycol water side coefficients provided by Shah and
The quasi-local heat transfer coefficient is used to London (1978):
represent the heat transfer coefficient of the carbon
dioxide corresponding to initial set value of vapour The energy of pre-heater input was calculated from
quality. During each test, the carbon dioxide quality Equation 6:
reduces as it flows along the test section. This change
( ( ) ) (6)
also influences the evolving local heat transfer
coefficient. This problem is a common feature of two-
phase flow condensation studies. It is generally where , , , , , are the
considered that a reasonable vapour quality change in the amount of heat needed to add to carbon dioxide , the
test section should be limited to 10%-30% (Jung et al., mass flow rate of carbon dioxide, the enthalpy difference
2003). It should also be noticed that quasi-local heat between saturated vapour and saturated liquid of carbon
transfer coefficients will be more accurate under high dioxide under certain temperatures, the desired vapour
refrigerant mass flow rate. When the refrigerant has a quality, the temperature of carbon dioxide coming out of
low mass flow rate, it is difficult to control two phase the sub-cooler and the specific heat of carbon dioxide.
conditions in the carbon dioxide at low inlet qualities. If
the inlet vapour quality was 0.2, carbon dioxide could be Experimental Results
fully condensed before it leaves the test section.
The trend of the test results presented in Figures 5, 6 and
Data Reduction 7 show that the internal heat transfer coefficients increase
with higher vapour quality at different mass flux. By
The quasi-local heat transfer coefficient should be comparing these results with the predictions of Dobson et
calculated by Equation 2 al. and Cavallini et al. it is found that the results are much
closer to Cavallinis calculations. This observation was
also confirmed by Nellis and Klein (2009) who pointed
(2) out that Dobsons correlation tends to over predict the
where h, , and represent the quasi-local heat heat transfer coefficients of high pressure refrigerants.
transfer coefficient of carbon dioxide ( ), the For the test results reported above with a mass flux of 40,
heat transfer rate from carbon dioxide to glycol water( ), 50 ), there are clear distinctions between low
the inner tube surface area( ), the saturation vapour qualities(x=0.2) and those found at higher vapour
temperature of carbon dioxide and the temperature of qualities. That is mainly caused by low mass flux used in
inner tube wall, respectively. these tests, carbon dioxide was fully condensed within
the test section. Consequently, the heat transfer data
The energy flow into the test section is given by equation under these conditions were similar and close to the
3, values obtained for forced convection.
4
4500 5000
x=0.8
x=0.8
4000 4500
x=0.6
x=0.6
Heat Transfer Coefficients (w/m^2-k)
4000
3500
x=0.4
x=0.4
1500
1500
1000
1000
500 500
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2
Temperature difference of tube wall-to-carbon dioxide () Temperature difference of tube wall-to-carbon dioxide ()
x=0.2 x=0.2
x=0.4 x=0.4
x=0.6 x=0.6
x=0.8 x=0.8
Dobson Chato's correlation prediction Dobson's correlation prediction
Cavallini's correlation prediction Cavallini's correlation prediction
Figure 5. Heat transfer coefficients of Carbon Dioxide vary with Figure 7. Heat transfer coefficients of Carbon Dioxide vary with
wall to refrigerant temperature differences at 40 ), wall to refrigerant temperature differences at 60 ),
3500
x=0.4 transfer process. However, Dobson et al. (1998)
concluded that the gravity-dominated flow regimes were
3000 nearly independent of mass flux but with the wall-to-
x=0.8
x=0.2 temperature differences. Figure.8 and Figure.9 show the
x=0.6
2500 x=0.4 predictions obtained from that Dobson and Cavallinis
x=0.2 correlations calculating heat transfer coefficients vary
2000
with temperature differences. It can be shown that
different trends of heat transfer coefficients with mass
flux are predicted by these two group correlations.
1500 Dobsons correlation calculation results indicate that heat
transfer coefficients increase with higher mass fluxes at
1000 each vapour quality points. However, its interesting to
find that the inverse trend in Cavallinis correlation
500 results. By comparing the test data results from Figure.5
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 to Figure.7, a slightly increasing trend of Heat transfer
Temperature difference of tube wall-to-carbon dioxide () coefficients with higher mass fluxes can be found. The
x=0.2 reason that Cavallinis correlations showing the inverse
x=0.4
x=0.6
trend probably is that the heat transfer correlation is
x=0.8 calculated by a linear interpolation between annular flow
Dobson's correlation prediction regime correlation and stratified regime correlation. The
Cavallini's correlation prediction mass fluxes have an inverse proportion relationship with
heat transfer coefficient in annular correlations.
Figure 6. Heat transfer coefficients of Carbon Dioxide vary with
wall to refrigerant temperature differences at 50 ),
5
suitable correlation for gravity-controlled correlations for
carbon dioxide.
When the influence of tube wall temperatures
on heat transfer coefficients are further investigated, the
difference in temperature values should be controlled to
3C, then the effect will be shown clearly as the results
shown apparently in this paper. Also, the temperature
differences of wall-to refrigerant should be controlled to
3C when carbon dioxide is under stratified flow regimes
to get higher heat transfer coefficient.
References
Figure8. Dobson and Chato's stratified correlation predicting htc
[1] Dobson M.K, Chato J.C., Condensation in smooth
of carbon dioxide under conditions of TS=-10C, m=40, 50,
horizontal tubes. ASME J Heat Transfer, 120, 1998,
60 ) varies with temperature differences
193213.
[2] Alves, G.E., Co-current liquid-gas flow in a pipeline
contactor, Chem. Process. Engng, 50(9), 1954, 449-
456.
[3] Cavallini A., Censi G., Del Col D. and Doretti L.; et
al. In-tube condensation of halogenated refrigerants
ASHRAE Transactions, 2002, 108.
[4] Hajal J. El, Thome J.R. and Cavallini A.
Condensation in horizontal tubes, part 1: two-phase
flow pattern map. International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer 46.2003, 33493363.
[5] Nellis G. and Klein S., Heat transfer, Cambridge,
2009.
Figure9. Cavallini's stratified correlation predicting htc of [6] Kattan N., Thome J.R., Favrat D., Flow boiling in
carbon dioxide under conditions of TS=-10C, m=40, 50, horizontal tubes: Part 1Development of adiabatic
60 ) varies with temperature differences two phase flow pattern map, J. Heat Transfer, 120,
1998, 140147.
Discussion of Inflection Point
[7] Steiner D., Heat transfer to boiling saturated liquids,
in: VDI-War meatlas (VDI Heat Atlas), Chapter
The trends exhibited by the experimental results for heat
transfer coefficients presented in this paper are similar to Hbb, VDI-Gessellschaft Verfahrenstechnik und
those predicted by Cavallini et al. (2001). The gradient of Chemieingenieurwesen(GCV), Dusseldorf,
1993 ,(Translator: J.W. Fullarton).
the predicted lines for both Dobson and Cavallini are
very similar due to the temperature difference parameter [8] Jung, D., Song, K.H., Cho, Y., Kim, S.J., Flow
has the same power value in their correlations. However, condensation heat transfer coefficients of pure
it should be noted that the trend lines in this paper have refrigerants. Int. J. Refrig. 26, 2003, 411.
greater gradients than both of their calculation results.
The experimental heat transfer coefficients seemed to be [9] Shah R.K., London A.L., Laminar Flow Forced
maintained at approximately 1500 w/m2-s when the Convection in Ducts Supplement 1 to Advances in
temperature differences were greater than 3C, and after Heat Transfer, eds. Academic Press, New York,
the temperature differences less than 3C, the heat 1978.
transfer coefficients increase rapidly. Consequently, [10] Zivi S.M., Estimation of steady state void fraction
based on all the data in this paper, carbon dioxide in by means of minimum entropy production, J. Heat
gravity-controlled flow regime range has much greater Transfer86, 1964, 247252.
heat transfer coefficients under conditions of temperature
differences less than 3C. [11] Ossama I. In-tube Condensation Heat Transfer of
CO2 at Low Temperatures. Mechanical Engineering,
Conclusion University of Auckland, 2010