strumentation = ee a ale lLInstrumentation (One of the fundamental aspects of aircraft cockpit design is how to present flight and navigation data to the crew: The presentation of any information can be in analogue, digital, or electronic form, but in all cases it is up to the crew to interpret and act on the information given. This same data can be supplied to automatic flight control systems, relieving the pilot of hand flying the aircraft, but bringing with it the obligation to monitor what the aircraft is doing. This task can be particularly onerous because the pilot is effectively out of the loop and the aircraft performs with flawless regularity. The pilot however, must always be alert and ready to take control of the aeroplane. For all these reasons, the pilot must have a thorongh understanding of aircraft instrumentation and atstomatic flight control systems. This volume provides an in-depth knowledge of the operating principles behind, and the value of, all the most common aircraft instrumentation systems. Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training (AFT) have teamed to produce these ATPL training volumes. The philosophy of both Jeppesen and AFT is to train pilots to fly, not to simply pass the exams. Jeppesen was founded in 1934 by barnstormer and pioncer airmail pilot Elrey B. Jeppesen to provide accurate airport and airway information to the growing aviation industry. Since then, the company has become the world leader in navi information and flight planning products. In the 1960s, Jeppesen emerged as the foremost creator of state-of-the-art flight training materials using the latest technologies. With offices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, China, and Russia, Jeppesen is committed to introducing a fully integrated line of JAA training products. Atlantic Flight Training, based at Coventry Airport U.K., is an independent Joint Aviation Authority approved Flight ‘Training Organisation for professional training from a Private Pilots Licence to an Airline Transport Pilots Juding Multi Crew Co-operation and Crew Resource Management. AFT has over twenty years experience in training Commercial Pilots, including the conversion of ICAO to JAA Licences, and specialises in full time and distance learning ground school (Aeroplane and Helicopter). We at Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Trai you the best in your flying career, and hope that our materials contribute to your understanding, safety, and success. -JEPPESEN. A Atlantic Flight Training Ltd os Jeppesen GmbH Frankfurter Str. 233 ISBN 0-86487-057.0, ] 63263 Neu-Isenburg, Germany sooo | MMII I oe | ll ll nn 7808841873570 JA310107-000 Www.jeppesen.com peicinetee marge)Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 Air Temperature Measurement Introduction nnn tbl ieoceiteni 44 Direct Reading Thermometer. oo conn Electrical Thermometer. 13 Static Air Temperature Sensor. 14 Tolal Air Temperature Probe... 15 CHAPTER 2 Pitot-Static System Introduction oa 24 Pitot Tube. 24 Static Source.. Alternate Static Source .. z Combined Pitot Static (Pressure) Head. Operating Problems. 25 Pitow/Static System Errors 26 CHAPTER 3 Prossure Altimeter Introduction 34 Prossure Altitude. 32 Density Altitude... . renarnanepeionee 2 ‘The Simple Altimeter 32 Datum Sub-Scale Settings. ta 33 ‘The Sensitive Altimeter ..on0cnon banter Sie 34 ‘Altimeter Displays: 34 Design Errors. 37 Errors due to Calioration 37 Blockages and Leakages... . nN RIF 39 Servo Altimeters, cami meen Operation of a Servo-Altimeter.... : 310 Servo-Altimeter Power Failure. eer 341 Alitude Encoding wr eee Se 344 ‘Advantages of Servo-Altimeters, 311 CHAPTER 4 Vertical Speed Int tor Introduction Principle of Operation... Operation of the VSI Errors of the VSI Lag. Instrument Error Manoeuvre Induced Error Faults of the VSI 5 Biockages . Breakage or leakage in the Static Line... Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) Operation of the IVSI ILVSI Instrumentation viiTable of Contents CHAPTER 5 Airspeed Indicator Introduction Principle of the Airspeed indicator (ASI) ‘ S41 Operation of a Simple AS. a a Sensitive and Servo Airspet Calibration of the ASI Colour Coding of the AS! ASI Errors ASI Faults. zl Calculation of CAS to TAS (up to 300 knots}. 56 CHAPTER 6 ‘Machmeter Introduction 64 Critical Mach Number (Maa). et Principle of Operation. 62 Machmeter Construction and Speration ea Calibration... 64 Enrors 65 Blockages and Leakages 65 Accuracy... ene 65 Seniceabily Checks. 65 CHAPTER 7 Mach Airspeed Indicator Iniroduction oa a7 Display LTA Vio Pointer. 7 Driven Cursor. = 72 Bugs. 72 oe eure 72 CHAPTER & Central Air Data Computer Introduction Bt The Central Air Ds pu a Conversion of Sensing Prossures. 82 Digital Air Data Computer. aa vii InstrumentationTable of Contents CHAPTER 9 Basic Magnetism Introduction nl ‘Magnetic Properties St Fundemental Laws of Magnetism. Seal 93 Characteristics of ines of Magnet Fide 24 ‘Magnetic Materials. 95 Ferromagnetic. 95 Paramagnetic.. 25 Diamagnetic.. 25 Permeability 96 Electromagnetism. 96 ‘An Electromagnet 97 Magnetic Moments... 98 Pariod of Oscillation of a Suspended Magnet 96 CHAPTER 10 ‘Terrestrial Magnetism Introduction 10-4 Magnetic Dip... 10-2 Earth's Total Magnetic Force 10-4 Examples . scan 10-4 Magnetic Variation 10-5 CHAPTER 11 ‘Aeroplane Magnetism Introduction 14-4 ‘Types of Aeroplane Magnetism. 14-4 Components of Hard Iron Magnetism. 112 Components of Soft Iron Magnetism, 115 ‘Determination of Deviation Coefficients 11-6 Minimum Deviation 11-7 Maximum Deviation... 11-7 Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JAR) Limits 18 ‘Compass Swinging . 11-9 ‘The Compass Swing Procedure .. ‘An Example of a Compass Swing. Deviation Compensation Devices. CHAPTER 12 Direct Reading Magnetic Compass Introduction sn 124 ropertis ofa rec Resting Compacs. i Cte Type Compass... se annie mn Presfight Checks. a 12d Principle of a Pendulum 12-4 ‘Acceleration Errors 12-4 Turing Errors. 12-7 Instrumentation ixTable of Contents CHAPTER 13, Remote Indicating Compass Introduction oa 34 RIC Architecture, 134 Principle of a Flux Detector Element... 134 Flux Detector Unit en 184 Speation of te Remote incest Compose System, 135 Gyroscope Element. 13-8 Heading Indicator 138 Modes of Operation... 39 ‘Synchronising Indicators 13.9 Manual Synchronisation.... 13-410 Operation of an RIC in a Turn.. 13-10 Advantages of a Remote Indicating Gyro Magnetic Compass aa meee TL Disadvantages of the Remote Indicating Gyro Magnetic Compass " came TOT CHAPTER 14 Gyroscopic Principles Introduction Principle of Construction . Gyroscopic properties: ‘Types of Gyroscopes Power Sources for Gyroscopes. ‘The Disadvantages and Advantages of Air Driven Gyros... The Disadvaniages end Advanages of Eletcally Diver yros Gyro Wandet en Horizontal Axis Gyro Vertical Axis Gyro... Transport Wander ns. Examples of Gyro Wander... CHAPTER 15 Direction Indicator Introduction 154 Basic Description ofthe Direction Indicator... 154 Operation of the Direction Indicator... 152 Errors Associated with the Air Driven Direction indicator Use ofthe Direction Indicator (D) ‘Advanced Use ofthe Direction Indicator Sample Calculation vn 165 : InstrumentationTable of Coments CHAPTER 16 ‘Antficial Horizon Introduction AB Air driven (Classi) Artificial Horizon 163 Construction 163 Operation ran 164 Erection System. 165 Errors 166 Electrically Driven Artificial Horizon. Construction... oe Torque Motor and a Fast Erection wane mae 168 Error. 169 Remote Vertical Gyro... 16-9 Standby Attitude Indicator. 16-10 CHAPTER 17 Turn and Balance Indicator Introduction cere . art ‘Tum indicator... a a= mt ATA onstruction and Prince of Operation pea al Operation... : 173 Errors enema a 174 Presight Check... A7-4 “The Balance Indicator SAT Construction and Operation... 174 Limitations end Errors A7-5 Pre-Fight Check = Esmee en 17-5 Electically Driven Tum and Balance indicators. : 17-8 ‘Typical Indications on a Turn and Balance Indicator... 178 CHAPTER 18 Turn Co-ordinator Introduction : 18-4 Principle of Gperation 182 Instrumentation xiTable of Contents CHAPTER 19 Inertial Navigation System Introduction .. ‘The Principle end Construction of an Accelerometer. Performance Operation of a Gyro-Stabilised Platform, Setting-up Procedures .n.nn Levelling... Alignment... Levelling and Alignment. Corrections. = Cariols. : " Centripetai Acceleration Wander Azimuth System... ‘The Schuler Tuned Platform Errors ‘The Advantages and Disadvantages of an INS. Mode Selector Panel. Control Display Unit CHAPTER 20 Inertial Reference System Introduction Description of tho Sirap-Down System Solid State Gy108 a. Ring Laser Gyro. Fore Optic Gyro. ‘Advantages and Disadvantages of RLGS ‘Alignment ofthe Inertial Reference System Performance non The Control, Display, and Output from an IRS Description of a Typical IRS IRS Transfer Switch IRS Alignment Loss of Aignmentin Fight CHAPTER 21 Radio Altimeter Introduction ‘The Radio Altimeter System... Principle of Operation of a Radio Altimeter . Performance and Accuracy of a Racio Altimeter... Errors Associated with a Radio AIMEE ..no Leakage Errors. Mushing Errors... ‘The Advantages of 2 Radio Altimeter to 194 193 19.3 196 196 187 197 197 19.8 198 19.9 199 19-11 19-12 19:13 i914 20-4 20-4 202 202 20-3 20-3 20-4 20-4 20-4 205 207 20-7 20-7 aa 214 213 24 24 244 2h 215 InstrumentationTable of Contents CHAPTER 22 Electronic Flight Instrument System Introduction... 224 EFIS Architecture 24 ‘Symbol Generator (SG) vn. 22.2 Instrument Comparator Uni 22.2 Compression Mode... re en ee “Temperature Sensing Units ne 223 ‘Mode Control Panels (MCP) oe 22.3 Light Sensors mt i it 223 Aitude Director indicator (ADI). neo cnneennneBOB Radio AINIUdE. nnn 225 Decision Height. 225 Localiser and Glide Siope Indication. 225 ‘The Horizontal Stuaton Indicator (HS). 225 Plan Mode. aie ee nanan d2B VOR and ILS Modes... 228 EFISIIRS Interface . oe a 22-10 Heading Reference Switch. a 7 ia eT HSI Symbology .n. 2244 CHAPTER 23 Flight Management System Introduction nse 24 “The Flight Management 23-2 ‘Command Display Unit... 234 Control Panels 23.5 DU and FMC Terminology, ‘79 ce coal? The Fight Management Computer Memory 23.9 General FMS Operation... SMR ror 23-11 Pre-Flight 23-12 Enroute 2-13 Lateral Navigation (LAV) 23-13 Vertical Navigation (VNAV).. 23-14 Operational Notes. 23-15 Fuel Monitoring. 2-18 Flight Control and Management Summary. 2-16 CHAPTER 24 Flight Director System Introduction 24-4 Flight Director Architecture 244 Flight Director Control Inputs 24-3 The Fight Distor Computer (FDC) . ianrenAd Mode Control Unit. ela 24-4 Flight Director Displays 7 24-4 Flight Director Modes of Operation. titers 24.8 ‘Attitude Mode... 248 Heading 24-7 Altitude Hold. 24-9 Localise/VOR (LOGWVOR). 24.9 Glidesiope (GS)... 24-14 Go-Around (GA)... 24-12 Mode Annunciator... rg ei 24-12 Operation of the Altitude Director Indicator... ec eetots 24-12 “The Horizontal Situation Indicator (HS!) Fight Director Commands 24-14 Instrumentation xiiiTable of Contents CHAPTER 25 ‘Automatic Flight Control System Introduction smn 24 Stability and Control ‘Avamriaton 25-1 Altitude Hold 254 Flight Control... 254 Classification of an AFCS .. 25.2 Control Channels, 25-2 Inner Loop Control (Stabilisation) 25.2 (Operation of an Inner Loop Pitch Stabilisation System 253 ‘Outer Loop Control 254 Roll Modes. 25.5 Pitch Modes 257 ‘Combined Roll and Pitch Modes 258 Atitude Sensing. 25.9 The AFCS Computer (Signal Processor) 25-10 Servomotor Actuators 25-14 ‘Autopilot Terminology ae as 25412 Cross Coupling... . 2514 ILS Coupling S oar 25-414 VOR Coupling i BBB Stability Problems 225-16 Yaw Damper 25-16 Mach Trim System 25-17 ‘Automatic Pitch Trim Contra. 25-18 Interiocks. 1 25-20 ‘Synchronisation... 25.20 Instinctive Cut Out... 25-20 CHAPTER 26 ‘Automatic Landing System Introduction 26-1 Basic Requirements for an Automatic Landing Systm. 26-4 Automatic Landing System Terminology. 26-2 ‘Automatic Landing System Equioment Requirements... 263 ‘Automatic Approach, Flare, and Landing Sequence 26-4 ‘Weather Minima. 265 ICAO Categorisation for Low Visibility Landing Capabilities 26-5 ‘The Fundamental Landing Requirement. 266 ‘System Reliabty and Integrity 26-7 CHAPTER 27 Thrust Management Systems Introduction 274 Determining the Thrust Required ise - . 24 Calculation of Climb and Cruise Thrust... 22 Cruising Methods. tact 7 ne B18 Electronic Engine Control EEC), fil 273 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) mabereeaeasen 273 Autothrottle (A/T). ao bie one B78 Thrust Lover Operation . oe nnn 27 Thrust Management via the Autothratte 27 ‘Thrust Management Computer (TMC) 28 ‘Thrust Mode Select Panel (TMSP) 278 xiv InstrumentationTable of Contents CHAPTER 28 Central Warning System Introduction ‘Central Warring Sysiem Annunciator Panel Aural Warnings. CHAPTER 29, Altitude Alerting System Introduction Altitude Alering System Operation CHAPTER 30 Ground Proximity Warning System Introduction GPWS System Architecture. GPWS Modes. Waming System.. PWS Control Panel... Discretionary Response. Warning Inhibition. . The Reporting of GPWS Events Operation of the GPWS. Mode 1 Mode 2." Mode 3... Mode 4 Mode 5. Mode 7 Joint Aviation Requirements CHAPTER 31 ‘Traffic Collision Avoidance System Introduction TCAS1 TCAS Il TCAS II ‘Aeroplane Installation Operation of TCAS Il TCAS Aural Warnings. Information Display . Resolution Advisory / Verical Speed Indicator (RA VSI) TEAS Control Panel. son Operating Restrictions Instrumentation 28-4 28-4 28-2 30-4 30-1 30-2 203 30-4 30-5 206 30-6 306 306 30-7 30-8 30-8 20-10 30-10 30-11 814 314 31-4 314 "312 314 314 318 317 318 318 xvTable of Coments CHAPTER 32 Mach/Airspeed Warning System Introduction... 324 System Architecture and Operation BOA Maximum Operating Airspeed Sched 322 CHAPTER 33, ‘Stall Warning Introduction 334 Light Aeroplane Siall Waming Device. 3344 ‘Transport Category Aeroplane Stall Waming Device 33-2 CHAPTER 34 Recording Devices Introduction .. Bat Flight Data Recorder (FOR) Requirements Beet FDR Design 343 34-3 merry CHAPTER 35 General Engine Instrumentation Introduction : hilt sneaen BA Piston Engines en 35+1 Turbo Propeller Engines 3 35.2 Gas Turbine Engines 35.2 CHAPTER 36 Pressure and Temperature Sensors Introduction... 1 64 Pressure Measurement 36-1 Temperature Measurement, 36.3 CHAPTER 37 Pressure and Temperature Indicators Introduction .. a4 Prossure Indicators . 2374 Manifold Pressure (MAF BT Engine Pressure Ratio (E aT Fuel end Oil Pressures, 37-3 Tomperature indicators. 37-3 37-3 37-3 374 Cylinder Head Pressure. Exhaust Gas Temperature Fuel and Oil Temperatures xvi InstrumentationTable of Contems CHAPTER 38 RPM Indicators and Propeller Synchroniser Systems Introduction 38-1 Tachometers. 38-4 Magnetic Drag Tachometer. — 38-4 Tacho-Generator and Indicator System. sic mor 38-2 Tachometer Probe and Indicator System. 38-3 Propeller Auxiliary Systems 38-8 ‘Synchronisation System 38-6 ‘Synchrophasing System sine 38-7 Operation of a Synchrophasing System... ce ee A ART ATT 38-8 CHAPTER 39 Engine Torque Measurement Introduction —e ee nn BA Torque Meter ae aka 39-1 Negative Torque Sensing Seem 7 30.3 CHAPTER 40, Vibration Monitoring Introduction nnn 40-4 Vibration Monitoring System... tn Pon ORR CHAPTER 41 Fuel Gauge Introduction. ait Measurement of Fuel Quantity re Fioat Type. Ait Ratio Metre Type Fuel Gauge. Ate Gecectance Type of Fue! Gauge aio Fuel Totalis0r nn ieee conn 1S Fuel Flow. il A15 CHAPTER 42 EICAS Introduction... art EICAS Architecture. 424 Engine Displays. ADD Crew Alerting 42-3 Warnings (Level A)... 42.3 Cautions (Level B) : 7 een oo 424 Advisories (Level C) eae nag 42-4 Master WaringiCaution Light... 424 Inhibits ilies er nan Display Messages... 42-4 Status 426 Maintenance .. 427 EICAS Failure Modes . 42-7 Instrumentation xviiTable of Contents CHAPTER 43, ECAM ‘The System / Status (S/S) CRT Display. ECAM System Architecture... 43.3 Flight Warning Computers (FWCS) 43-4 Display management Computers ( 434 Spe Dies eeATE Enettaies BAL 43.4 ECAW Contol Pano ECP). a 43-4 Attention Getters. masta = a 43.5 ECAM System Failure 436 Failure Categorisation 43.6 ‘System Operation . 43-6 xviii InstrumentationChapter. pes ‘ Air Temperature Measurement, INTRODUCTION ‘The temperature of air under pure static conditions at the various flight levels is one of the basic parameters required to establish data that is vital to the performance monitoring of modem aeroplanes. The measurement of Static Air Temperature (SAT) by direct means is, however, not possible for all types of aeroplanes, because the measurement is potentially affected by adiabatic compression of the air at increased airspeeds. The boundary layer over the outer surface of an ‘aeroplane fiying below Mach 0.2 is very close to SAT, but at higher Mach numbers the boundary layer slows or even siops relative to the aeroplane. This in turn results in adiabatic compression, which causes the air temperature to rise well above SAT. This increase is known as RAM Rise, and the temperature indicated under such conditions is known as Ram Air Temperature (RAT) RAT = SAT + RAM Rise or SAT = RAT - RAM Rise The majority of RAM Rise is due to adiabatic compression because of the airflow coming to rest, with only a relatively small amount due to friction between the surface of the aeroplane and the high-speed airflow. The RAM Rise is always pre-calculated and is tabulated or graphed as @ function of Mach number in the Operations or Flight Manual for each type of aeroplane, a sample of which is shown below. Instrumentation Ila A I A lA eee Chapter 1 Air Temperature Measurement INDICATED WACH MURDER ~30| 40] -50] -60] .70] -73| .76] .78] -80] 82] -84 TT TRUE OUTSIDE. ATR TERPERATURE — DEGREES € 70 wy] 9] 7] 35) S|] 6 W]e 35] 35[ 30] 20] 26] 25] a o Wl eh a7] 30) 20] 25) ze) 22] a1] 35 Wl as] a0] 35] 26] 26] 21) to] te] 16] to Ey %5| | 35] 28] et] 19] 7) 15] 3] 17] 10 s wo] 35] 30) | 7] 1 75 @ 35] 30] 25] 19] 12] 10 st 3s 30] 26[ 20] 16| 8] 6 =a ms] af ef ols] 1 EXIGE 35 wo] v6] 4] s]=2 ais { 20 ws 1] 6[ o]-6 a5 |=16) {os 30] 6] 2[= s] -11) -13] 15] -16] sa] 19] -27 70 5|4]= 3] = 9] 15] -17|-19] -29) 20) -26] =e 3 O|= 3] = 8|-16| -20| -21] -26 | -25] -2r] -28| -29 0 [= 5 |= 8-15 | -18| -26 | -26| -28|[-s0| -s0) -35 [30 = 5 | 10-45 | =10 | 25 | -29 | 34 | Bs mse | 55 | -37 | The proportion of RAM rise measured is dependent on the ability of the sensor to sense (or recover) the temperature rise. The sensitivity is expressed as a percentage and is known as the recovery factor. For example, if a sensor has a recovery factor of 0.80, it measures SAT + 80% of the RAM Rise. A useful approximation of RAM Rise is: For example, for an estimated TAS of 460 kt deduct (450K)? from the indicated air temperature, which is approximately equal to 21°C. If this figure is subtracted from the Indicated Outside Air Temperature (IOAT), it gives the Corrected Outside Air Temperature (COAT), which is the best determinable value of the temperature of the air through which the aeroplane is flying, and is that which is required for navigational purposes: COAT = IOAT — RAM Rise 1-2 InstrumentationAir Temperature Measurement Chapter 1 ‘Alternatively wrtten as 1 Ts= —M ++0.2KM Where: Ts = SAT in degrees absolute Ty = Indicated temperature in degrees absolut. = Recovery Factor. M= Mach Number Various types of air temperature sensors are fitted to aeroplanes, although the particular type is dependent on whether SAT or RAT is required, and the normal operating speed of the aeroplane on which iti fitted. DIRECT READING THERMOMETER This is the simplest type of thermometer, and it only indicates SAT. It consists of a bi-metallic element in the shape of @ helix, which expands and contracts when subjected to temperature changes. Pointer Fee Catia Ge one En . Helical fred xo SP Dimeric Sie ae As the temperature changes, the helix winds or unwinds, and causes @ pointer to rotate against a scale calibrated in degrees Celsius. This type of thermometer is normally only fitted on low-speed light aeroplanes, and passes through the fuselage or canopy with the sensitive element projecting into the airflow. The element is also shielded so that its not directly affected by solar radiation Another method of making a direct reading thermometer is to use a liquid filad bulb and capillary tube, with the bulb mounted externally in the airflow and the capillary tube transmitting the liquid pressure to a Bourdon tube. As the temperature to which the bulb is Subjected changes, the liquid expands or contracts, and causes the Bourdon tube to wind or unwind. This movement of the Bourdon tube is connected to a pointer, which moves around a scale calibrated in temperature, ELECTRICAL THERMOMETER The resistance of an electrical conductor is dependent on temperature, and its magnitude changes due to thermal changes, thus altering its ability to oppose current flow when connected in a circuit, The Electrical (Wheatstone Bridge) Thermometer commonly uses the temperature/resistance technique. Instrumentation 13Chapter 1 Air Temperature Measurement TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE Rs RESISTANCE Rt Re - (ee) & ie Ro J J \ J {i+ {!|-—11 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE ORCUTT FOR mK. 4 INDIGATOR F ANDOR MK. + BASIC CIRCUIT AAD CAT HOMER MK. 2 THERMOMETERS. “0 @ 6) The bridge consists of four resistance arms, which connect across a low voltage source as shown above. When the system is switched on, current flows in the circuit and divides at point A before flowing through R1 and R2 at strengths that vary as the temperature of R4 (positioned outside the fuselage) alters. At point C the currents re-unite and flow back to the voltage source. Ifthe Bridge is balanced resistance-wise, no current flows and the moving coil galvanometer (meter) reads zero. If the temperature (resistance) of R4 changes, the bridge becomes unbalanced, and the resulting current flowing through the galvanometer registers as a change in temperature. STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE SENSOR, ‘The majority of temperature sensors use a platinum wire element contained either in a probe mounted in what is termed a flush bulb configuration, or in a specially designed probe shielded from solar radiation, A flush bulb configuration is subjected to both air temperature and skin temperature and is, therefore, less accurate than a probe type sensor. ourer HOUSING RING In the type of sensor shown above the probe protrudes through a hole in the aeroplane skin with the orifice facing forward into the airflow. Air enters the probe and comes to rest where a sensing ‘element forms one leg of a Wheatstone bridge. The air flows out from the probe through the spill ports allowing a limited rate of change of air measured at the element. InstrumentationAir Temperature Measurement Chaprer 1 ‘Sometimes known as a total temperature head, this probe is less accurate than the total air temperature probe described below and is usually only fit to simpler and or slower aircraft where RAM rise is limited. The ability to sense RAM rise accurately is known as the recovery factor, and this type of probe has typical values of between 0.75 and 0.85, TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE PROBE For aeroplanes operating at high Mach numbers, itis usual to sense and measure the maximum temperature rise possible, which is Total Air Temperature (TAT) if the recovery factor is 1, and Ram Air Temperature (RAT) if the recovery factor is less than 1. TAT or RAT is the temperature of the air when it is brought to rest (or nearly so) without the addition or removal of heat. The Rosemount prove shown below has a recovery factor of virtually 1, and is, therefore, known as a TAT probe, and is commonly used on transport-category aeroplanes. are rLow —- ae = TWh (Thrwo concenrne me NT sco0P Ht PLATINUM TUBES arerLow fl paoisrion oescno sue reaTens ais SENSING | Bl sauenr | Lockine screw lJ centre Boor" | 4 Fl 1 sro sx Tez - At high altitude, very litle pressure change takes place for a given change of altitude, with the result that capsule movement is considerably less than for the same change of altitude at lower levels. This factor reduces the efficiency of ordinary altimeters at high levels, whereas the servomechanism picks up a capsule movement as small as 0.0002 in per thousand ft Power transmission gives greater accuracy. There is practically no time lag between the arrival of a new pressure in the instrument, and the positioning of the counters. > Because it is an electrical system, it is possible to correct for pressure error, and incorporate an aititude-alerting device in the system. Although conventional altimeters now employ digital presentation, it is generally more common with servo-altimeters. The digital presentation reduces the possibilty of misreading > A pointer is still available on the servo-aitimeter for use at low level in assessing the rate of change of altitude. vv ¥ Instrumentation Hlpelts. . Yarticz| Sozed Ine fe. INTRODUCTION A Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) is a sensitive differential pressure gauge, which records the rate of change of atmospheric pressure in terms of rate of climb or descent, when an aeroplane departs from level flight. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ‘The principle employed is that of measuring the difference in pressure between two chambers, one of which is enclosed within the other, as shown below, “Tha daphgm incite veel peed snacatr exgonds or eonacts ng Amechancl irtage tars he again are fenvecione ie deca rn nase rover. binect stant ‘caUBRATED as PRESSURE Sc possir i eoncctd ect oh res th cham anne curse othe ‘on cise eclalvegm (b nsrmont caso) va reece ee (erated ea het overs th plcosue ote dprapm fom changing irtartaneousy. The pressure of the atmosphere is communicated directly to the inner chamber (capsule) and through 2 calibrated choke or capsule case to the outer chamber. If the pressure changes, 2s in a climb or descent, the lag between the capsule and outer chamber results in @ pressure differential across the metering unit, which is @ direct measure of the aeroplane’s rate of climb or descent. Movement of the capsule transmits via a mechanical linkage to a pointer, which moves against a calibrated dial on the face of the instrument, where the indications are arranged in a logarithmic scale. This allows the scale in the range 0 to 1000 ftimin to be more easily interpreted while, at the same time, allows smaller changes in the vertical speed to be registered in that range. This allows the fight crew to achieve a given flight profile more easly, ‘The metering unit of the VSI provides a pressure differential across the capsule case for any given rate of climb or descent, whilst compensating for variations in temperature and pressure of the atmosphere with changes in altitude. The compensation is achieved by incorporating in the metering unit both an orifice and a capillary, whose sizes are chosen so that indicator readings remain correct over a wide range of temperature and altitude conditions. Instrumentation 41Chapter 4 Vertical Speed Indicator OPERATION OF THE VSI In level fight, the pressure inside the capsule and the case will be the same, so the pointer will remain in its horizontal position, indicating a zero rate of climb. If the aeroplane climbs, the static Pressure in the capsule will decrease at a quicker rate than that in the casing and the capsule will collapse slightly, and will cause the pointer to indicate a rate of climb. Conversely, if the aeroplane descends the static pressure in the capsule will increase at @ higher rate than that in the casing and the capsule will expand slightly, causing the pointer to indicate a rate of descent. ERRORS OF THE VSI ‘The VSI can suffer from the following errors: LAG ‘When an aeroplane suddenly climbs or descends, a delay of a few seconds occurs before the pointer settles at the appropriate rate of climb or descent, which is due to the time required for the pressure differential to develop. A similar delay occurs in the pointer showing a zero rate of climb ‘or descent when the aeroplane resumes level fight. INSTRUMENT ERROR This error is due to the manufacturer's tolerances. However, in service the instrument pointer is re-adjusted to the zero position using a screw adjustment. MANOEUVRE INDUCED ERROR Errors induced by manoeuvres or flight in turbulence can cause any pressure instrument to ‘misread for up to 3 seconds at low altitudes and up to 10 seconds at high altitudes. The times for the VSI are often even longer. Thus, during any manoeuvre involving a change of attitude, do not place absolute reliance on the VSI FAULTS OF THE VSI The following faults will have an adverse affect on the VSI reading: BLOCKAGES ‘A blockage in the static line renders the instrument unserviceable, and the pointer registers zero regardless of the aeropiane’s vertical speed. BREAKAGE OR LEAKAGE IN THE STATIC LINE ‘A breakage or leakage in the static pressure supply line causes the static value to change as the breakage occurs (e.9. if the breakage occurs in a pressurised section of the aeroplane the VSI initially shows a high rate of descent and stabilises to give a zero indication). This reading is ‘maintained until the aeroplane descends below the cabin altitude pressure. INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (IVSI) ‘The Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) is sometimes referred to as the Inertial Lead Vertical Speed Indicator (ILVS!). The basic construction of this instrument is shown on the next page. It consists of the same basic elements as the conventional VSI, but it is additionally fitted with an accelerometer unit that is designed to create a more rapid differential pressure effect, specifically during the initiation of climb or descent. The accelerometer comprises of two small cylinders or dashpots, which contain inertial masses in the form of pistons that are held in balance by springs and their own mass. The cylinders are connected in the capillary tube system leading to the capsule and are thus open to the static pressure source, 42 InstrumentationVertical Speed Indicator Chapter 4 OPERATION OF THE IVSI/ ILVSI Ifa change in vertical motion is initiated, the resultant vertical acceleration (j.¢. due to the change in vertical velocity along the aeroplanes vertical axis), produces a force and the pistons are displaced from their neutral position). The pistons are arranged so that one responds to nose up pitch changes (positive G) by reducing the capsule pressure, whilst the other responds to nose down pitch changes (negative G) by increasing the capsule pressure. This in turn creates an immediate pressure change inside the capsule, and produces en instantaneous movement of the indicator pointer, and in the correct sense, to the initiation of a climb or descent manoeuvre. The errors are generally the same as those affecting the conventional VSI, although the lag and induced manoeuvre errors are virtually eliminated, with the instrument providing a rapid response to changes in the aeroplanes vertical fight path. The accelerometer output will decay after only few seconds, and the pistons will automatically return to their neutral position, by which time a steady pressure differential is established across the metering unit. The instrument will then continue to behave like a conventional VSI. ‘The IVSI is affected by the acceleration forces, i.e. g-forces, which act on the pistons during steep tums when the angle of bank is in excess of 40°, and may produce a false reading, known as Turning Error. ACCELEROMETERACTUATED PUMPS OR DASHPOTS. INLET FROM ‘STATIC PORT- CALIBRATED LEAK Instrumentation 43Chapter 5 Airspeed I INTRODUCTION ‘The airspeed at which an aeroplane is travelling through the air is essential to the pilot, both for the safe and efficient handling of the aeroplane and as a basic input to the navigation calculations. PRINCIPLE OF THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI) When an aeroplane Is stationary on the ground it is subject to normal atmospheric or static pressure, which acts equally on all parts of the aeroplane structure. In flight, the aeroplane experiences an additional pressure due to the aeroplane’s motion through the air, which is known as dynamic pressure, and is dependent upon the forward motion of the aeroplane and the density of the air, according to the following formula: Pr= 1l2pv" + Ps Where: P;= total or pitot pressure (also known as total head pressure or stagnation pressure) Po = static pressure air density velocity of the aeroplane (TAS) Vv Re-arranging the formula, the difference between the pitot and static pressures is equal to Y2 pV" (dynamic pressure). The airspeed indicator thus measures the pressure differential between the two sources, and provides a display indication graduated in units of speed OPERATION OF A SIMPLE ASI In the simple ASI, a capsule acting as a pressure sensitive element is mounted in an airtight case, as shown on the next page. Pitot pressure is fed into the capsule and static pressure is fed to the interior of the case, which, when the aeroplane is in motion, contains the lower pressure. A pressure difference causes the capsule to open out with any movement being proportional to the pressure differential across the capsule skin (pitot - static). A mechanical linkage is used to transfer the capsule movement to a pointer that moves over a dial, and which is normally calibrated in knots. A bi-metallic strip is also incorporated in the mechanical linkage to compensate for any expansion/contraction of the linkage caused by temperature variations. SENSITIVE AND SERVO AIRSPEED INDICATORS Sensitive and Servo alrspeed indicators both use the same principle of operation as the simple ASI. The sensitive ASI uses a stack of two or more interlinked capsules, which are connected to two pointers via an extended gear train. This enables the instrument to respond to smaller pressure changes and thus smaller changes in airspeed. The capsule assembly has a linear pressure/deflection characteristic, which is more closely controlled than the single capsule used in the simple ASI InstrumentationChapter 5 Airspeed Indicator ‘The servo airspeed indicator also uses an electrical linkage rather than a mechanical linkage to position the indicator needles, which is done by amplifying the error signal Aitight Case Saas To Porter epee “The Airspeed Incioator is @ ic Diforenia Pressure Gauge Static Tube é Phot Tube CALIBRATION OF THE ASI ‘Standard datum values are used in the calibration of airspeed indicators since dynamic pressure varies with airspeed and air density. Density also varies with temperature and pressure. The values used are the sea level values of the ICAO International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). COLOUR CODING OF THE ASI The scale is calibrated in terms of speed, usually knots or miles per hour (MPH), but in some cases, kilometres per hour (KPH). It is essential that you know which terms are displayed on the ASI. On light aeroplanes, the dial is normally colour coded as shown on the next page, with the coloured segments indicating the following: White arc This arc extends from Vo (stall full flap) to Vee (maximum speed with flaps extended), and marks the flap operating speed range. Green arc This arc extends from Vs, (stall clean) to Vro (normal operating speed), and is the normal operating speed range. i 52 InstrumentationAirspeed Indicator Chapter 5 Yellow “This arc extends from Vo to Vre (Never exceed speed), and denotes the cautionary speed range. Operations within this speed range should not be carried out except in smooth air Red Radial line This line marks Vie sta Speed ules = V0 Vey Sta spo0d "Clean (Both Wings Level Maximum Weight) Maximum Faps Extended Speed Yno "Normal Operating Limit Speed ‘Other lines are also used (e.g. a blue radial line, which is sometimes used to indicate the maximum rate of climb speed in a twin-engine aeroplane with one engine inoperative [Vvse)) ‘Some AS|'s have adjustable bugs for use in setting a target speed (e.g. the threshold speed). ASI ERRORS ‘The dial of the ASI is calibrated to a formula, which assumes constant air density (standard mean sea level) and no instrument defects. Any departure from these conditions, or disturbance in the pitot or static pressures applied to the instrument, results in a difference between the indicated and true airspeeds. The following sources of error exist: Instrument Error This error is caused by the manufacturer's permitted tolerances in the construction of the instrument. This error is determined by calibration and if found to be significant, itis recorded on a calibration card. This correction is normally combined with that for pressure error. Pressure Error This error arises from the movement of the air around the aeroplane and causes disturbances in the static and pitot pressure. The causes of this error are: Position of the Pitot-Static Sensors This can alter the pressures fed to the instrument, and is particularly so in the case of a combined pitot-static head where the dynamic pressure component may significantly affect the static supply. To minimise this source of error separate static vents are positioned well away from the pitot head, which can result in 2 95% reduction in the overall pressure error. The position/pressure ‘error is normally determined by calibration, and a pressure error card is tabulated in the Aeroplane Flight Manual. This card may also incorporate any instrument error calibrations. Instrumentation 53Chapter 5 Airspeed Indicator Manoeuvre Induced Error This is caused by changes in the aeroplanes attitude and/or configuration and is normally only short term. The main sources of error are normally in the static supply, but since the transient affects of manoeuvre induced error are not predictable or avoidable, the flight crew must be aware of this problem. ‘The pressure error changes if any of the following vary: Airspeed Angle of attack Configuration (flap setting, undercarriage etc) Position of the pitot/static sources and sidestip vvyy Compressibility Error The calibration formula for most aitspeed indicators does not contain any compensation for the fact that the air is compressible. At low airspeeds this is insignificant, but at airspeeds over 300 KTAS, this factor becomes significant. This is especially so at high altitudes where the less dense air is easily compressed. Compressibility causes an increase in the measured value of dynamic pressure, which causes the ASI to over-read. Thus, compressibility varies with airspeed and altitude. Compensation for the error and correction is on some mechanical navigation computers, but tabulation is against altitude, temperature, and CAS in the handbooks of others, Density Error Dynamic pressure varies with airspeed and density of the air. In calibration, standard mean sea level pressure is used; thus, for any other condition of air density, the ASI will be in error. As altitude increases, the density decreases and the indicated airspeed (IAS), and thus equivalent airspeed (EAS) at speeds in excess of 300 KTAS, becomes progressively lower than the true airspeed (TAS). For example, at 40 000 ft the density is only % of its msl value. The dynamic pressure, which is proportional to TAS®, is ‘% the msl value for the same TAS (i.e. an aeroplane fiying at'400 KTAS will have an IAS of 200 knots). The following formula establishes the relationship eas=as | 2 Paster For accuracy, the correction of CAS to TAS is done on a navigational computer using the ambient temperature (outside air temperature), at the required pressure altitude. A useful formula for estimating TAS is: TAS = CAS + (1.75% of CAS per 1000 ftof altitude) For example, for a CAS of 100 knots at 10 000 fi TAS = 100 + (1.75/100 x100 x 10) = 117.5 knots 54 InstrumentationAirspeed Indicator Chapter 5 The relationship between the various airspeeds is as follows: v Airspeed Indicator Reading (ASIR) + Instrument Error Correction = Indicated Airspeed(lAS) IAS + Pressure Error Correction = Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) CAS + Compressibility Error Correction = Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) EAS + Density Error Correction = True Airspeed (TAS) vy In practice, the combined corrections give: > ASIR + Instrument Error Correction + Pressure Error Correction = CAS > CAS + Compressbbilty Error Correction + Density Error Correction = TAS ASI FAULTS The following faults may occur in the ASI: Blockages A blockage of the pitot tube, as shown on the next page, possibly due to ice, causes the ASI to not respond to changes of speed in level flight. The capsule does behave as a barometer or altimeter capsule, and reacts to changes in the static pressure. If the aeroplane climbs, the ASI indicates an increase in airspeed (over-read) and if it descends, it indicates a decrease in airspeed (under-read). cums 7 DESCENT yg [eres] career prroreLocKace STATIC rror BLOcKAGE STATIC A. STATICIN CASING 1A. STATICIN CASING DECREASES INCREASES aor UNDERREAD 8 STATICIN CAPSULE 8. STATICIN caPsULE REMAINS HIGH REMAINS Low If the static line is blocked, the ASI over-reads at lower altitudes, and under-reads at higher altitudes than when the line became blocked. InstrumentationChapter 5 Airspeed Indicator cums DESCENT fsa fe Prot BLOCKAGE prrot BLOCKAGE A. STATICIN CASING A. STATIC IN CASING REMAINS HIGH REMAINS LOW UNDERREAD OVERREAD B. STATICIN CAPSULE B, STATICIN CAPSULE REDUCES INCREASES Leaks AA leak in the pitot system causes the ASI to under-read, whilst a leak in the static ine causes the ASI to over-tead in an unpressurised fuselage (cabin pressure is usually lower than the atmospheric static pressure), and under-read in a pressurised aeroplane (cabin pressure higher than static) Whilst any under-reading of the ASI is undesirable, it is not necessarily dangerous, but over- reading of the ASI is dangerous, since a stall occurs at a higher indicated airspeed than that specified for the aeroplane. ‘Some modern ASI's also employ coloured flags and needles as attention getters (i.e, to indicate any electrical or transmission failure, and to draw attention to important altitude indicators). CALCULATION OF CAS TO TAS (UP TO 300 KNOTS) To calculate TAS from CAS using a CRPS rotate the inner disc of the computer to align the outer edge of the airspeed window with the pressure altitude (altitude with 1013 mb set on the altimeter subscale) inside the window. Position the cursor through the CAS on the inner circular slide rule scale and read off TAS on the outer scale. Example: If the pressure altitude is 18 000 ft, the COAT is -30°C and CAS is 170 knots, then the TAS is: Solution: In the airspeed window set 18 (pressure altitude x 1000 ft) opposite ~30°C on the COAT scale. Next position the cursor through the CAS of 170 knots on the inner slide rule scale and read of the TAS of 220 knots on the outer scale. Note: As a reminder of which way to read CAS to TAS there is a red CAS (RAS) on the inner scale between 35 and 40, and a red TAS on the outer scale between 35 and 40, 56 InstrumentationChapter.6, Machinieteias “abe INTRODUCTION During fight, aeroplanes emit pressure disturbances (sound waves), which radiate in all directions at the speed of sound. As the speed of an aeroplane increases, it gets progressively ‘loser to the waves ahead of it until, at the speed of sound, the pressure waves combine into a shock wave and attach themselves to the aeroplane. The effect of the shack wave greatly increases the drag forces associated with the aeroplane, and significantly alters its stability and control characteristics. It is therefore extremely important for the flight crew to know how close to the speed of sound the aeroplane is. The instrument used to indicate this is the machmeter, which measures the ratio of the aeroplane’s airspeed (TAS) to the local speed of sound, and displays it as a Mach number. Mach No. = “/, (Where V = TAS and A = Local Speed of Sound) CRITICAL MACH NUMBER (Mcrir) This is the speed of an aeroplane, defined in terms of the speed of the free stream airflow. In practice, the speed of the local airflow at any point around the structure varies considerably and the local airflow may reach the speed of sound when the free stream speed is much lower. The {ree stream speed at which any element of the local airflow reaches the speed of sound, results in local shockwaves forming on the structure. The free stream Mach number then becomes the Critical Mach number (Mex). Unless specifically designed for that purpose, an aeroplane is not flown beyond Mz and the value of M,q is highlighted by an index mark on the face of the machmeter. eRmicAL mac INDEX In commercial operations, it is common practice to set @ lower limit, known as the maximum ‘operating Mach number (Mo) Instrumentation GlChaprer 6 Machmeter PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ‘The speed of sound varies only with temperature. As the temperature increases, the local speed of sound increases and vice versa. The speed of sound (A) varies with the square root of the absolute temperature (° Kelvin - K) of the environment, written as N°" 4/ os = "8 “) vow. Using the known value of the speed of sound at ISA mean sea level of 661.7 kt, where the temperature (in degrees Kelvin) is 288°, this is re-written as ‘A= 38.94) temperature in Kelvin or (644 + 1.21] where t= OAT in °C (estimation only). N.B: ISA temp = 18° - (pressure altitude x 2° per 1000 ft) Since Mach number is the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound, it may also be rewritten in terms of pitot and static pressures. TAS (V) is a function of the dynamic pressure and the local density. Dynamic pressure is the difference between pitot (P) and static (S) pressures (i.e. P-S [airspeed capsule)). ‘The local speed of sound (A) is also a function of temperature. According to basic gas physics, temperature is also a function of static pressure (S) and density (altitude capsule). ‘Since Mach No. = “/s, rewritten in @ simplified form so that: V=aip An°k se PSIp xe Sip p is common to both so that: Mach No. = “/, and is a function of P-S/ ‘The machmeter is designed to measure the ratio of pitot excess pressure (the difference between pitot and static) and static pressure. A relationship also exists between CAS, TAS, and Mach number under ISA conditions. With increasing altitude, the following graphs depict what occurs if one value remains constant: cas Tas MACH cas Tas MACH cas Tas wy ALTITUDE ALTITUDE, aLriTupe ‘AIRSPEED "AIRSPEED RIRSPEED 62 InstrumentationMachmeter Chapter 6 This is summarised in the following tabular format, including the effect of increasing altitude on the Local Speed of Sound (LSS). ‘The opposite occurs with decreasing altitude under ISA conditions. Even if the CAS or MN is unaltered intentionally, the MN may change due to a change in the OAT {eg. high temperature to low temperature, the LSS decreases to maintain a constant MN; therefore, the TAS must decrease). For example, iftwo aeroplanes are travelling at the same MN, but at different fight levels, the aeroplane at the lower flight level has a higher TAS. If one airspeed remains constent, the graphs below depict what happens to the other airspeeds if ‘an aeroplane climbs or descends through an isothermal layer. At a constant Mach number, the relationship between TAS and LSS remains constant as both are equally affected by ambient temperature, although the CAS reduces during a climb and increases during a descent due to the density error. Conversely, at a constant CAS, the TAS and Mach number both increase during @ climb and decrease during a descent. cas TasIMACH cas TAS MACH ALTITUDE, ALTITUDE, AIRSPEED TIRSPEED If an aeroplane climbs or descends through an inversion layer, the graphs below depict what happens to the other airspeeds, if one of them remains constant. Hl aewen amen an way ALTITUDE, aunrue, TIRSPEED AIRSPEED AIRSPEED During a climb at a constant Mach number, the LSS increases due to the warmer air, so the TAS increases, but the CAS decreases due to the reduction in density. If the aeroplane climbs at a constant TAS, both the Mach number and the CAS decrease. Conversely, if the aeroplane climbs ‘at a constant CAS, the Mach number and the TAS both increase. During a descent the reverse occurs, because the LSS decreases due to the colder air, whilst the density increases. Instrumentation 63Chapter 6 Machmeter MACHMETER CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION ‘A typical machmeter, as shown below, consists of a sealed case containing two capsule assemblies placed at 80° to each other, and a series of mechanical linkages. PORTER "AND ADJUSTABLE cEARING INDEX ALTTUDE ain CAPSULE PIVANDSPRING ARSPEED — ARSPEED eaPOULE = LINK ‘aR EX The first capsule unit is an airspeed capsule, and is connected to the pitot pressure pipeline, while the interior of the instrument case is fed with static pressure. The second capsule unit is an aneroid capsule, which responds to changes in static pressure. The airspeed capsule measures the difference between pitot and static pressure and expands or contracts in response to airspeed changes. The airspeed linkage transfers movement of the capsule to the main shaff, and causes the shaft to rotate, thus moving a pivoted ratio arm in the direction A-B. ‘The altitude (aneroid) capsule expands or contracts, and responds to changes in altitude. Movement of the capsule transfers to the ratio arm via a spring and pin, thus causing it to move in the direction C-D. ‘The position of the ratio arm is therefore dependent on both pitot excess and static pressure Movement of the ratio arm controls the ranging arm which, through the linkage and gearing, This tums the pointer, and displays the Mach number corresponding to the ratio of pitot excess pressure and static pressure. Any increase in altitude and/or airspeed results in a higher Mach number. The Critical Mach number is indicated by a specially shaped lubber mark, located over the machmeter dial. It is adjustable so that the critical Mach number for the particular type of aeroplane is displayed. CALIBRATION Machmeters are c pressure and density. rated to a formula relating Mach number to atmospheric conditions of 4 InstrumentationMachmeter Chapier 6 ERRORS. ‘As Mach number is a function of the ratio of pitot excess pressure to static pressure, only those errors in the measurement of this ratio affect the machmeter reading, The errors are: INSTRUMENT ERRORS Like all instruments, machmeters are subject to manufacturing tolerances, although these are extremely small. PRESSURE ERRORS ‘These errors are small at the altitudes and speed ranges where machmeters are used. DENSITY, TEMPERATURE, AND COMPRESSIBILITY ERRORS ‘These errors are eliminated because density changes do not alter the dynamic pressureistatic pressure ratio. BLOCKAGES AND LEAKAGES Blockages and leaks have the same affect as they do on the ASI, but the effects are greater due to the two capsules, A blockage in the static system causes the machmeter to over-read during a descent and under-read during a climb. ACCURACY The accuracy of the machmeter is within +/- 0.01 M during its normal operating range, but increases to +/- 0.02 M at the limits of that range, SERVICEABILITY CHECKS The instrument should read zero when the aeroplane is stationary and a rough check of IAS/TAS against Mach number should be carried out using the CRPS computer. ‘One way to calculate the TAS is by using the CRPS by setting the OAT against the mach index and reading off the TAS on the outer scale against a set Mach number (MN). To determine the LSS, read the speed on the outer scale, which relates to Mach 1.0 on the inner scale. Instrumentation 65Chapters, Mach Airspeed Ingicator INTRODUCTION The Mach Airspeed Indicator (MASI) combines the functions of both the airspeed indicator and the machmeter in a single instrument. As the machmeter contains an airspeed capsule, it is @ relatively simple matter to incorporate the IAS output from the capsule into the display. DISPLAY To improve clarity, digital readouts are provided for Mach number (MN) and IAS, as well as conventional pointer for IAS. Vyo POINTER MACH NUMBER DRIVEN CURSOR ‘wo window ‘DRIVEN CURSOR FLAG WINDOW MANUAL CURSOR SETTING CONTROL. Vimo POINTER ‘A special feature of the MASI is the Vij0 Pointer (Barber's Pole), which has red and white stripes. At low altitudes, the Vijq Pointer retains a fixed position, which indicates the maximum operating IAS permitted. As altitude increases, Vso corresponds to an increasing MN until reaching Mino» at which point the Vizo Pointer reading progressively reduces to reflect the overriding MN limit. Movement of the Vio Pointer can be mechanical, although the MASI display is normally driven from the Air Data Computer (ADC) Instrumentation aChaprer 7 Mach Airspeed Indicator DRIVEN CURSOR ‘Adjustment of the Driven cursor is adjusted either by the flight crew or automatically by the aeropiane’s systems, to indicate target speeds for particular phases of fight. BUGS Bugs are indexes, which are set prior to flight to indicate important speeds such as V;, V2, Va. etc LINKAGES The MASI is often linked to the auto-throttle / fight management systems to provide two-way feedback. Further links to visual and audio warning devices may also be incorporated. ERRORS. ‘The MASI suffers from the same errors as the ASI and machmeter; namely instrument, pressure and manoeuvre errors. 72 InstrumentationChapter. & ae ert Te Gentral Alf INTRODUCTION Many of the primary flight instruments on an aeroplane are dependent on pressures transmitted from the pitot/static probes through a system of pipelines before reaching the sensors in the instruments. Larger aeroplanes require longer pipes, which results in increased leg errors and a greater risk of breakagefleakage. To overcome this, and to create other benefits, most modem transport category aeroplanes use Central Air Data Computers (CADC). THE CENTRAL AIR DATA COMPUTER In its basic format, a CADC is an analogue device that produces electrical signals equivalent to pitot and static pressures, and Total Air Temperature (TAT), as shown below. Inputs Computer ‘Static Prassuite Tanedvcer Dynamic Prossuie 9) Total “Ternporature Probe Outputs Altitude Atiude Fate Density Mach Number Indicates Ar Speed Tue Air Speed Static Ar Temperature These signals are computed within the CADC to produce electrical output signals, which are equivalent to: Attitude cas Vertical speed Mach number TAS vyvyy InstrumentationChapter 8 Central Air Data Computer CADCs are powered whenever the aeroplane AC bus bars are powered, and the output signals are used to operate various flight instruments and aeroplane systems. The flight instruments supplied by the CADC are the: Altimeter Airspeed Indicator Vertical Speed Indicator Machmeter vvvy ‘The aeroplane systems typically supplied are the: Flight Data recorder (FDR) Flight Management System (FMS) Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) Transponder Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) Power Management Computer (PMC) Flight Director System (FDS) vvvy vvy Calculated values of True Airspeed (TAS) and Total Air Temperature (TAT) or Static Air ‘Temperature (SAT) are also normally digitally displayed on the aeroplane's instrument panel. The CADC additionally compensates automatically for both temperature and compressibility effects at high Mach numbers, thus enabling accurate instrument readings over a wide range of altitudes and airspeeds. The disadvantage of the CADC is that, unlike conventional pressure instruments, it requires power to operate, so a back-up system is provided, either via an altemate power supply, or by simple pressure instruments. Two CADCs are normally fited, to guard against a single failure, and each computer is supplied from separate Pitot-static sources. CONVERSION OF SENSING PRESSURES Transducers convert the sensed pressures into electrical signals; one senses the static pressure, whilst the other senses the dynamic pressure. A typical pressure transducer utlises the expansion of a diaphragm or capsule to actuate an electrical pick-off, as shown below, for the CADC Altitude Module. 82 InstrumentationCentral Air Data Computer Chapter 8 cea r ae reas | Bel a eee ut or = (i ere bbe -—— Coarse Synchro Coarse | ye ___ fe Scho {As the capsule changes shape due to a pressure change, the position of the '' bar relative to the "E’ bar changes. When the two air gaps are unequal, the reluctance of each circuit changes and an electrical output generates, as shown on the next page. The resultant signal is amplified and applied to a servomotor, via an output shaft, and moves the ‘E' bar until the air gaps equalise. When this occurs, no further signals are fed to the amplifier, and the ‘' bar is in a null position ‘The output shaft, connected to a control (CX) synchro, has power applied to its rotor enabling the angular position to be measured in terms of pressure. ELECTRICAL wo ourtur eannoye TEBE Somer forces ws tc - aff I SUPE | pnbeany pre? AG cou es g MARY COL [TK 4 wan wy wseete bt Ade Beron NRG ar = Sars} mIcKOFFcOr| Nae & ‘Some systems alternatively use piezo electric transducers, which consist of a stack of quartz discs, where each disc has a metallic pattern deposited on it. When pressure is applied to the stack, the stack flexes or bends, producing an electrical signal. The polarity of the resultant ‘signal, dictated by the direction of flex and its overall strength, is governed by the amount that the disc flexes. Instrumentation 83