Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Procedia CIRP 13 (2014) 270 275

2nd CIRP 2nd CIRP Conference on Surface Integrity (CSI)

Evaluating the subsurface microstructure of machined Ti-6Al-4V

Kyle D Edkinsa, Nickey Janse van Rensburga*, Rudolph F Laubscher
University of Johannesburg, Corner Kingsway and University Road, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
a

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +27-72-322-5316; fax: +27-11-559-2532 E-mail address: nickeyjvr@uj.ac.za

Abstract

Engineering the desired surface properties of a machined component enables lightweight design and improved functional
performance. This research reports on the results of microstructural, mechanical and residual stress investigations of machined Ti-
6Al-4V under varying cutting conditions. The performance of a machined component depends on the resulting microstructure
influenced by the mechanical and thermal loads during machining operations. Microstructural analysis through optical microscopy
of the subsurface of the machined edge is evaluated and compared to depth profiles of residual stress induced in the subsurface of
the component. The effect of cutting parameters on microstructure is assessed by varying the cutting speed and cut depth, while
keeping the feed rate constant. The near surface deformation angle and deformation depth was found to be a function of cutting
speed and cut depth.

2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
2014 The
Selection andAuthors. Published
peer-review by Elsevier B.V.
under responsibility of The International Scientific Committee of the 2nd Conference on Surface Integrity
Selection
in andofpeer-review
the person under
the Conference responsibility
Chair Prof Dragosof Axinte
The International Scientific Committee of the 2nd Conference on Surface Integrity
dragos.axinte@nottingham.ac.uk
in the person of the Conference Chair Prof Dragos Axinte dragos.axinte@nottingham.ac.uk

Keywords: Microstructure; Machining; Titanium

machinability of these alloys [6]. Low thermal

1. Introduction
Knowledge of the surface integrity of a machined
component can be critical for quality control of surface
engineering processes. The subsurface characteristics of
machined Ti-6Al-4V alloy, specifically microstructure
and residual stress distribution, is reported in this study.
Ti-6Al-4V alloy is known for its high specific strength
maintained at elevated temperatures and its exceptional
resistance to fracture and corrosion [1, 2]. It is widely
used in aerospace, automotive, defense, petrochemical
and biomedical industries [3]. Despite the beneficial
properties of titanium, the use and application thereof is
considered low when compared to other engineering
materials such as steel. This is mainly due to its high
production costs. Material costs are exasperated by the
complexity of the extraction process and difficulty
experienced during melting and manufacturing [4, 5].
When manufacturing machined titanium alloy
components, often up to 95% of the bulk material is
machined away.
The properties exploited in the application of titanium
alloys unfortunately also contribute to the poor
conductivity results in an increase in temperature at the
tool/workpiece interface, leading to metallurgical
alteration of the surface and subsurface layer and
consequently diminishes tool life [7, 8]. Due to the high
chemical reactivity of titanium, it has a tendency to weld
to the cutting tool during machining, leading to chipping
and premature tool failure. Furthermore, the fact that
titanium maintains its high strength at elevated
temperature and has a low modulus of elasticity, further
impairs the machinability of these alloys and adversely
influences the surface integrity of a machined part [9, 10].
Machining may introduce significant surface residual
stresses. Manufacturing and processing methods of Ti-
6Al-4V alloy components induce residual stresses
through plastic deformation and/or thermal gradients
created at the tool-workpiece interface. The residual
stresses can be either detrimental to the performance and
fatigue life of the component or enhance these properties
by increasing the components durability. This is
dependent on the magnitude, sign and distribution of the
stresses. Due to this influence on component
performance, it is important that residual stresses and
their effects on the mechanical properties are closely

2212-8271 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of The International Scientific Committee of the 2nd Conference on Surface Integrity in the person
of the Conference Chair Prof Dragos Axinte dragos.axinte@nottingham.ac.uk
doi:10.1016/j.procir.2014.04.046
 Kyle D. Edkins et al. / Procedia CIRP 13 (2014) 270 275
examined [11]. Evaluation of residual stresses provides a
means for process control, quality control, design
assessment and failure analysis [12]. Literature shows
that depth of cut and cutting speed are the parameters
which most affect induced residual stresses. It is further
suggested that these parameters also affect the grain
orientation near the surface of machined components
[13]. The aim of the investigation is therefore to evaluate
the effect of these cutting parameters on the induced
residual stresses and subsurface microstructure of Ti-
6Al-4V alloy. The cutting speeds analysed vary from 70
m/min to 200 m/min with depths of cut varying between
0.25 mm and 1.00 mm. Feed rate is kept constant at 0.2
mm/rev.
2. Experimental procedure
2.1. Material
Conventional outside turning tests are conducted on
Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The certified mechanical properties and
chemical composition are presented in Table 1. Ti-6Al-
4V is an -3-alloy composed of a 6% aluminium -phase
stabiliser and a 4% vanadium 3-phase stabiliser.
Table 1. Mechanical properties and chemical composition of Ti-6Al-
4V
Mechanical properties Chemical composition
Tensile strength (MPa) 990 N (%) 0.01
Yield strength (MPa) 890 C (%) 0.01
Elongation (%) 20 H (%) 0.002
Fe (%) 0.03
O (%) 0.06
Al (%) 6.2
V (%) 4.2
Ti (%) Remainder
2.2. Sample preparation
The samples are prepared by machining Ti-6Al-4V
alloy billets using an Efamatic CNC lathe with a
maximum spindle speed of 6000 rpm. Sandvik Coromant
H1P cemented tungsten carbide tool inserts without chip
breaker technology are used. A new cutting tool insert is
used for each cut. The basic insert geometry is an 80
rhombic shape with a nose radius of 0.8 mm and an entry
angle of 95. Cutting speeds of 70, 100, 125, 150, 175, and
200 m/min is used and the depth of cut is set at 0.25 mm
and 1.00 mm to represent finish and rough cuts
respectively. A constant feed rate of 0.2 mm/rev is used.
Conventional flood cooling is utilized. A 25 mm wide cut
equating to a total cut length of approximately 30 m are
conducted to ensure stable machining conditions. The test
specimens are finally separated by wire-EDM to ensure
271
minimal disturbance of the turning induced residual
stresses.
2.3. Sample analysis
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) is used for the residual stress
measurement. The residual stress measurements are
conducted on the machined surface of the samples. Copper
(Cu-K) tube radiation is used to determine the peaks with
the highest intensity. The samples are rotated through 3
specific tilt angles of p = 0, 90 and 45. Each p-angle is
also rotated through specific -angles and steps, in the
region of the most intense peaks. A pattern scan is
obtained for each sample and superimposed on the stress-
free pattern scan. Peak variations are then determined for
each sample and a stress tensor is calculated. With the full
stress tensor defined, the stress components of importance
for this investigation can then be extracted. These include
the longitudinal (11), transverse (22) and shear (12)
stresses as shown in Fig 1.
Fig. 1. Stress component orientation on the workpiece in relation to the
tool insert.
Optical microscopy is used to analyse the grain
deformation at the machined edge of each of the samples.
The samples are however first prepared by means of
mechanical grinding, attack polishing and etching to
reveal the microstructure. The samples were etched with
Krolls reagent (1-3 ml HF 40%, 2-6 ml HNO3 55% and
91 ml water). .
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Residual stresses
As mentioned above and explained by Brinksmeier et
al. [14], machining processes generates residual stresses
by plastic deformation or metallurgical transformations.
Usually mechanical and thermal impacts are acting
simultaneously with coinciding effects, resulting in
residual stress distributions which cannot be related to a
single impact. The influence of mechanical and thermal
272 Kyle D. Edkins et al. / Procedia CIRP 13 (2014) 270 275

50
impacts lead to residual stresses which reach from tension 0
to compression depending on the machining condition, -50
tool and workpiece material. The variation of 11, 22, and -100

Residual Stress (MPa)

12 as a function of cutting speed for Ti-6Al-4V at -150
different depths of cut are presented in Fig 2 and 3. The -200
graphs show that no appreciable change in shear stress -250
occurs and their magnitudes are small in comparison to the -300
longitudinal and transverse stresses. The 11 and 22 -350
stresses are relatively high in compression at low cutting -400 o11 o22 o12
speeds and become more tensile as cutting speeds -450
increase, before changing direction to compressive again 50 100 150 200
at high cutting speeds. The same residual stress trends are
Cutting speed (m/min)
observed during the high speed turning of Inconel 718,
investigated by Pawade et al. [15]. Pawade explains the
Fig. 3. Variation of residual stresses as a function of cutting speed
changes in residual stresses by describing the significance
for Ti-6Al-4V at 1.0 mm depth of cut
of heat dissipation during the machining of Inconel 718, a
material also with poor thermal conductivity, much the
Puerta Velasquez et al. [13] also measured similar
same as titanium alloys. At low cutting speeds, more heat
residual stresses for Ti-6Al-4V, albeit during dry cutting
is dissipated into the machined surface due to the low
and utilizing a diamond build-up edge (polycrystalline
material removal rate. This causes thermally dominant
diamond from Oerlikon) insert. The diamond coated tool
machining deformation which introduces tensile residual
allowed them to realize cutting speeds of up to 660 m/min
stresses (hence the increase in the tensile direction). At
(orthogonal cutting, feed rate 0.12 mm/rev, rake angle 0
high cutting speeds, less heat is dissipated into the
and clearance angle 7). Their results also produced
machined surface due to the high material removal rate.
largely compressive residual stresses at low cutting
This therefore reduces the amount of thermally dominant
speeds that tended towards tension with an increase in
machining deformation and increases the mechanically
cutting speed. They found that the longitudinal residual
dominant machining deformation which introduces
stress component became tensile at a cutting speed of 90
compressive residual stresses (hence the increase in the
m/min. The current data shows that Ti-6Al-4V becomes
compressive direction) [15].
tensile at 145 m/min for 0.25 mm depth of cut. The
However, as demonstrated by Ezugwu [1], at high
behaviour does not manifest at higher cut depths. The
cutting conditions coolants tend to be vaporized by the
residual stress state for a 1.00 mm cut remains
high temperature generated close to the tool edge,
predominantly compressive for the cutting speed range
forming a high temperature blanket that renders the
investigated here. Higher cutting speeds led to rapid tool
coolant ineffective. During these conditions there is very
deterioration.
limited access of the coolant to the tool-workpiece or
tool-chip interfaces which could result in thermally
500
200
100 300
Residual stress (MPa)

0
Residual stress (MPa)

1 00
-100 -100
-200
-300
-300
-500 o11, 0.25 mm
-400
o11 o22 o12 o11 Puerta Velasquez et al
-500 -700

dominant machining deformation. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Cutting

50
Fig. 2. Variation of residual stresses as a function of cutting speed
for Ti-6Al-4V at 0.25 mm depth of cut
100 150 200 speed (m/min)
Cutting speed (m/min)
Fig. 4. Comparison of the current data (0.2 mm/rev feed rate and
0.25 mm depth of cut) to data from Puerta Velasquez et al [13].
The substantially lower tensile transition temperature
as obtained by Puerta Velasquez is the result of their dry
cutting process. The data then suggests that this tensile
transition temperature is fundamentally a function of the
on-going heat transfer process during machining. The
 Kyle D. Edkins et al. / Procedia CIRP 13 (2014) 270 275 273

tensile transition temperature is therefore a function of the
cooling rate (cooling techniques employed), the heat
production (depth of cut) and the rate of heat production
(cutting speed). The 1.00 mm depth of cut data reveal
similar albeit slightly higher compressive residual
stresses. The transverse stress components (22) are lower
than the commensurate longitudinal components (11) but
do display similar trends as regards to the cutting speed.
They also do not display a minima as clearly evident with
the longitudinal component.
Brinksmeier et al. [14] examined the effects of tool
edge on residual stresses. In turning operations the cutting
energy is mainly transformed in the shearing zone. This
enables the produced heat to flow not only into the
workpiece surface but also into the chips. Ultimately, the
amount of friction at the tool-workpiece interface also
influences the resulting residual stress, which relates to
tool geometry. It has also been proved [16] that the friction
induced forces and thus the cutting temperatures increase
bulk material is observed. The extent of P2 is usually
described by its maximum observable depth (onset of
P1) and the grain deformation angle. The deformation
angle is measured as the average realised angle of grains
relative to the surface normal (see Fig 5).
The variation of deformation angle and deformation
depth as a function of cutting speed at a depth of cut at
0.25 and 1.0 mm are presented in Fig 6 and 7
respectively. The graphs show a clear and nearly linear
decrease in deformation angle and depth with increase in
cutting speed. In effect this implies that higher cutting
speeds lead to lower grain rotation and a smaller
influence region. This seems to indicate the influence of
strain rate sensitivity. Titanium alloys are known to be
strain rate sensitive [17].
58

Deformation angle ()
53
with the tool radius and the cutting speed. Generally it is
found that having negative rake angles the residual stress
gradually becomes more compressive as a result of a 48
higher degree of plastic deformation.
43
3.2. Subsurface microstructure
0.25 mm 1 mm
38
Puerta Velasquez et al. [13] identified three distinct
50 100 150 200
regions near the surface of titanium alloys which exist as
a result of machining. Figure 5 presents a typical Cutting speed (m/min)
micrograph for the current work with the different
Fig. 6. Variation of deformation angle as a function of cutting speed
regions clearly visible. The P3 region is directly beneath
for Ti-6Al-4V alloy with standard deviation of measured angles
the surface and may extend to depths of only a few ranging from 0.3-0.6.
microns. This region is characterised by the grains
undergoing severe deformation by extension and
8.5
rotation. The P2 region is found beyond region P3 in
depth and is characterised by the rotation and 8
Deformation depth (m)

realignment of the grains only. 7.5

7
6.5
6
5.5
5 0.25 mm 1 mm
4.5
50 100 150 200
Cutting speed (m/min)

Fig. 7. Variation of deformation depth as a function of cutting

speed for Ti-6Al-4V alloy with a standard deviation ranging from
0.5-0.9m.

Strain rate sensitivity is especially predominant at

Fig. 5. Definition of the deformation regions, depth and angle (1000)
The P2 region extends up to region P1 where no
optically discernible difference in grain structure from the
higher cutting speeds associated with machining. An
increase in cutting speed inevitably leads to an increase in
strain rate which leads to a higher yield strength. The
workpiece material effectively strengthens with an
increase in cutting speed. This should lead to a lower
deformation angle and deformation depth with increasing
274 Kyle D. Edkins et al. / Procedia CIRP 13 (2014) 270 275
cutting speed. There is however a complex interaction
also ongoing with the workpiece softening effect that
increases with cutting speed because of the associated
increase in heat load. This increase in cutting temperature
is however kept to a minimum due to cooling techniques
employed and therefore the current data suggests that the
strain rate sensitivity dominates this interaction for the
processing parameters investigated here.
These results are however contrary to the findings of
Puerta Velasquez et al. [13] who found an increase in
deformation depth to occur with increase in cutting speed.
A comparison between the current data and theirs are
presented in Figure 8. Deformation depth is comparable at
the lower cutting speeds. At higher speeds the difference
is marked. The feed rates are similar especially if one
takes into account the fact that the current work was semi
orthogonal at best and that the actual chip thickness
removed at the area of interest is substantially smaller as a
result of the conventional outside turning process (see
Figure 8).
Fig. 8. Actual effective feed rate at area of interest during
conventional outside turning for current investigation
Their results may be attributed to the softening effect
being more dominant over strain rate sensitivity as dry
cutting techniques were employed. This therefore allowed
for a greater increase in cutting temperature to occur with
increase in cutting speed. The higher temperatures caused
greater material softening which lead to an increase in
deformation depth with increasing cutting speed. The
depth of cut also has an effect on the magnitude of
deformation with the deformations observed at a 1.00 mm
cut is larger than the 0.25 mm cut. For purely orthogonal
cutting there should effectively be no difference. For the
semi-orthogonal case investigated here some of the extra
heat associated with the larger depth of cut does find its
way to the cutting region and more specifically the region
of interest here.
25
20
Deformation depth (m)
15
0.2 mm/rev
10 0.12 mm/rev, [13]
5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Cutting speed (m/min)
Fig. 9. Comparison of the current data (0.2 mm/rev feed rate and
0.25 mm depth of cut) to data from Puerta Velasquez et al [13].
Conclusion
This paper demonstrates the effect that machining
parameters have on the induced residual stresses and
subsurface microstructure Ti-6Al-4V alloy during high
performance conventional outside turning. The residual
stress analysis revealed compressive stresses at low
cutting speeds, becoming less compressive in nature with
an increase in cutting speed. At cutting speeds of
approximately 145 m/min for a 0.25 mm cut, the
compressive stresses change to tensile stresses and
residual stresses at these points are close to zero. This
tensile transition temperature is a function of the cooling
rate (cooling techniques employed), the heat production
(depth of cut, feed rate) and the rate of heat production
(cutting speed). Friction and tool geometry is closely
related, and relates to the residual stress state of the
machined surface with negative rake angles generally
producing more compressive residual stresses.
Subsurface microstructural analysis revealed a change
in grain deformation near the machined edge. The angle
and depth at which the grains were deformed tend to
decrease with an increase in cutting speed. The increased
depth of cut reveals an increased deformation and larger
deformation angles. The decrease in deformation angle
and region with increasing cutting speed indicates the
influence of strain rate sensitivity which dominates the
interaction with workpiece softening, for the process
parameters investigated in this study. The workpiece
material effectively strengthens with an increase in
cutting speed and therefore leads to a lower deformation
angle and deformation depth. The workpiece softening is
limited by the cooling techniques employed allowing for
the strain rate sensitivity to be dominant.
Comparison with dry machined orthogonal data
available in the literature highlights the dominant effect
that cooling and the subsequent thermal process has.
The residual stress and subsurface microstructural
changes observed in this paper allow for the possibility of
achieving certain material or property outcomes through
 Kyle D. Edkins et al. / Procedia CIRP 13 (2014) 270 275 275

utilization of specific machining parameters. Machine Tools & Manufacture, no. 48, pp. 275 - 288, 2008.

References

[1] E. O. Ezugwu, "Key improvements in the machining of

difficult-to-cut aerospace superalloys," International Journal of
Machine Tools & Manufacture, no. 45, p. 13531367, 25 March
2005.
[2] F. McBagonluri and W. O. Soboyejo, "Titanium Alloys:
Structure, Properties, and Applications," in Advanced Structural
Materials: Properties, Design Optimization, and Applications,
Taylor & Francis Group, 2006, pp. 306-382.
[3] D. Ulutan and T. Ozel, "Machining induced surface integrity
in titanium and nickel alloys: A review," International
JournalofMachineTools&Manufacture, vol. 51, pp. 250-280,
2011.
[4] J. R. Myers, H. B. Bomberger and F. H. Froes,
"Corrosion behavior and use of titanium and its alloys,"
Journal of Materials, vol. 36, no. 10, pp. 50-60, 1984.
[5] F. H. Hayes, H. B. Bomberger, F. H. Froes, L. Kaufman and
H. M. Butte, "Advances in Titanium Extraction Metallurgy,"
Journal of Materials, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 970-976, 1984.
[6] R. B. da Silva, . R. Machado, E. O. Ezugwu, J. Bonney and
W. F. Sales, "Tool life and wear mechanisms in high speed
machining of Ti6Al4V alloy with PCD tools under various
coolant pressures," Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
vol. 213, pp. 1459-1464, 2013.
[7] E. O. Ezugwu and Z. M. Wang, "Titanium alloys and
their machinability - a review," Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, no. 68, pp. 262-274, 1997.
[8] Z. Y. Wang and K. P. Rajurkar, "Cryogenic machining of
hard-to-cut materials," Wear, no. 239, pp. 168-175, 2000.
[9] Wang, Z. M. & Ezugwu, E. O., "Performance of PVD-
Coated Carbide Tools When Machining Ti-6Al-4V,"
Tribology Transactions, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 81-86, 1997.
[10] S. Lei and W. Liu, "High-speed machining of titanium alloys
using the driven rotary tool," International Journal of Machine
Tools & Manufacture, no. 42, p. 653661, 2002.
[11] J. W. H. John, W. H. Pricea and e. al., "Comparison of
experimental and theoretical residual stresses in welds: The
issue of gauge volume," International Journal of Mechanical
Sciences, vol. 50, pp. 513-521, September 2008.
[12] A. Paradowska, J. W. H. Price, R. Ibrahim and T. Finlayson,
"A neutron diffraction study of residual stress due to welding,"
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, pp. 1099-1105,
2005.
[13] J. D. Puerta Velsquez, A. Tidu, B. Bolle, P. Chevrier and J.-
J. Fundenberger, "Sub-surface and surface analysis of high
speed machined Ti6Al4V alloy," Materials Science and
Engineering, vol. A, no. 527, p. 25722578, 2010.
[14] E. Brinksmeier, "Residual Stresses-Measurement and Causes in
Machining Processes.," CIRP Annals , vol. 31, no. 2, p. 491
510, 1982.
[15] R. S. Pawade, S. S. Joshi and P. K. Brahmankar, "Effect of
machining parameters and cutting edge geometry on surface
integrity of high-speed turned Inconel 718," International
Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, vol. 48, p. 1528,
2008.
[16] J. P. Davim, Surface integrity in machining, London:
Springer Verlag, 2010.
[17] M. Calamaz, D. Coupard and F. Girot, "A new material model
for 2D numerical simulation of serrated chip formation when
machining titanium alloy Ti6Al4V," International Journal of