4-3-1 Design

Module 4.
3 Micro-
Micro-Hydro
4.3.1 Designing
Tokyo Electric Power Co. (TEPCO)
Workshop on Renewable Energies

March 17, 2005
Majuro, Republic of the Marshall Islands
Contents
Design for Civil Work
Calculation of Head Loss
Design of Electrical and Mechanical Equipment

e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies
1
1. Selecting a Type of Intake Weir or Dam
(a) Concrete gravity dam

(b) Floating concrete dam
(c) Earth dam
(d) Rockfill dam
(e) Wet masonry dam
(f) Gabion dam

(g) Concrete reinforced gabion dam
(h) Brushwood dam
(i) Wooden dam
(j) Wooden-frame dam with gravel
1-1.Concrete gravity dam
Concrete is used for the construction of the entire body.
Foundation : Bedrock
River conditions : Not governed by gradient, discharge or level of
sediment load
Intake conditions: Good interception performance and intake
efficiency
2
1-2. Floating concrete dam
Lengthened infiltration path of the foundations by means of cut-off, etc.

to improve the interception performance
Foundations : In principle, gravel

River conditions : Not affected by the gradient, discharge or level of
sediment load
Intake conditions: Good interception performance and intake efficiency
Cut-off
Longer
5
1-3. Earth dam
Earth is used as the main material for the body. The introduction of a
riprap and core wall may be necessary depending on the situation.
Foundations : Variable from earth to bedrock

River conditions : Gentle flow and easy to deal with flooding
Intake conditions: High interception performance and good intake
efficiency
3
1-4. Rockfill dam
Gravel is used as the main material for the body. The introduction of a
core wall may be necessary depending on the situation.
Foundations : Various, from earth to bedrock

River Conditions : River where an earth dam could be washed away
by normal discharge
Intake conditions: Limited to the partial use of river water due to the
low intake efficiency
1-5. Wet Masonry Dam
Filling of the spaces between gravel with mortar, etc.

River conditions : Not affected by the gradient, discharge or level of
sediment load
Intake conditions: Good interception performance and intake efficiency
4
1-6. Gabion Dam
Gravel is wrapped in metal net to improve integrity.

River conditions : River where a rock-fill dam could be washed away
by normal discharge
Intake conditions: Limited to partial use of river water due to the low
intake efficiency
1-7. Concrete Reinforced Gabion Dam
Reinforcement of the gabion surface with concrete

River conditions : River where the metal net could be damaged due to
strong flow
Intake conditions: Applicable when high intake efficiency is required
10
5
1-8. Brushwood Dam
Simple weir using locally produced tree branches, etc.
Foundations : Various, from earth to gravel layer

River conditions : Loss due to flooding is assumed
Intake conditions: At a site with a low intake volume or intake from a
stream to supplement the droughty water
11
1-9. Wooden Dam
Weir using locally produced wood

River conditions : Relatively gentle flow with a low level of sediment
transport
Intake conditions: A certain level of intake efficiency is ensured with a
surface coating, etc.
12
6
1-10. Wooden-Frame Dam with Gravel
The inside of the wooden frame is filled with gravel to increase stability.

River conditions : River at which a rock-fill dam could be washed away
by normal discharge
Intake conditions: Limited to the partial use of river water due to the
low intake efficiency
13

Decision of weir height
(1). Elevation of waterway considering:
- Geology, topography, existing structures, etc.
(2). Riverbed rise downstream

- Possibility of change of riverbed elevation
(3). Easy flushing sedimentation materials in front of intake
(4). Head acquisition and construction cost
(5). Backwater effect
14
7
2. Intake
y Side intake
- Typical intake
- At right angles to the river
y Tyrolean intake
Side Intake
- Along the weir

- Simple structure
- Affected by sedimentation
during flooding
- More maintenance required
Tyrolean Intake
15

3. Settling Basin
Dam
Function:
Intake Spillway
Settles and removes suspended Stoplog Flushing gate
materials of all sizes that could

adversely affect the turbine. B
b Headrace
Spills out excess water from
spillway 1.0
2.0
Conduit section
Settling section
Widening section
Bsp
10 15
hsp+15cm
Stoplog
Intake
hi h0
hs
ic=1/201/30
Sediment Pit
Flushing gate

bi
16
8
4. Headrace
Function:
Conveys water from the intake to
the forebay
Spillways provided along the
headrace for excess water
Flow Capacity
Qd = [ A R 2/3SL 1/2 ]
n
where,
A: Cross-sectional area
R: R = A/P
P: Length of wet sides
SL: Longitudinal slope of
headrace
n: Coefficient of roughness
17
n = 0.025
n = 0.030
Simple earth channel Lined channel

(Rock and stone)
n = 0.020 n = 0.015
Wet masonry channel Concrete channel
18
9
n = 0.015
n = 0.015
Wooded-fenced Box culvert channel

channel
n = 0.015, 0.012
Closed pipe (Hume pipe, steel pipe)

19

5. Forebay
Function:
Regulates fluctuating
discharge in the penstock
and the headrace caused
by load fluctuation.
Has final function to remove
materials (silt, sand),

debris (leaves, trash,
driftwood, etc.) in the water
Attached Structure:
Spillway
Screen
(Regulating gate)
20
10
6. Penstock
Conveys water under pressure from the forebay to the turbine

Materials: Steel, resin (Hard vinyl chloride, Howell, Fibre
Reinforced Plastics)
Diameter of pipe
d = C (QdVopt)0.5
where,
SI unit Imperial unit

d Diameter -m - ft
C Coefficient 1.273 2.306
Qd Designed m3/s ft3/s
discharge
Vopt Optimum 1.0 to 2.8 3.38 to 9.2
velocity m/s ft3/s
21

Diameter of penstock affects output of a power plant.
Increase of Diameter- Increase of Output
- Increase of Cost
Optimum Diameter to be determined
Output Limitation by Diameter of Penstock
Length of Penstock = 300ft, Coefficiency of Roughness = 0.013
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0 D=10in
Output (kW)
60.0 D=12in
50.0 D=14in
40.0 D=16in
30.0 D=18in
20.0
10.0
0.0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Discharge (ft3/ s)
22
11
7. Powerhouse
z Function:
Provides shelter for the electro-mechanical equipment (turbine,
generator, control panels, etc.)
z The size of the powerhouse and the layout:

Determined taking into account convenience during installation,

operation and maintenance.
z Foundation:
Classified into two:
For Impulse turbine
-Pelton turbine, Turgo turbine or cross-flow turbine, etc.
For Reaction turbine
-Francis turbine or propeller turbine, etc.
23

a. Foundation for Impulse Turbine
The figures shows the foundation for the cross flow turbine. There
is a space between the turbine and the surface of discharged water.
A
1 .1 Q d 2 1/ 3
hc ={ 9 .8
}
30 50cm F lo o d W a ter L e vel(M a xim um )
H L3
(see R e f.5 -3 )
30 50cm
A
A fterb a y T ailrac e c anne l O utle t
S ection A -A
bo
b o : d ep end s o n Q d and H e
20cm 2 0 cm
b
24
12
b. Foundation for Reaction Turbine
The below figures show the foundation for the Francis turbine. The
outlet of the turbine is installed under the level of discharged water.
A
d3
Hsdepens on characteristic of turbine
2
1.1Qd 1/ 3
hc={ 9.8
}
Hs
30 50cm Flood Water Level(Maximum)
20cm

1.15 d3
FloodWater Level (Maxmum)

H L3 Pump
2 3 (see Ref.5-
1.5d3 3)
A
Gate
Section A-A
HL3
1.5d3
25

Head losses are indicated by the following figures at hydropower
systems. HL1 can be calculated easily as the differential water level
between the intake to the forebay tank. Similarly HL3 can be calculated
as the differential level between the center of the turbine to the tailrace.
Intake
Headrace
HL1
Settling Basin
Forebay HL2
Penstock
H Hg
Powerhouse He
HL3
Tailrace
He = Hg (HL1 + HL2 + HL3)
where, He: Effective head
Hg: Gross head
HL1: Loss from intake to forebay
HL2: Loss at penstock
HL3: Installation head and loss at tailrace
26
13
The head loss at the penstock (HL2) can be calculated by
the following equations.
HL2 = hf + he + hv + ho
where,
hf: Frictional loss at penstock
he: Inlet loss
hv: Valve loss

ho: Other losses (Bend losses, loss on changes in cross-
sectional area and others)
27
<Reference > Head Loss at Penstock

(1) Frictional Loss
hf = f (Lp/Dp ) Vp2/2g
where, hf: Frictional loss at penstock (ft)

f: Coefficient on the diameter of penstock pipe (Dp)
f = 185 n2/Dp1/3
Lp: Length of penstock (ft)
Vp: Velocity at penstock (ft/s)
Vp = Q/Ap
g: Acceleration due to gravitation (32.14 ft/s2)
Dp: Diameter of penstock pipe (ft)
n: Coefficient of roughness
(steel pipe: n = 0.012, plastic pipe: n = 0.011)
Q: Design discharge (ft3/s)
Ap: Cross sectional area of penstock pipe (ft2)
Ap = 3.14 Dp24.0
28
14
(2) Inlet Loss
he = fe Vp2/2g
where, he: Inlet loss (ft)

fe: Coefficient on the form at inlet.
Usually fe = 0.5 in micro-hydro scheme
(3) Valve Loss

hv = fv Vp2 /2g
where, hv: Valve loss (ft)

fv: Coefficient of the type of valve
fv = 0.1 ( butterfly valve)
(4) Others
Bend loss and loss on changes in cross-sectional area are considered
other losses. However these losses can be neglected in micro-hydro
schemes. Usually, people planning micro-hydro schemes must take
account of following margin for other losses.
ho = 5 to 10% (hf + he +hv)

29

In SI Unit
(1) Frictional loss

Frictional loss (hf) is the biggest of the losses at penstock.
hf = f (Lp/Dp ) Vp2/2g
where, hf: Frictional loss at penstock (m)

f : Coefficient on the diameter of penstock pipe (Dp).
f = 124.5n2/Dp1/3
Lp: Length of penstock (m)

Vp: Velocity at penstock (m/s)
Vp = Q/Ap
g: Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/sec2)
Dp: Diameter of penstock pipe (m)
n : Coefficient of roughness
(steel pipe: n = 0.012, plastic pipe: n = 0.011)
Q: Design discharge (m3/s)
Ap: Cross sectional area of penstock pipe (m2)
Ap = 3.14Dp2/4.0
30
15
(2) Inlet Loss
he = fe Vp2/2g
where, he: Inlet loss (m)

fe: Coefficient on the form at the inlet
Usually fe = 0.5 in micro-hydro schemes.
(3) Valve Loss

hv = fv Vp2 /2g
where, hv: Valve loss (m)

fv: Coefficient on the type of valve,
fv = 0.1 (butterfly valve)
(4) Others
Bend loss and loss due to changes in cross-sectional area are considered
other losses. However, these losses can be neglected in micro-hydro
schemes. Usually, the person planning the micro-hydro scheme must take
account of following margins as other losses.
ho = 5 to 10% (hf + he +hv)

31
Design of E/M Equipment

Equipment and Functions
1. Inlet valve:
Controls the supply of water from the penstock to the turbine.
2. Water turbine:
Converts the water energy into rotating power.
3. Turbine governor:
Controls the speed and output of the turbine
4. Power transmission facility:
Transmits the rotation power of the turbine to the generator.
5. Generator:
Generates the electricity from the turbine or its transmitter.
6. Control panels:
Controls and protects the above facilities for safe operation.
7. Switchgear (with transformer):
Controls the electric power and increases the voltage of transmission
lines, if required
Note: Items 3, 6 & 7 above may sometimes be combined in one panel.
32
16
1. Inlet Valve
33
Design for E/M Equipment
2. Water Turbine Types:

z Impulse turbines: Rotates the runner by the impulse of water jets
by converting the pressure head into the velocity head through
nozzles.
z Reaction turbines: Rotates the runner by the pressure head.
Type Head
High Medium Low
Impulse Pelton Crossflow Crossflow

Turgo Turgo
Reaction Fransis Propeller

Pump-as-Turbine Kaplan
34
17
Selection of turbine type i.e.: H = 25m, Q = 0.45m3/s
(82ft) (15.88ft /s)
3
Cross Flow
1000
(3,280)
or Horizontal Francis
(m, ft)
Horizontal Pelton
Vertical Francis
100
Effective Head
(328)
10
Cross Flow
(32.8)
Horizontal Francis
(3.28)
1 Horizontal Propeller
0.01
(0.3529) 0.1
(3.529) 1
(35.29) 10
(352.9) 100
(3,529)
3 3
Water Discharge (m /s, ft /s)
35
Cross-Flow Turbine
36
18
Cross-Flow Turbine
Speed Governor
Water
Cross-
Cross-Flow W/T
Guide Vane
37
Francis Turbine
38
19
Francis Turbine
39
Tubular Turbine
40
20
Tubular Turbine
Timing Belt Generator

Draft Tube
Guide Vane Propeller Runner

(Wicket Gate)
41
Pelton Turbine
42
21
Pelton Turbine
43
Reverse Pump Turbine (Pump as Turbine)

44
22
Pico Hydro
45

3. Generator
z Synchronous:
Independent exciter rotor, applicable for both isolated and existing
power networks
z Asynchronous (induction):
No exciter rotor is usually applicable in networks with other power
sources. In isolated or independent networks, it must be connected to
capacitors to generate electricity.
Generator output: Pg (kVA) = (0.0847 x H x Q x )/pf

Pg (kVA) = (9.8 x H x Q x )/pf (in SI unit)
Where
Pg: output (kVA)
H: Net head (ft, m)
Q: Rated discharge (ft3/s, m3/s)
: Combined efficiency of turbine, transmitter & generator (%)
pf: Power factor ( %). The value is based on the type of load in the system.
46
23
3. Generator
Speed and Number of Generator Poles
- The rated rotational speed is specified according to the frequency
(50 or 60 Hz) of the power network and the number of poles by
the following formula:
For synchronous generators:

P (nos.) = 120 x f/N0 N0 (rpm) = 120 x f/P
where, P : Number of poles

f : Frequency (HZ)
N0 : Rated rotation speed rpm)
For induction generators:

N (rpm) = (1-S) x N0
where, N : Actual speed of induction generator (rpm)
S : Slip (normally S= -0.02)
N0 : Rated rotation speed rpm)
47

4. Power Transmission Facility (Speed Increaser)
To match the speed of the turbine and generator.
Gearbox type:
The turbine shaft and generator shaft are coupled with helical
gears with parallel shafts in one box with anti-friction bearings
according to the speed ratio between the turbine and generator.
The life is long but the cost is relatively high. (Efficiency: 95
97% subject to the type)
Belt type:
The turbine shaft and generator shaft are coupled with pulleys
or flywheels and belts according to the speed ratio between the
turbine and generator. The cost is relatively low but the life is
short. (Efficiency: 95 98% subject to the type of belt)
In the case of a micro hydro-power plant, a V-belt or flat belt type

coupling is usually adopted to save the cost because the gear-type
transmitter is very expensive.
48
24
5. Control Facility of Turbine and Generator
5.1 Speed Governor:
The speed governor is adopted to keep the turbine speed constant
because the speed fluctuates if there are changes in the load, water
head or flow.
(1) Mechanical type:

Controls the water discharge constantly with the automatic operation
of the guide vane(s) according to load. There are two types:

Pressure-oil type
Motor type
Ancillary Equipment:
Guide vane servomotor, pressure pump and tank, sump tank,
piping or guide vane operated by electric motor
49
(2) Dummy load type:

To balance both the actual load and dummy load using a thyristor i.e.
to keep the total of both the actual and dummy load constant for the
same generator output and speed. The load is controlled by an
electronic load controller (ELC).
The capacity of the dummy load is calculated as follows:

Pd (kW) = Pg (kVA) x pf (decimal) x SF

where,
Pd: Capacity of dummy load (Unity load: kW)
Pg: Rated output of generator (KVA)
pf: Rated power factor of generator
SF: Safety factor according to cooling method (1.2 1.4 times
generator output in kW) to avoid over-heating the heater
50
25
5.2 Generator Exciter
In the case of a synchronous generator, an exciter is necessary for
supplying field current to the generator and keeping the output
voltage constant if the load fluctuates.
Brush type:
Direct thyristor excitation method. DC current for the field coil is
supplied through a slip ring from a thyristor with an excitation
transformer. (Low initial cost but high maintenance cost)
Brushless type:
The basic circuit consists of an AC exciter directly coupled to the
main generator, a rotary rectifier and a separately provided
automatic voltage regulator with a thyristor (AVR). (High initial cost
but low maintenance cost)
51

5.2 Generator Exciter
Wiring diagram of exciter with brush Wiring diagram of brushless exciter
PT PT
Pulse Pulse
AVR AVR Generator
Generator CT
CT (Speed Detector)
(Speed Detector)
Ex. Tr
Ex. Tr
Rotating section
Slip ring DC100V
AC
G
Ex
G
52
26
5.3 Single Line Diagram
The typical single diagram for a 380/220V distribution line
Magnet
Contactor NFB Fuse
A x3 To Cust mer
x3
Lamp
V Indicator
Hz V
x3
Turbine
H
ELC
G (with Hz Relay) Dummy Load
Transmitter Generator
if required
53

6.Control, Instrumentation and Plant Protection
6.1 Control Methods:
Supervisory control method is classified into continuous

supervisory, remote continuous control and occasional control.
The operational control method is classified into manual control,
single-person control and fully automatic control.
The output control method is classified into output by single

governor for independent network and water level control, discharge
control and program control for parallel operation with another
power source.
54
27
6.2 Instrumentation
Pressure gauge for penstock

Voltmeter with change-over switch for output voltage
Voltmeter with change-over switch for output of dummy load
(ballast)
Ammeter with change-over switch for ampere of generator output
Frequency meter for rotational speed of generator
Hour meter for operating time

KWH (kW hour) meter and KVH (Kvar hour) meter, which is
recommended to check and summarize total energy produced by
the power plant
55
6.3 Protection of Plant and 380/220V Distribution Line
Considering the same reason for cost saving in instrumentation, the following
minimal protection is required for micro-hydro power plants in rural
electrification.
1. Over-speed of turbine and generator (detected by frequency)
2. Under-voltage
3. Over-voltage
4. Over-current by NFB (No Fuse Breaker) or MCCB (Molded Case Circuit
Breaker) for low-tension circuits.
When items 1, 2 and 3 are detected by an ELC (with screw adjustment), the
magnet contactor (MC) is activated and trips the main circuit of the generator.
56
28

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Module 4.

Workshop on Renewable Energies

Calculation of Head Loss

Design of Electrical and Mechanical Equipment

1. Selecting a Type of Intake Weir or Dam

(a) Concrete gravity dam

(f) Gabion dam

Design for Civil Work

1-1.Concrete gravity dam

Concrete is used for the construction of the entire body.

Lengthened infiltration path of the foundations by means of cut-off, etc.

Foundations : In principle, gravel

Design for Civil Work

1-3. Earth dam

Foundations : Variable from earth to bedrock

1-4. Rockfill dam

Foundations : Various, from earth to bedrock

Design for Civil Work

1-5. Wet Masonry Dam

Filling of the spaces between gravel with mortar, etc.

Foundations : Various, from earth to bedrock

1-6. Gabion Dam

Gravel is wrapped in metal net to improve integrity.

Foundations : Various, from earth to bedrock

Design for Civil Work

1-7. Concrete Reinforced Gabion Dam

Reinforcement of the gabion surface with concrete

Foundations : Various, from earth to bedrock

1-8. Brushwood Dam

Simple weir using locally produced tree branches, etc.

Foundations : Various, from earth to gravel layer

Design for Civil Work

1-9. Wooden Dam

Weir using locally produced wood

Foundations : Various, from earth to bedrock

surface coating, etc.

1-10. Wooden-Frame Dam with Gravel

Foundations : Various, from earth to bedrock

low intake efficiency

Design for Civil Work

(2). Riverbed rise downstream

(3). Easy flushing sedimentation materials in front of intake

(4). Head acquisition and construction cost

(5). Backwater effect

- Along the weir

Design for Civil Work

materials of all sizes that could

Design for Civil Work

Simple earth channel Lined channel

(Rock and stone)

Wet masonry channel Concrete channel

Wooded-fenced Box culvert channel

Closed pipe (Hume pipe, steel pipe)

Design for Civil Work

materials (silt, sand),

Conveys water under pressure from the forebay to the turbine

SI unit Imperial unit

Design for Civil Work

z The size of the powerhouse and the layout:

Determined taking into account convenience during installation,

Design for Civil Work

30 50cm F lo o d W a ter L e vel(M a xim um )

A fterb a y T ailrac e c anne l O utle t

FloodWater Level (Maxmum)