Wear,40 (1976) 237 - 253 237

0 Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne - Printed in the Netherlands

AN ASSESSMENT OF QUANT~ET AS AN AID IN THE ANALYSIS

OF WEAR DEBRIS IN FERROGRAPHY

S. ODI-OWEI
College of Science and Technology, Port Harcourf (Nigeria

A. L. PRICE and B. J. ROYLANCE

Swansea Tribology Cenfre and Mechanical Engineering Department, University College of
Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP (Gt. Britain)
(Received March 24,1976)

Summary

Wear debris extracted from oil samples taken from a twin-disc machine
has been analysed using Quantimet to obtain data in terms of the number,
size and distribution of wear particles in ferrograms. A correlation between
wear and performance in the disc machine is achieved. From optical and
stereoscan examination of the wear particles, the nature of the initial
running-in wear behaviour of the discs is established.

Introduction

In the design of lubricated contacts an indication of the effect of wear

on their performance is an important consideration, This is pa~icul~ly true
when attempting to establish a suitable level of confidence in the reliability
of theoretical predictions of the performance which are based on the initial
conditions of operation. As the separation between the lubricated surfaces
decreases and the operating film thickness approaches the same order of
magnitude as the surface asperities, the problem becomes more acute
because wear of the surfaces is inevitable.
An aspect of particular interest has been the study of traction
behaviour in lubricated, counterformal contacts in which sliding conditions
dominate. A series of tests has been conducted in a twin-disc machine in
which the traction behaviour has been investigated and related to a theoretic-
al treatment based on elastohydrodynamic lubrication (ehl) [l] , The test
a~angement, shown schematic~ly in Fig. 1, has enabled a number of
measurements to be recorded for a range of operating loads and speeds. The
roundness and surface roughness of the discs were measured before and after
testing. From these results it became evident that wear had occurred (Fig. 2).
238

Direction of Applied Force

i Troct~onMeasurmg
Both Discs Electrlcolly System
Insulated for Measurement
of Film Thickness
ICapacltancel and
Degree of Metallic

Stationary DISC
- 011 Supply by Grawty

011 Sample
Coilectlon Point
Area I which
Temperature 15
Monitored by
Infra-red Camera

\ I / System I Thermovis~on I

Rotating Disc Driven

by Variable Speed
D C Motor

Fig. 1. Schematic arrangement of the twin-disc machine.

To establish the extent and nature of this wear, and also its possible
effect on performance, oil samples were collected at the outlet side of the
contact and subsequently examined for wear debris by means of ferrogra-
phy. The ferrograph method was originally devised and developed by Seifert
and Westcott [ 21 and has quickly gained prominence as a complementary
technique to that of more established methods such as spectrographic oil
analysis. The usual method associated with the analysis of the wear particles
is optical densitometry, coupled with optical and stereoscan microscope
examination. A recent contribution to the study of wear in sliding steel sur-
faces has attempted to clarify and classify the range of wear modes which
can occur in this type of behaviour [ 31.
In the current investigation the optical and stereoscan microscope have
both been utilised to identify the nature of the wear particles. The optical
density of the deposit on the ferrogram can be measured at discrete positions
to provide information about the amount and size distribution of magnetic
particles in the oil. It has been shown that the distribution of particle sizes is
a sensitive indication of wear mode in a number of situations. It was con-
sidered that an alternative, though similar, approach might be investigated in
which an image analysing system such as Quantimet would be utilised to
provide information about the number, size and distribution of the particles.
This would also enable the feasibility of correlating wear with performance
data to be assessed.
 239

BEFORE TESTS AFTER TESTS

TALYROND PRoF I I.ES MEASURING

OUT-OF-ROUNDNESS ON TEST DISCS

ECCENTRICITY BETWEEN DISC AND BEARING SURFACES

SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF D,SCS

Fig. 2. Surface topography of the steel disc.

240

2LO r

200 1 Load
. 445N (p.=O 15 GPO)
+ 890N (0 21 GPal
A I 33 kN 10 26 GPO)
+ I 78 kN IO 30 GPa)

160 I 0
.
2 22 kN 10 33
2 67 kN(0 36
GPal
GPal

80

0 I_-
0 I 2 3
SItdIng Speed .m/s

Fig. 3. Experimental values of traction (HVI 650 oil).

It is considered that by achieving a preliminary indication of the

potential usefulness of this approach, a way has been found to develop
further the concept of directly linking metallurgical methods for analysis
of wear debris with engineering measurements of performance.

Test results

The main purpose of the test programme was to establish the traction
performance between a stationary disc loaded against a disc rotating at cons-
tant speed. Provision was made for testing with different lubricants
under the action of a steadily applied load. Traction performance was deter-
mined in terms of the displacement of the upper stationary disc as measured
 241

Sliding Speed. m/s

. Lb5 (pa =5.15 GW + 890 fpo = 0 21 Gfo)
A 1.33 kN tp.=O26 GPai + 1.78kN (~0: O-30 GPa)
0 2.22kN(po:033 GPoi . 2 67 kNlp.=O 36 GPa)
011 HVI 650
0 LO
a.
N

Sliding Speed,m/s

Fig. 4. Contact temperature rise on stationary and rotating surfaces.

by a non~ontact~g capacitance transducer, Data for one test are shown in

Fig. 3 in which the rapid decrease in traction force with speed is representa-
tive of typical behaviour in the thermal ehl regime of operation.
Thermal conditions in the region of the contact were monitored during
the tests by an infrared camera system (Thermovision) which enabled the
isotherms in the contact region to be measured [ 41. The temperature rise at
the surfaces was inferred in terms of the emissivity factor of the grey-body
surfaces represented by the oily discs [ 51. The variation in temperature rise
with speed at each surface is shown in Fig. 4.
Both discs were electrically insulated from the surroundings to enable
the measurement of film thickness using the capacitive method [ 61. At the
same time the quality of the film was established by contact resistance
measurements of the type utilised by Dowd and Barwell [ 7 ] . Results obtain-
ed for this particular test are shown as film quality in terms of the number
of contacts per second (Fig. 5) and as film thickness (Fig. 6).
242

500 Load

0 890N
A 133kN
+ 178kN
0 222kN

I 2 3 1
Shdlng Speed, m/s

Fig. 5. Degree of inter-asperity contact for various operating conditions (HVI 650 oil).

For a predetermined range of operating loads and speeds, the measure-

ments described were normally recorded after approximately 3 min of
running at a particular operating condition. The initial measurements were
made at low load and speed and the speed was then increased incrementally,
keeping the load constant. When the conditions at the highest speed had
been recorded, the speed was first reduced to low speed before increasing the
load and repeating the procedure.

General details

The discs were EN24 steel, hardened and oil-tempered to 780 HV, 300
mm in diameter and 9.4 mm wide. The initial surface roughness was 0.06 pm,
a super-ground finish, and the initial out of roundness was 0.01 mm.
The oil was HVI 650 (as supplied by Shell Research Centre, Thornton),
with viscosities of 568 X 10M6 m2 s-l at 38 C and 32.8 X 10v6 m2 s--l at
100 C. The tests were performed in the speed range 0.25 - 4 m s-l with
loads from 0.22 kN to 2.6 kN.
 243

Fig. 6. Comparison of experimental and theoretical values of film thicknesses (HVI 650
oil).

Wear particle analysis

The analysis of the wear particles produced in the twin-disc machine

was carried out by means of a ferrograph analyser augmented by a
Quantimet 720 and a scanning electron microscope. These techniques were
also applied to the oil prior to use in the rig in order that a representative
datum could be established for the analysis of the used oil samples taken
from the exit side under the various test conditions. The unused oil samples
were termed control samples.
Each prepared ferrograph slide was first examined using the bichromat-
ic microscope associated with the ferrograph system in order to ascertain the
type of wear particle present, whether metallic or oxide.
The slides were then transferred to a Quantimet 720 system to
quantify, in terms of number and size ranges, the particles deposited for
each test condition. This was achieved by the measurement of the chord
width of each particle in terms of picture points (lpp = 0.94 pm).
To obtain greater clarification as to the type of wear particles present,
further examination was carried out using a SEM. The slides were gold
flashed prior to examination in order to obtain improved resolution at the
higher magnifications.

Microscope examination

Load of 445 N
Two distinct particle shapes were viewed at the lowest speed of 0.6
m s-l. The predominant particle shape was the platelet type which was
244

Fig. 7. Load 445 N, speed 0.6 m s-l ( 2160 x ).

Fig. 8. Load 445 N, speed 0.6 m s-l ( 4260 x ).

Fig. 9. Load 445 N, speed 3.2 m s--l ( 480 x ).

Fig. 10. Load 890 N, speed 0.6 m s-l (900 x ).

found mainly in the form of stringers (Fig. 7);individual platelets were,

however, also present. The second particle shape was the spherical type,
although these were relatively few in number. The spheres were always
found within or at the periphery of the platelet stringers (Fig. 8). Using
the lighting and filter techniques of the bichromatic microscope, the
particles, both spherical and platelet, were established to be of free metal.
A decrease in particle density occurred when the operating speed was
increased to 1.27m s- . The quantity of spherical particles present increased
and this was accompanied by a change in their distribution, the spheres being
found as individual particles as. well as associated with the stringers. The
 245

Fig. 11. Load 890 N, speed 1.9 m s-l (900 X ).

platelet stringers, however, were still the predominating particle form. A

third particle type was also viewed: small individual cutting wear chips were
randomly distributed throughout the slide.
With a further increase in operating speed to 1.9 m s-l the platelet
stringers still dominated, but the amount of cutting wear particles increased,
seemingly at the expense of the spherical particles. Particles with a spongy
appearance were also found associated with the platelet stringers. These
spongy particles were established to be oxide particles of hematite, FesOs.
A considerable increase in particle density occurred at the highest speed
of 3.2 m s- . Gross cutting wear was observed, the particles occurring as
large individual machining type chips or as a tangle of swarf spirals (Fig. 9).
Oxide particles were also present and were established to be a mixture of
Fes04, Fe0 and Fe,Os.

Load of 890 N
The particle distribution at the lowest speed of 0.6 m s-l was similar
to that of the 445 N load, i.e. platelet stringers with some associated spheres
(Fig. 10). Increasing the speed to 1.27 m s-l produced a small increase in the
particle density. The distribution, however, remained essentially the same
although the platelets were somewhat larger and more well-defined.
A further increase in particle density occurred at 1.9 m s-l. The
spherical particles were no longer present but some cutting wear particles
were found, mostly associated with the platelet stringers (Fig. 11) although a
few appeared as discrete particles. The presence of spongy oxide particles
within the stringers was also observed.
The oxide particle content increased with increase in speed to 3.2 m s-l,
the oxides being a mixture of FesOs and FesOd. The form of the debris other-
wise remained much the same, namely, rubbing wear platelets in stringer
form with some cutting wear particles. The overall particle density, however,
was far less than that for the previous running speed.
246

TABLE 1
Summary of observations from microscope examination

Load Speed (m s-l)

W 0.6 1.27 1.9 3.2

445 Rubbing wear Rubbing wear Rubbing wear Gross cutting

plateiets with a
few spherical par-
ticles.
platelets with an platelets with wear with evi-
increase in spheric- spherical particles. dence of some
al particles. Some Some cutting wear oxide present.
small individual and oxide particles
cutting wear. also in evidence.

890 Rubbing wear Rubbing wear Rubbing wear Rubbing plate-

platelets of varying platelets of larger platelets with some lets with some
size with some size with spherical individual cutting cutting wear
spherical particles particles. wear particles. Evi- particles. Oxide
associated with the dence of some oxi- particles pre-
platelets. de particles pre- sent.
sent.

1780 Rubbing wear Large rubbing Rubbing wear Mainly rubbing

platelets with a
small amount of
rather large indi-
vidual cutting par-
ticles.
wear platelets to- platelets with oxi- wear platelets
gether with a num- de particles. Few plus oxides.
ber of oxide parti- spheres and small Little cutting
cles. cutting wear par- wear with a few
ticles. spheres.

Load of 1.78 kN
Large cutting wear particles were present at the lowest speed of 0.6 m
s-l. The cutting wear particles were found within and separate from the
platelet stringers, the stringers also acting as sites for spongy oxide particles.
The cutting wear particles were absent at the speed of 1.27 m s-l, the
field of view consisting entirely of large rubbing wear platelets and oxide par-
ticles. The platelets were mainly in the form of stringers but some were
distributed as discrete particles. The oxide particles, which were found to be
mainly of FesO, but with some Fes04, were again associated with the plate-
let stringers.
An increase in particle density was apparent when the speed was
increased to 1.9 m s- . The particles remained predominantly rubbing wear
platelet stringers containing some oxide. However, some small cutting wear
particles had reappeared as had a few spherical particles.
The particle distribution at 3.2 m s-l remained essentially the same as
for 1.9 m s-l , i.e. rubbing wear platelet stringers containing oxide plus the
occasional cutting wear particle or sphere. The particle density, however, was
somewhat less.
A summary of these findings is presented in Table 1.
 247

@
A3 L45 N
83 890 N
C3 1.78 kN
Speed - 1.9 m/s
Oil -H VI 650
780 VPN Discs

50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Posltm along Slade.mm

Fig. 12. Quantimet image analysis along slides at 1.9 m s-l.

Analysis of data from Quantimet

The distribution of particles from the inlet position to midway along
the slide is indicated in terms of load varying at a particular speed (Fig. 12)
and also for varying speed at a particular load (Fig. 13). The control slide
contained several particles but, as expected, their distribution was nominally
equal along the slide. At constant speed the number of particles is seen to
increase with load and to exhibit a similar distribution for each load. As speed
varies at constant load, a less consistent distribution is evident, though the
expected falling characteristic with position along the slide is confirmed.
Plotting the particles as a function of speed for three loads reveals that
the behaviour during the early stages of testing at light load contrasts with
the results for the higher loads (Fig. 14). The effect of particle size is shown
in Fig. 15 in which the pattern of behaviour is repeated as particle size in-
creases from 3pp to 15pp. Particle sizes greater than 15pp were not in
evidence in any of the ferrograms analysed.
248

1
\
100 Slldlng Speed

Cl 06 ms-'
c2 127 II
c3 190 ,,
90 -
CL 320 ,,
Dl ,, ~Control)
Load - 178 kN
011. HVI 650

30 r

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
PosItion along Sllde.mm

Fig. 13. Quantimet image analysis along slides at 1.79 kN.

Correlation between wear and performance

To establish an initial assessment of the wear behaviour in the contact

in relation to performance, the number of contacts per second was compar-
ed with the number of particles counted of size greater than 3pp. The num-
ber of particles generated per second can be established by assuming that the
volume sampled in the ferrograph machine is always the same and that the
sampling width is constant for each sample of oil collected from the mach-
ine. On this basis,

no. of particles per second a no. of particles X disc velocity X film

thickness
where the film thickness is obtained directly from Fig. 5 in which the theo-
retical film thickness has been calculated from Dowson and Higginsons
theory for discs operating under nominally pure rolling conditions [ 81. The
 249

, -

& 1 10 kN

IL
0 1 2 3 4
Sliding Speed m/s

Fig. 14. Number of particles vs. sliding speed.

ratio of particles to contacts when plotted against speed (Fig. 16) provides
an indication of the wear in relation to performance. It is evident that, as
before, the behaviour at light load differs from that observed under heavier
load at a later stage in the test.

Discussion

The main purpose of the test programme was to establish performance

data for a number of different, though discretely varied, operating condi-
tions. This type of test does not favour a properly conducted study of wear
behaviour. Wear is none the less taking place, and in this particular situation is
evidently exhibiting some form of running-in wear. From the performance
curves (Figs. 3 - 6) traction, temperature and asperity contact all increase
with load. As speed increases at constant load, traction and contact rate
decrease as temperature increases. Against the background of these changes
the nature of the wear can be assessed. From the curves showing the distribu-
250

cl 3 PP
0 5 PP
A 8 PP Load = 890 N
V 10 PP
x 15 PP

i 2 3 4
Slfdtng Speed, m/s

Fig. 15. Effect of particle size at a constant load.

tion of particles along the slide (Figs. 12 and 13) an indistinct pattern of
behaviour emerges which suggests a change in wear conditions as operating
conditions vary. A more clearly defined pattern is apparent in Fig. 14 in
which the behaviour at light load differs from conditions at higher load. An
examination of particle size (Fig. 15) fails to reveal any clear indication of
size effects as the film thickness and rate of contact change.
When the number of particles is related to asperity contact (Fig. 16) the
basic difference in behaviour noted in Fig. 14 becomes more clearly defined.
To try and explain this difference requires a knowledge of the nature of the
particles, as determined from examination with the optical and stereoscan
microscopes.
The different particle densities and particle shapes suggest that two
different wear regimes dominate which are linked by a transitional type of
behaviour. A mild wear regime is indicated by the flat platelet particles. This
contrasts with a severe wear regime as indicated by cutting wear chips or
swarf.
At the lowest load (445 N) a mild wear condition predominates in the
initial stages. This gradually changes to severe wear as speed increases. It is
 251

890 N
I
0

A 1.78 kN

0 I I -
0 1 2 3 4

Sliding Speed .m/s

Fig. 16. Wear particles per contact.

considered that in this instance the cutting wear could have been caused by
one of two possible mechanisms. Firstly the discs were hard and the final
surface condition prior to testing was obtained by grinding using an
aluminium oxide wheel. Examination of the ferrograms did not yield any
clear evidence of foreign grit of this type. This would provide a suitable
source for an abrasive cutting medium. An alternative explanation is that
cracking of the surface layers occurred due to a fatigue action resulting from
the grinding operation. If the latter hypothesis were correct it would help to
explain the gradual build-up in severe wear cutting action observed during
the initial period of the test.
During the examination of the ferrograms two types of spherical par-
ticles were observed, one having a completely smooth surface as shown in
Fig. 8, the other having a surface seemingly made up of overlapping layers
(Fig. 17). The presence of spherical particles is a well documented [9, lo]
feature of fatigue cracking in rolling contact, the particles exhibiting smooth
surfaces. In the present tests, sliding conditions in the contact dominate. The
extent to which this affects the mechanism for forming spherical particles is
not known at this stage.
Fig. 17. Load 445 N, speed 1.27 m s-l (4200 x )

The wear behaviour at the two higher loads, though similar, exhibits
different characteristics from the conditions at the initial load. At low speed,
mild rubbing wear is again in evidence but this gives way to severe wear when
the speed is in the region of 2 m s _ . During the tests an audible knocking
sound was noted in this speed range, the noise subsiding as the speed was
increased above 2 m s-l. This coincides with the indication of a return to
mild wear, in which the film thickness and temperature in the contact were
increasing as speed increased. This is substantiated by evidence of an increase
in the amount of metallic oxide present, which is associated with mild wear
behaviour [ 31.
The overall impression which emerges from Fig. 16 is that the increase
in severity of wear which occurs initially is gradually superseded by a milder
wear mechanism as the test proceeds, even though the load during the test
is increasing. This suggests that the surfaces are experiencing some form of
self-healing process which is indicative of the conditions in the contact
progressing from a metastable to a stable condition as the test proceeds.
This manifests itself in the form of a running-in wear process in which the
surfaces in contact are adapting to their operating environment under con-
ditions of gradually increasing severity in operating condition.

Conclusions

The analysis of ferrograms has been undertaken in which the Quantimet

has been utilised to establish a correlation between wear and performance in
the twin-disc machine. The results indicate the potential usefulness of this
technique, which complements the optical methods normally used to
establish the nature of the particles.
 253

In practical situations arising in industry, the optical densitometer, in

conjunction with ferrography, has been developed to provide an effective
and rapid method for monitoring wear. The Quantimet method appears to
offer good prospects for more detailed analysis in research programmes, par-
ticularly in situations where oil samples contain relatively few particles.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Shell Research (Mr. G. Galvin) for the
supply of the lubricant and details of the appropriate properties and Mr.
Malcolm Williams (Metallurgy Department, University College Swansea) for
assistance in the use of the Quantimet 720 machine and the subsequent
analysis of results.
For the production of ferrograms the authors are indebted to Mr.
Vernon Westcott of Transonics Inc. and Dr. G. Pocock of the Admiralty
Materials Laboratory. Their helpful comments and contribution to the tech-
nical discussion of the results is greatly appreciated.

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