Dept of EEE VFSTR University

UNIT- 2
DIODE APPLICATIONS
Basic building blocks of linear mode power supply, derivations of ripple factor,
Efficiency, TUF, peak factor, form factor, percentage regulation & PIV of Half
Wave Rectifier, Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier and Bridge rectifier. Circuit
operation and derivation of ripple factor for capacitor filter, Simple Zener
regulator, Basic operation and types of diode clippers and basic operation and
types of diode clampers.
OBJECTIVES
 To familiarize the students about the different applications of diodes.
 To familiarize the students about ripple factor and its derivation.
OUTCOMES
After the completion of the unit the students will be able to
 Design half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier.
 Design clipper.
TEXTBOOKS
1. J.Millman and CC Halkias, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, 2nd ed.,
Tata McGraw-Hill, , 2007.
2. S.Salivahanan, “Electronic Devices and Circuits” , 5th ed.,Tata McGraw-
Hill, 2010.
REFERENCES
1. R.L.Boylestad and Lovis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuits
Theory”, 10th ed., Pearson Education, 2010.
2. N.N.Bhargava, “Basic Electronics and Linear Circuits”, 1st ed.,Tata
McGraw-Hill, 2009.

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Linear Mode Power Supply:-

Basic Building Block of Linear mode power supply:-

a.)

b.) c.)

d.) e.)

f.)

Here, the transformer supplies ac voltage at the required level. This bidirectional
voltage is connected into a unidirectional pulsating dc using a rectifier. The
unwanted ripple contents of this pulsating dc are removed by a filter to get pure dc

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voltage. The output of the filter is fed to a regulator which gives a steady dc output
independent of load variations and input supply fluctuations.
(a) Principle of linear mode power supply:-

Requirements of Linear mode power supply:-

1) The most important consideration is designing a power supply is that dc
voltage at the output. It should be able to give minimum operable dc
voltage at the rated current.
2) It should be able to furnish the maximum current nodded for the unit,
monitoring the voltage consistent.
3) The ac ripple should be low.
4) The power supply should be protected in the event of short-circuit on the
load side.
5) Over voltage (spikes and surges) protection must be incorporated.
6) The response of power supply to temperature changes should be minimum.

Rectifier:- A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c voltage to pulsating d.c

voltage using one or more PN junction diodes.

Types of Rectifiers:- Based on the diodes using for construction.

1) Half-Wave Rectifier
2) Full-Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier.

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(1) Half-Wave Rectifier:-

In Half-Wave Rectifier, rectifying element conducts only during positive Half-
Cycle of input a.c supply the negative Half-Cycle of a.c supply are eliminated from
the output.
D1

The rectifier circuit consists of resistive load, rectifying element, i.e. P-N junction
diode, and the source of a.c voltage, all connected in series. The input voltage to
the half-wave rectifier circuit is a sinusoidal a.c voltage, having a frequency which
is supply frequency of 50Hz.
𝑁2 𝐸𝑆𝑚
=
𝑁1 𝐸𝑃𝑚

Esm=Peak value of the a.c. Secondary voltage.

Epm=Peak value of the primary a.c voltage.
es =Esm sinwt

w=2𝜋𝑓 where f=supply frequency

Operation of the circuit:-

 During the positive half cycle of secondary a.c voltage terminal (A) becomes
positive with respect to (B). The diode is forward biased. And the current flows in
the circuit in the clock-wise direction.
The current will flow for almost full positive half-cycle. This current
is also flowing through load resistance RL. Hence denoted as iL, the load current.
 During negative half cycle, when terminal (A) is negative with respect to
terminal (B) diode becomes reverse biased. Hence no current flows in the circuit.

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a) Diode forward b) Diode Reverse

←D→ ←D→ ←ON→ ←OFF→
biased biased
ON OFF

Secondary
input voltage eS π 2π 3π 4π

Load
Current (iL )

Load
Voltage (eL )

Voltage
across diode

←ESm = PIV→

Average DC Load Current:-

Mathematically, Current wave form can be described as

iL =Im sinwt for 0≤wt≤𝜋

iL=0 for 𝜋≤wt≤2 𝜋

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Where Im=Peak value of load current.

1 2𝜋 2𝜋
1
Idc= 0
𝑖𝐿 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)= 0
𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋 2𝜋

No current flowing during negative half cycle of a.c input voltage i.e. between
wt= 𝜋 to 2 𝜋, so
1 𝜋
IDC= 0 𝑚
𝐼 sin 𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋

𝐼 𝐼𝑚
= 𝑚 [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡]𝜋0 => - [cos (𝜋)-cos (0)]
2𝜋 2𝜋

𝐼 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
=> - 𝑚 [−1 − 1]= - [-2] =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋

𝐼
Idc= 𝑚 =average value
𝜋

Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law we can write

𝐸𝑆𝑚
Im=
𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

Where Rs=Resistance of secondary winding of transformer

RL=Load resistance, Rf =Forward resistance of diode

Average DC Load Voltage (EDC):-

It is the product of average D.C load current and load resistance RL.

EDC=IDC.RL
𝐼 𝐸𝑆𝑚
EDC= 𝑚 ∗ 𝑅𝐿 =>
𝜋 𝜋[𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿 ]

The winding resistance Rs and forward diode resistance Rf one practically very
small compound to RL.
𝐸𝑆𝑚
EDC= 𝑅 𝑓 +𝑅 𝑠
𝜋 +1
𝑅𝐿

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𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑠
But as Rf and Rs are small compared to RL, so is negligibly small compared
𝑅𝐿
to 1, so
𝐸𝑆𝑚
EDC≈
𝜋

RMS value of Load current:-

R.M.S means squaring, finding num and the finding square root. Hence R.M.S
value of load current can be.

1 𝜋 2 1 𝜋 2
Irms= 0
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) = 0
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋 2𝜋

1 𝜋 1−cos 2𝑤𝑡 1 𝑤𝑡 sin ⁡(2𝑤𝑡 ) 𝜋

=Im 0
𝑑(𝑤𝑡)=Im −
2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2 4 0

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝐼
=Im −0 => Im* ∗ =𝑚
2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2 2

𝐼
Irms= 𝑚
2

D.C power output (PDC):

PDC=EDC.IDC=IDC2RL
𝐼𝑚 2 𝐼2
D.C power output=IDC2RL= 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑚2 𝑅𝐿
𝜋 𝜋

𝐼2
PDC= 𝑚2 𝑅𝐿
𝜋

𝐸𝑆𝑚
Where Im=
𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

2
𝐸𝑆𝑚 ∗𝑅𝐿
PDC= 2 2
𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿 𝜋

A.C power Input (PAC):-

The power input taken from the secondary of transformer is the power supplied to
three resistances namely RL, Rf, Rs.
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2
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 RL + Rf + Rs
𝐼 2
𝐼𝑚
IRMS= 𝑚 , PAC= 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆
2 4

Rectifier Efficiency (ή):-

Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of d.c power output to a.c input power.
𝐷.𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 𝐷𝐶
ή= =
𝐴.𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 𝐴𝐶

𝐼2
𝑚𝑅
𝑃 𝐷𝐶 𝜋2 𝐿
Efficiency (ή) = =𝐼 2
𝑃 𝐴𝐶 𝑚 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿
4

4
𝑅𝐿 0.406
𝜋2
= =
𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿 1+ 𝑅 𝑓 +𝑅 𝑆
𝑅𝐿

If (Rf+RS)<<RS as mentioned earlier.

Then we get maximum efficiency of half-wave rectifier circuit as

%ήmax=0.406*100=40.6%
Ripple Factor:-

Mathematically Ripple Factor is defined as the RMS value of the a.c

component in the output to the average d.c component present in the output.
𝑅.𝑀.𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎.𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Ripple Factor (γ) =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑.𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Iac=> R.M.S value of ac component present in the output.

Idc=>d.c component present in the output.

IRMS=> R.M.S value of total output current.

2 + I2
IRMS= Iac dc

2 − 𝐼2
:. Iac= 𝐼𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑐

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𝐼𝑎𝑐
:. Ripple Factor=
𝐼𝑑𝑐

2 −𝐼 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑐
𝛾=
𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
γ= −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑚 2
2 𝜋2
γ= 𝐼𝑚 − 1= − 1 = 1.4674
4
𝜋

γ=1.211

This indicates that the ripple factor contents in the output are 1.211 times the A.C
component i.e. 1.211% of D.C component.

 Ripple Factor of half-wave is very high, which indicates that the half-wave
circuit is for converter of a.c to d.c.

Peak Inverse Voltage PIV:-

The peak Inverse Voltage is the peak voltage across the diode in the Reverse
direction i.e. when the diode is reverse biased. sIn the half wave rectifier, the load
current is ideally zero. When the diode is reverse biased. Hence the maximum
value of the voltage that can be exist across the diode is nothing but Esm.

Esm
I=0

PIV of diode=Esm=Maximum value of secondary voltage.

PIV=> EDC . π |IDC =0

This is called PIV rating of the diode.

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Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):-

The Factor which indicates how much is the utility of the transformer in the circuit
is called T.U.F.

Def: - T.U.F is defined as the ratio of d.c power delivered to the load to the a.c
power rating of the transformer.

A.C power rating of transformer =ERMS.IRMS

𝐸𝑆𝑚 𝐼𝑚
=> .
2 2

𝐸𝑆𝑚 .𝐼𝑚
=>
2 2

D.C power delivered to the load=Idc2RL

𝐼𝑚 2
= 𝑅𝐿
𝜋

𝐷.𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

T.U.F=
𝐴.𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

𝐼𝑚 2
𝑅𝐿
𝜋
T.U.F= 𝐸 𝑆𝑚 𝐼 𝑚
2 2

Where Esm=ImRL by neglecting Rf and Rs.

2
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝐿 .2 2 2 2
:. T.U.F => ∗ 2 𝑅 => =0.287
𝜋2 𝐼𝑚 𝐿 𝜋2

NOTE: The value of T.U.F is low, which shows that in half-wave circuit, the
transformer is not fully utilized.

Voltage Regulation:-

The voltage regulation is the factor, which tells us about the change in
the d.c output voltage as load change from no load to full load condition.
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑁 𝐿 − 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐹 𝐿
Voltage Regulation:
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐹 𝐿

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If 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑁𝐿 =D.C voltage on no load.

𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐹𝐿 =D.C voltage on full load.

𝐸𝑆𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐸𝑆𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑁𝐿 = 𝜋 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐹𝐿 =Idc.RL= 𝜋 ∗ 𝑅𝐿 = ∗ 𝑅𝐿
𝜋 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

𝐸 𝑆𝑚 𝐸 𝑅𝐿
− 𝑆𝑚 .
𝜋 𝜋 𝑅 𝑓 +𝑅 𝑆 +𝑅 𝐿
%Regulation=> 𝐸 𝑆𝑚 𝑅𝐿 ∗ 100
.
𝜋 𝑅 𝑓 +𝑅 𝑆 +𝑅 𝐿

𝑅𝐿
1−
𝑅 𝑓 +𝑅 𝑆 +𝑅 𝐿 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆
=> 𝑅𝐿 = ∗ 100
𝑅𝐿
𝑅 𝑓 +𝑅 𝑆 +𝑅 𝐿

Neglecting the winding resistance

𝑅𝑓
%R= ∗ 100
𝑅𝐿

Note: Less the value of voltage regulation, better is the performance of rectifier
circuit.
𝐼𝑚
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 2
Form Factor:- Form Factor=> = 𝐼𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝜋
𝜋
=> =>1.57
2

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼
Peak Factor:- => 𝐼𝑚𝑚 =2
𝑅.𝑀.𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2

Disadvantages of Half-wave Rectifier Circuit:-

1) The Ripple factor of half wave rectifier circuit is 1.21, which is quite high.
The output contains lot of varying components.
2) The maximum theoretical rectifier efficiency is found to be 40.6%, the
practical value will be less than this. This indicates that half wave rectifier
circuit is quite in efficient.
3) The circuit has low transformer utilization factor showing the transformer is
not fully utilized.

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Note: Because of all these disadvantages, half-wave rectifier circuit is normally

not used as a power rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier:-

The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and negative half
cycles of input a.c supply.

In order to rectify both the half cycles of a.c input, two diodes are used in this
circuit.

Operation:-

During the positive half of time of the input signal, a node of the diode D1 becomes
positive and at the same times the node of diode D2 does not conduct, the load
current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.

 During the negative half cycle of the input, the node of diode D1 becomes
negative and the node of D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct
and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop
across RL will be equal to the input voltage.

Current flow during negative half cycle

Current flow during positive half cycle

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Output wave forms: -

Secondary voltage
ESm D1 on D2 on D1 on D1 off
D2 off D1 off D2 off D2 on

Id1

Id2

iL

eL

Maximum Load current:-

Rf=Forward Resistance of diode

RS=Winding resistance of each half of secondary

RL=Load resistance

eS=Instantaneous a.c voltage across each half of secondary

eS=ESmsinwt
E Sm
Im=
R f +R S +R L

Im=Maximum value of load current iL

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Average D.C load current (IDC):-

Imsinwt -Imsinwt
↓ ↓

π 2π

Consider one cycle of load current iL from 0 to 2𝜋 to obtain the average value
which is d.c value of load current.

iL=Imsinwt 0≤wt≤ 𝜋

iL=-imsinwt; 𝜋 ≤wt≤2 𝜋
1 2𝜋
Iav=Idc= 𝑖𝐿 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋 2𝜋
= 0 𝑚
𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑 𝑤𝑡 + 𝜋
−𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋

𝐼 𝜋 2𝜋
=𝑚 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑 𝑤𝑡
2𝜋

𝐼 𝜋 2𝜋
=𝑚 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 0 − −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 𝜋
2𝜋

𝐼
= 𝑚 [-cos 𝜋+cos0+cos2 𝜋-cos 𝜋]
2𝜋

𝐼
= 𝑚 [-(-1)+1+1-(-1)]
2𝜋

2𝐼𝑚
:.Idc=
𝜋

Average DC Load Voltage (EDC):-

2𝐼𝑚
EDC=IDC*RL= ∗ 𝑅𝐿
𝜋

Substituting the value of Im

2𝐸𝑆𝑚 𝑅𝐿
EDC=
𝜋 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

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2𝐸𝑆𝑚
= 𝑅 𝑓 +𝑅 𝑆
𝜋 1+
𝑅𝐿

𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆
But as Rf and RS<<RL hence <<1
𝑅𝐿

2𝐸𝑆𝑚
:. EDC=
𝜋

RMS load current (IRMS):-

𝜋 2
1
IRMS= 𝑖 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋 0 𝐿

2 𝜋
IRMS= 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 2 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑤𝑡
=𝐼𝑚 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
𝜋 0 2

1 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑤𝑡 𝜋
=𝐼𝑚 𝑤𝑡 0 −
2𝜋 2 0

1 𝐼
=𝐼𝑚 𝜋 => 𝑚
2𝜋 2

𝐼𝑚
:. 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
2

DC power output:-
2
𝑃𝐷𝐶 =𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿

2𝐼𝑚 2
= ∗ 𝑅𝐿
𝜋

4 2
𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅𝐿
𝜋2 𝑚

Substituting the value of Im we get

4 𝐸𝑆𝑚 2
:.𝑃𝐷𝐶 = ∗ 𝑅𝐿
𝜋 2 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

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DC power input (PAC):-

2
𝑃𝐴𝐶 =𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿

𝐼𝑚 2
= 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿
2

2 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
𝐼𝑚 𝑓 𝑆 𝐿
𝑃𝐴𝐶 =
2

:. Substituting the value of Im we get

𝐸𝑆𝑚 2 1
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 2 ∗ 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿 2

2
𝐸𝑆𝑚
𝑃𝐴𝐶 =
2 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

Rectifier Efficiency:-
4 2
𝑃 𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼 𝑅
𝜋2 𝑚 𝐿
ή= = 2
𝑃 𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼 𝑚 𝑅 𝑓 +𝑅 𝑆 +𝑅 𝐿
2

8𝑅𝐿
ή=
𝜋 2 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

But Rf+RS<<RL, neglecting it from the denominator.

8𝑅𝐿
ή=
𝜋 2 𝑅𝐿

8
=
𝜋2

8
:.%𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∗ 100=81.2%
𝜋2

Ripple Factor:-

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
Ripple Factor= −1
𝐼𝐷𝐶

𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = and 𝐼𝐷𝐶 =
2 𝜋

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𝐼𝑚 2
2 𝜋2
γ= 2𝐼 𝑚 − 1= −1
8
𝜋

:. Ripple factor = γ = 0.48

This indicates that the ripple contents in the output are 48% of the d.c. which it
much less than that for the half wave circuit.

Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV):-

PIV of diode=2ESm

=𝜋EDC

:. When the diode drop is considered

PIV=2ESm-0.7

Transformer Utilization Factor (T.U.F):-

𝐷.𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Secondary T.U.F=
𝐴.𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

2
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑅𝐿
=>
𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 .𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆

2𝐼 𝑚 2
𝑅𝐿
𝜋
= 𝐸 𝑆𝑚 𝐼 𝑚
∗
2 2

 Neglecting forward resistance Rf of diode

ESm=ImRL
4
∗𝐼 2 𝑅 8
𝜋2 𝑚 𝐿
Secondary T.U.F= 𝐼2
= 2 =0.812
𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝜋
2

T.U.F for primary winding= 2*T.U.F of half wave circuit

=2*0.287=0.574

The average T.U.F for full wave circuit will be

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𝑇.𝑈.𝐹 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 +𝑇.𝑈.𝐹 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦


2

0.574+0.812
(T.U.F)avg=>
2

=0.693

:. Avg T.U.F for Full-Wave Rectifier=0.693

Voltage Regulation:-
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑁 𝐿 − 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐹 𝐿
%VR=
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐹 𝐿

𝑅𝑓
%VsR= ∗ 100
𝑅𝐿

The regulation characteristics are drooping, as dismissed. Earlier, in case of half-

wave rectifier as output voltage decreases as load increased from no load to full-
load.
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Form Factor:-
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝜋
=
2 2

=1.11
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Peak Factor:-
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝐼
=> 𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 2
2

Comparison of Half-Wave and Full-Wave circuit:-

 The d.c load current in case of full wave circuit is twice to the half-wave
circuit. The d.c load voltage is twice that in half-wave circuit.
 The efficiency of rectification in full-wave is twice that of half-wave
connection.
 The ripple factor is less for full wave.

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Bridge Rectifier Circuit:-

D1
D4

D2 +
D3
R L EDC

The bridge rectifier circuits are mainly used as, _

(a.) A power rectifier circuit for connecting a.c power to d.c power.
(b.) A rectifying system in rectifier type. ac meters, such as ac voltmeters, in
which the ac volt under measurement is first converted into d.c and
measured with conventional meter.

Operation of circuit:-(Bridge Rectifier)

For the positive half-cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D2

conduct, where as diodes D3 and D4 do not conduct. The conducting diodes will
be series through the load resister RL. So the load current flows through RL.

 During the negative half-cycle, diodes D3 and D4 conduct. The diodes D1and
D2 do not conduct. The conducting diodes D3 and D4 will be in series
through the load RL and the current flows through RL in the same direction
as in the previous half-cycle.
 Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional one.

Expression for various parameters:-

2𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
The maximum DC load current 𝐼𝐷𝐶 = , 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
𝜋 2

Total resistance offered=2Rf+RL+RS

𝐸𝑆𝑚
Maximum value of load current (Im)=
2𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

2𝐸𝑆𝑚
EDC=𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑅𝐿 =
𝜋

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2 4 2
PDC=𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑅𝐿 = 𝐼 𝑅
𝜋2 𝑚 𝐿

2 I 2𝑚 2𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

PAC=𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 2𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 =
2

8𝑅𝐿
ή=
𝜋 2 2𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

%ήmax=81.2% ; γ=0.48=ripple factor.

Parameter Half-Wave Full-Wave Bridge

S.No
1. No. Of diodes 1 2 4
2. Average DC 𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
Current 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
3. Average DC 𝐸𝑆𝑚 2𝐸𝑆𝑚 2𝐸𝑆𝑚
Voltage (𝐸𝐷𝐶 ) 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4. RMS 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Current(𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 ) 2 2 2
5. Maximum 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Efficiency(ή)
6. Ripple Factor(γ) 1.21 0.482 0.482

7. PIV rating of 𝐸𝑆𝑚 2𝐸𝑆𝑚 𝐸𝑆𝑚

diode
8. Maximum Load 𝐸𝑆𝑚 𝐸𝑆𝑚 𝐸𝑆𝑚
Current 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 2𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿

Comparison of rectifier circuits:-

Advantages of Bridge Rectifier Circuit:-

 The bulking centre-tapped transformer is not required.

 Transformer utilization factor is considerably high.

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Capacitor Filter:-

vm

The property of a capacitor is that, it allow a.c component and blocks the d.c
component. The operation of capacitor filter is to short the ripple to ground but
leave the d.c to appear at the output when it is connected across a pulsating d.c
voltage.

 For Positive half-Cycle, the capacitor charges up to peak value Vm. And will
try to maintain this value as the full-wave input drops to zero. The capacitor
will discharge through RL slowly until the secondary voltage again increases.

The ripple voltage wave fn can be assumed as triangular.

The charge it has acquired=𝑉𝑉1 𝑃−𝑃 ∗ 𝐶

=𝐼𝑑𝑐 ∗ 𝑇2

:. 𝑉𝑉1 𝑃−𝑃 ∗ 𝐶 =𝐼𝑑𝑐 ∗ 𝑇2

If value of capacitor is large, the value of load resister is very large then T2
is equal to half of periodic time of wave form.
𝑇 1 𝐼𝑑𝑐
= = 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑉1 𝑃−𝑃 =
2 2𝑓 2𝑓𝑐

:. The ripple wave form will be triangular, So the rms value of ripple
given by.

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𝑉𝑉 1 𝑃−𝑃
𝑉𝑉1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 3

:. The above equation, we have

𝐼𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑉1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
4 3𝑓𝑐

𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐
= , Since 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
4 3𝑓𝑐 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑉 1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 1
Ѓ= =
𝑉𝑑𝑐 4 3𝑓𝑐 𝑅𝐿

1
Ѓ=
4 3𝑓𝑐 𝑅𝐿

The ripple may be decreased by increasing C or RL (or both) with a

resulting increase in d.c output voltage.

VOLTAGE REGULATORS

In an unregistered power supply, the output voltage changes whenever the

input voltage or load changes. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronic
circuit designed to provide a predetermined d.c voltage V0, which is independent of
the load current and variations in the input voltage.

 A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit, that provides a stable d.c voltage

independent of the load current, temperature and a.c line voltage variations.

Line Regulation (OR):- Source Regulation(SR):-

The source regulation is defined as the change in the regulated load voltage for
a specified range of line voltage, typically

230V±10%

Mathematically it is expressed as,

SR=VHL-VLL

Where VHL= Load Voltage with high line voltage

VLL=Load Voltage with low line voltage

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The percentage source regulation is defined as

𝑆𝑅
%SR= ∗ 100
𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑚

Vnom=Normal load Voltage.

Load Regulation:-

The Load regulation is the change in the regulated output voltage, when load
current is changed from no load (minimum) to full-load (maximum).
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 −𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Load Regulation=
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

(or)
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 −𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Load Regulation=
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Zener-Diode as a Regulator:-

In a regulator using zener diode, the zener diode is operated in the break down
condition where the voltage across zener is nearly constant, inspite of changes in
the zener current. So it can be used to regulate the voltage with varying input
voltage or varying load conditions.

Regulation with a varying input voltage:-

 This figure shows how a zener diode can be used to regulate a varying input
voltage, commonly known as Line regulation.
As the input voltage varies, IZ also varies accordingly but the zener diode
maintains constant voltage across the output terminals over the certain range.
There limitations on the input variations are set by the minimum and
maximum current values with which the zener can operate.
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For example, if I𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =5mt, 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =50mt, VZ=6.8V

And the current limiting resistance R is the 1KΩ then
For minimum current,
Voltage across R=VR=5mA*1KΩ=5V
Since VR=VIN-VZ then
Vin=VR+VZ=5V+6.8V=11.8V
For maximum current,
Voltage across R=VR=50mA*1KΩ=50V
:. Vin=50V+6.8V=56.8V
This shows that zener diode used in this circuit can regulate an input voltage
from 11.8V to 56.8V and maintains an approximate 6.8V output.

Regulation with a Varying Load:-

---> It shows a Zener regulator with a variable load resistance. This is also
refined as load-regulation.

--->The Zener diode maintains a constant voltage across RL as long as the Zener
current is greater than I𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛 n and less than𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 . When the load current varies,
the zener diode current adjusts itself so that its terminal voltage remains
constant.

For example, if I𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =5mt, 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 x=50mt, Vz=10md, Vin=20V then at

no load RL=∞ and IL=0.

:. To limit maximum current to 50mt(𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 x)

𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝑉𝑍 20𝑉−10𝑉
R(min)= = =200Ω
𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 50𝑚𝐴

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As you know I𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =5mA, the maximum load current is 45mA (50-5). This
shows that the zener diode in this circuit can maintain output voltage constant
for load current from 0mA to 45mA.

Vin min= Minimum value of input voltage.

Vin max= Maximum value of input voltage.

IL max= Maximum value of load current.

IL min= Minimum value of load current.

IZ max= Maximum value of zener current.

IZ min= Minimum value of zener current.

VD=VZ=output voltage.

Design of Zener Regulator with varying load and varying input

conditions:-

Let us see the design of zener regulator with varying load as well
as varying input conditions.

The limiting values series resistance R for a given zener can be

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 −𝑉𝑧 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 −𝑉0
obtained as. Rmax= = -------->(1)
𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑧 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉0

Rmin= = ------>(2)
𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 +𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 +𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥

For any value of R between Rmax and Rmin, the circuit works
successfully as a regulator.If load current or input voltage is constant value and
not varying then it’s both maximum and minimum values must be treated

As its constant value in the above equations. To obtain Rmax and Rmin.

The IL min is generally treated as zero.

----> To satisfy the equations (1) and (2) , proper zener diode having Iz min
and Iz max values which can satisfy the required load conditions, must be used in
the circuit.
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PROBLEMS ON RECTIFIERS AND REGULATORS

(a.) A 230V, 60Hz voltage is applied to the primary of 5:1 step down, center
–tap transformer used in a full-wave rectifier having a load of 900Ω. If
the diode resistance and secondary will resistance together the load.
(b.) D.C current flowing through the load.
(c.) D.C power delivered to the load.
(d.) PIV across each diode
(e.) Ripple Voltage and its frequency.
230
Ans:- The voltage across the two ends of secondary= = 46𝑉
5

46
Voltage from center tapping to one end Vrms= = 23𝑉
2

2𝑉𝑚 2∗23∗ 2
(a.) D.C voltage across the load Vdc= = =20.7V
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐
(b.) D.C current flowing through the load, Idc=
𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿
20.7
=> = 20.7𝑚𝐴
1000
(c.) D.C power delivered to the load.
Pdc=(Idc)2*RL=(20.7*10-3)2*900=0.386w
(d.) PIV across each diode =2Vm=2*23* 2=65V
(e.) Ripple Voltage VV1 rms= (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2 − (𝑉𝑑𝑐 )2
= (23)2 − (20.7)2 =10.05V

Frequency of ripple voltage=2*60=120Hz.

(2.) A full-wave rectifier has a center-tap transformer of 100-0-100V and each one
of the diode is rated at Imax=400mA and Iav=150mA. Neglecting the voltage drop
across the diodes, determine

(a.) The value of load resistor that gives the largest d.c power output

(b.) D.C load voltage and current and

(c.) PIV of each diode.

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Ans:- We know that the maximum value of current flowing through the diode for
normal operation should not exceed 80% of its rated current.

:. Imax=0.5*400=320mA

The maximum value of the secondary voltage

Vm= 2*100=141.4V

Therefore, the value of the load resistor that gives the largest d.c power
output.
𝑉𝑚 141.4
(a.) RL= = =492Ω
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 320∗10 −3
2𝑉𝑚 2∗141.4
(b.) D.C (load) voltage, Vdc= = =90V
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 90
D.C load current Idc= = =0.204A
𝑅𝐿 442

(c.) PIV of each diode=2Vm=2*141.4=282.8V

(2.) Design a Zener-shunt Voltage regulator with the following specifications.

V0=10V, Vin=20-30V; IL= (30-50) mA; IZ= (20-40) mA

Ans:- Selection of Zener diode

VZ=V0=10V

IZ max=40mA

PZ=VZ*IZ max=10*40*10-3=0.4w

Hence a 0.5Z 10 Zener can be selected.

Value of load resistance, RL

𝑉0 10
RL min= = = 200Ω
𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 50∗10 −3

𝑉0 10
RL max= = =333Ω
𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 30∗10 −3

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Value of Load resistance, R

𝑉𝑖𝑛 max −𝑉0
Rmax=
𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 +𝐼𝑍 (𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

30−10
= = 286Ω
30+40 ∗10 −3

𝑉𝑖𝑛 min −𝑉0

Rmin=
𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐼𝑍 (𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

20−10
= = 143Ω
50+20 ∗10 −3

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
:. Therefore, R= =215Ω
2

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