CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.

4 SOIL TYPES AND STRUCTURE

Chapter 1.4

SOIL TYPES AND STRUCTURE

1.4.1. Major Division of Soil

1.4.1.1. Coarse-grained particles - individual particles are large enough to be distinguished without
magnification.
a. Gravel - 200 mm - 2.00 mm ----- general limit
- 75 mm - 2.00 mm ----- for highway engineering
b. Sand - 2.00 mm - 0.075 mm
shape: rounded, sub-angular or angular

Cobble a rock fragment, usually rounded or semi-rounded, with an average dimension

between 75 mm and 305 mm (3 and 12)
Boulder a rock fragment , usually rounded by weathering or abrasion, with an
average dimension of 305 mm (12) or more

Engineering Properties:
a. Coarse-grained soils have good load-bearing qualities
b. Permeable, hence they drain easily
c. Not subject to appreciable changes in volume or strength due to changes in water
content.
d. Comparatively incompressible when acted upon by static loads but if loose or not
adequately compacted they will compress considerably when subjected to vibratory
action.

1.4.1.2. Fine-grained particles particles are so small that its size cannot be distinguished by the
naked eye
a. Silt - 0.075 mm - 0.002 mm
- has a smooth texture
- it possesses little or no cohesion
shape: rounded --- little or no cohesive property
flaked shape --- exhibits cohesive property
b. Clay - derived from chemical weathering
- 0.002 mm - 0.001 mm
- soil can be remolded or deformed without causing cracking, breaking, or change
in volume and will retain the remolded shape.
- texture is smooth
- cohesive and plastic when wet
shape: flaked-shape or needle shape

*Silt and clay are determined based on the plasticity and non-plasticity of the material.

Engineering Properties:
a. Have poor load-sustaining qualities
b. Highly impermeable, thus has poor drainage characteristics.
c. They will compress under the action of a sustained load.
d. They will change in volume and strength due to change in water content.

1.4.1.3. Organic Soils - those soils particularly fine-grained which contain small fragments of
decomposed vegetation and decayed animals.

a. Muck - a relatively dense fibrous soil containing a more oxidized organic matter
- geologically older than peat
b. Peat - a fibrous soil containing partially decomposed vegetation
- normally spongy and relatively light.
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c. Organic Silt or Organic Clay - contains finely divided organic matter.

Engineering Properties:
a. Change in volume very considerably under comparatively light loads.
b. Have very poor load-sustaining qualities.

1.4.2. Factors that Affect the Behavioral Properties of Soil:

1.4.2.1. Size

Table 1.4-1 Size Range for Soil Types

Particle Size Diameter of Particle, US Standard Sieve
Classification Mm Passing Retained
Gravel 75 - 2.00 3" No. 10
Sand 2.00 - 0.075 No. 10 No. 200
Silt 0.075 - 0.002
Cannot be separated by sieving. Size is
Clay 0.002 - 0.001
determined by hydrometer test.
Colloid less than 0.001

Sieve Size Diameter, mm Sieve Size Diameter, mm

3" 75 #40 0.425
1" 25 #50 0.300
12.5 #60 0.250
3/8" 9.0 #80 0.180
#4 4.750 #100 0.150
#6 3.350 #140 0.106
#8 2.360 #170 0.088
#10 2.000 #200 0.075
#16 1.180 #270 0.053
#20 0.850 pan 0.000
#30 0.600

According to USDA

1.4.2.2. Particle Shapes

a. Bulky grain - particle dimensions are approximately equal (Fig. 1.4-1)

- developed into angular, sub-angular and rounded shape
- angular particles possess better engineering properties
- sand, gravel and silt possess this shape
b. Flaky or platelike shape - extremely thin compared to length and width
- clay minerals possess this shape
c. Needle-like grain - shape similar to a needle
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1.4.2.3. Mineralogical Composition

- this factor affects the soil type true clay or clay minerals
- almost all clay minerals are crystalline that are capable of developing cohesion and
plasticity

1.4.2.4. Soil Structure - refers to the pattern of arrangement of the soil particles

a. Single-grained
- gravel, sand and silt
- actual soil deposits are made of accumulations of soil particles having at least
some variation in particle size

loose dense

b. Honey-combed - sand or silts (Fig. 1.4-2)

- possible for soil with particle mass relatively great compared to the surface
- developed for grains settling slowly in quiet waters or a loosely dumped moist
soil
- this soil structure is incapable of providing great support when subjected to
external loading
- it breaks, bends and rearranges under load

c. Flocculated (edge to face arrangement) Fig. 1.4-3

- for clay particles
- has high void ratios, low density and high water contents, quiet strong and
resistant to external forces because of the attraction between particles
- clay settling out in saltwater solution tends to a structure more flocculent since
saltwater acts as an electrolyte in which repulsion between particles is reduced.
- clay settling out in fresh water produces a structure where some parallel
orientation of settled particles occurs
- clay particles in ponds and wetlands where organic decay is taking place are
highly flocculent.

d. Dispersed or oriented structure (Fig. 1.4-4)

- developed when clay soils are reworked or remolded by the transportation
process ( glacial action or human activities)

Thixotropy - the phenomenon of strength loss-strength gain (Fig. 1.4-5)

- is the process of softening caused by remolding followed by a time-dependent
return to harder state
- affects clay minerals that adsorb large quantities of water, ex. montmorillonite

Benefits from this phenomenon:

- soil structures (dams, highway embankments) and disturbed foundation soils
become stronger with the passing of time

Problems brought by this phenomenon:

- construction sites may be quickly transformed into a mire of mud when
construction equipment travels across the area, making handling of equipment
and materials very difficult.
- piles driven in clay soils meet considerable resistance if driving continue after a
one-or two-day wait.
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1.4.2.5. Plasticity - term applied to fine-grained soils (particularly clays) to indicate the soils' (plus
included water's) ability to flow or be remolded without raveling or breaking apart.

1.4.2.6. Intereffect with Water (Clay and Water) Fig. 1.4-6

- the forces of electrical charge have a profound effect on the behavior of particles
coming in association with other particles and water (or other fluids) present in the soil.
- clay particles have very high ratio of particle surface to particle mass compared to
coarse particles.
- groundwater is rarely pure, it contains dissolved gases, minerals and other compounds
in solution or suspension. With groundwater, rocks and minerals will break down into
cations(positively charged ions) and anions(negatively charged ions)
- since clay minerals have net negative charges present on the surface, it attract cations
(potassium, sodium, calcium and aluminum). Because of the net positive charge of the
cations, they in turn attract negative charges possessed by the negative tips of water
molecules. Thus, significant water becomes "bonded" to the clay
- the farther from the particle surface, though, the weaker the attraction becomes.

diffuse double layer - the distance from the clay particle surface to the limit of attraction
adsorbed water or oriented water - water bound to soil particles because of the attraction
between electrical charges existing on soil particle surfaces and (dipole) water
molecules

1.4.3. Special Soil Categories

1.4.3.1. Collapsible Soil - refers to the category of soil deposits that experience significant decrease
in volume when exposed to water, typically found in arid regions.
- predominantly silt-size particles but granular deposits that include considerable
gravel can be collapsible

Formation:
- wind transported silts (loess soil deposits) were laid down slowly in a dry environment
retaining the original loose structure with vertical rootholes and grass channels to create
high permeability in the vertical direction
- collapsible gravels are water transported and deposited formations such as alluvial fans,
mud flow or slope wash deposits, torrential stream deposits, where rapid deposition was
followed by drying

Methods to identify collapsible soil:

a. to determine moisture content - low moisture content indicates a collapsible soil
b. to compare the volume and strength of soil samples in the natural condition and after
exposure to water
c. to check conditions on proposed construction site any indication of collapsing soils at
neighboring projects ( like large settlements, sinkholes, etc.)

Measures to improve/counteract the effects of collapsible soil

Prior to construction:
- by flooding
- by using mechanical processes that resulted in collapsing the soil to achieve
stable condition
After construction:
- preventing water from reaching the collapsible strata

1.4.3.2. Expansive Clays - clay soils that experience significant volume expansion in the presence
of water and shrinks upon drying. Clays including montmorillonite or illite minerals are
especially noted for their volume-change characteristics.
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- volume change is related to the thickness and mobility of the water film
adsorbed onto or surrounding the montmorillonite particle

Negative effects:
- capable of lifting slabs and heavy structures
- excessive lateral thrusts on retaining wall structures
- ground settlement due to shrinkage may result to serious damage

Beneficial uses:
- general grout in preventing leakage from reservoir
- for plugging leaks in tunnel construction
- as drilling mud in connection with soil borings and oil and gas wells- it prevents
flocculation and facilitates the removal of the drill cutting of the rotary drill
- used as backfill for slurry trench walls
- for clarification of beer and wine

Formation:
- extreme disintegration of the parent material, alkaline environment and semiarid
climate(absence of enough water resulted in the accumulation of magnesium, calcium,
iron, sodium and magnesium ions) enhance the formation of expansive clays

Methods of identifying expansive clays:

- obtaining soil samples in the proposed site and apply soil tests for evaluating the clay's
potential for expansion

Methods used to stabilize expansive clays:

* how to protect soil from variations in moisture content

a. chemical stabilization - it uses an additive to reduce the inclination to attract or lose
moisture ex. lime slurry mixing
b. replacement - applicable only where limited area or depth requires protection against
soil volume changes

1.4.3.3. Dispersive Clay - clay soils that deflocculate in still water and erode when exposed to a
low-velocity flow of water. A clay-pore water system that has a high concentration of
sodium ions tends to have high dispersivity.

Identification:
- areas show steep erosion gullies and eroded tunnels, though not always
- embankments similarly experience the development of gullies and tunnels
- piping of earth dams (this condition develops quickly when fresh water replaces
saltwater)

Formation: Conditions necessary for its formation

- dispersion of clay soils is attributed to the presence of cations in the soil pore water
- repulsive forces generally decrease as the concentration of ions increases however,
repulsion increases as the quantity of sodium ions increases.

Measures to counter erodibility of dispersive clay:

- can be reduced through the use of hydrated lime or aluminum sulfate admixtures, 1-2%
by weight
- use of soil transition-filter zones that border the dispersive clay can be designed to
control erosion and seal concentrated leaks
- use of geofabrics as an erosion control

Testing for Dispersive Clays

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the relationship between the presence of ions and susceptibility to deffloculation as

shown in Fig. 1.4-7.
Atomic absorption spectroscope or flame photometer - instruments used to determine
ion concentrations.
Simple qualitative tests using standard laboratory equipment
a. Soil Conservation Service Dispersion Test or the Double Hydrometer Test

% finer than 0.005 mm in plain water test

% dispersion = (1.4 - 1)
% finer than 0.005 mm in conventional hydrometer test

A percentage dispersion greater than 35% indicates a dispersive clay soil.

b. Crumb Test: A small sample of soil (10 mm or less in diameter) preserved at the
natural water content is placed in a beaker of distilled water. The reaction in terms
of a colloidal cloud around the crumb is an indication of the soil's tendency to
disperse; no cloud indicates a nondispersive material.

c. Pinhole Test: The test soil is compacted, and distilled water is then made to flow
through a 1-mm-diameter hole in the sample. The test can be set up in the
permeameter apparatus used for permeability determinations, using pea gravel
filters at the ends of the test sample. With a dispersive clay, the hole erodes and the
flowing water discharge is colored, whereas for a nondispersive soil the hole does
not enlarge and the water discharge remains clear.

1.4.3.4. Laterites - a category of residual soil formed from the weathering of igneous rock in tropical
regions that, through the process of its formation, will include high concentrations of iron
and aluminum sesquioxides with low concentrations of silica.

Identification/characteristics of laterites:
- frequently reddish in color but not always
- typically contain only meager concentrations of nutrients necessary for productive
farming
- deposits may be found in hard or cemented state(due to presence of free iron oxide),
particularly in areas where vegetation is sparse or has been removed
- is gap-graded, existing with prevalence of gravel-sized and clay materials but having
limited sand-and silt-sized particles
- found to be unstable; during handling and testing or excavation and placement, physical
properties change particularly soils from damp region than from arid region

It has become apparent that widely used correlations between soil classification
index properties and the subsequent engineering behavior, established primarily from
experiences with soils formed in the temperate regions of the world, cannot be relied on to
predict behavior of soils formed in tropical areas

Measures to counter its negative effects:

- protect the material from percolating or migrating water
- protect it from the effects of heavy repetitive loading
- properties can be improved by the use of common admixtures such as cement and lime

1.4.3.5. Permafrost - permanently frozen ground located in the northern regions of the earth.
(Fig. 1.4-8)

- the depth of frozen soil is on the order of 300 - 1000 meters

- surface zone of soil thaws in summer and refreezes in winter, this soil depth that is
subjected to seasonal cycle of thawing and freezing is termed active zone
active zone is usually weak and compressible because of the trapped water

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Solutions to counteract effects on structures built on permafrost: (Fig. 1.4-9)

- foundations should be installed in the permanently frozen earth that exists below the
active zone
- foundations must be designed to ensure that heat is not conducted through the
permafrost that provides the support: insulating materials could be necessary along the
vertical perimeter of the foundation and at the base
- the floors and subsurface floors that would be in contact with the ground must be
insulated, artificially cooled, or separated to prevent building heat losses from thawing
the permafrost
- presence of tundra, the surficial blanket, acts as an insulating material limiting the depth
of summer thawing

Beneficial effects of the presence of tundra:

- roadways are now constructed on embankments of gravel, which acts as a non-frost-
susceptible insulating pad to keep the underlying soil frozen and stable
- it has kept sloped and hilly areas stable against slides.

1.4.3.6. Liquefaction - loss of strength occurring in saturated cohesionless soil exposed to

shock or vibrations when the soil particles momentarily lose contact. The material
then behaves as a fluid.

- vibration or shock waves may result during earthquake, explosions or operation of

some types of machinery

Behavior of soil undergoing liquefaction:

- soil grains attempt to quickly move (shake) into a denser or more compact arrangement
but the presence of the void space water interferes, and particle to particle contact is
prevented
- shear strength is lost, with the result that the deposit assumes the properties of a viscous
liquid with little strength
- sand will flow or displace if supporting any type of structure when the event occurs

Effects of liquefaction
- structures may experience significant vertical or lateral movements
- unsupported earth slopes tend to slide

Tests identifying sand deposits susceptible to liquefaction

a. soil boring test
b. penetration resistance testing
c. relative density testing

Conditions encouraging liquefaction:

- deposits of uniform sands are considered more susceptible than well-graded sands
- fine sands are more susceptible than coarse sands
- severity of shocks passing through the deposit

Measures to eliminate or reduce liquefaction occurrence

- drainage to remove the saturation condition
- soil densification-compaction procedure

Guide Questions:

1. Name the engineering properties of CGS, FGS and organic soils.

2. How does shape affect the properties of clay soils?
3. Discuss the six special soil categories and give the measures to counter its ill-effects..

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Figure 1.4 1 Shapes of granular soil particles.

Figure 1.4 2 Honeycomb structure in a granular soil.

Figure 1.4 3 Flocculated structure

Figure 1.4 4 Dispersed structure

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Figure 1.4 5 Schematic diagram of thixotropic structure change in a fine-grained soil.

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Figure 1.4 6 Adsorbed water and cations in diffuse double layer surrounding clay particles.

Figure 1.4 7 Relationship of pore water salts and soil dispersion.

Figure 1.4 8 Extent of permafrost zones in the Northern Hemisphere.

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Figure 1.4 9 Some methods that have been used to insulate floor systems for refrigerated areas.

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