J. A. Smith, M. H. Nehrir, V. Gerez, S. R.
Shaw, Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting, 2002
IEEE, Volume: 1, 21-25 July 2002, Page(s): 70 -75 vol. 1
A Broad Look at the Workings, Types, and
Applications of Fuel Cells
J.A. Smith, M.H. Nehrir, V. Gerez, and S.R. Shaw
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717
Abstract- Fuel cells are a fast growing technology that is
ready to impact many different sectors of industry. In an
effort to better understand fuel cells, an individual search into
the fuel cell field was initiated. In this paper a description of
what a fuel cell is, how it works, different applications of fuel
cells, and different types of fuel cells are given. Also, some
basic logistics behind fuel cells, and a brief view on their
economics is discussed.
I. INTRODUCTION
Fuel cells are devices that utilize an electrochemical
process to convert a fuel into electrical energy. This energy
can be used to power vehicles, electronic devices, houses, or
whole electrical grids. Increased attention in fuel cell
technology over the last few decades has been due to its high
efficiency and extremely clean processes. Unlike a battery
that stores energy, a fuel cell converts fuel into electrical
power without the use of stored materials within its structure.
Fuel cells also differ from conventional heat engines in that
they produce electricity directly from chemical energy
without the use of intermediate conversion into mechanical
power and, when hydrogen is used as fuel, its only by-
products are water and heat.
II. HISTORYOF FUEL CELLS
William Grove, an amateur physician, discovered the basic
principle of fuel cell operation in 1842. With the use of four
primitive cells utilizing hydrogen and oxygen, Grove was
able to produce electric energy. Although this was an
important discovery, the technology laid dormant for 120
years. The fuel cell again resurfaced when NASA
demonstrated potential fuel cell applications in the 1960s.
After these demonstrations, commercial companies became
interested in this technology. Early research revealed
technological and economic constraints on fuel cell
development. In 1984, the Office of Transportation
Technologies at the US Department of Energy began
supporting research and development of fuel cell technology.
As a result, commercialization of fuel cells for a variety of
applications has been spurred on by their reliability,
efficiency, and being environmentally friendly [1,2].
III. FUEL CELLS WORKINGS
The workings of fuel cells are based on fundamental
electrochemical principles [3 5]. The reaction of hydrogen
gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2), to form water, is the backbone
of the process as represented in (1).
2 H 2 + O2 2 H 2 O (1)
0-7803-7519-X/02/$17.00 2002 IEEE
70
The process occurs naturally and is caused by the fact that
charged particles migrate towards regions of lower
electrochemical energy. The charged particles in hydrogen
and oxygen move towards each other and bond to one another
because the final products of this reaction have lower overall
electrochemical energy. The movement of these charged
particles can be used to generate electrical energy, which is
essentially the controlled movement of electrons. By
separating the hydrogen and oxygen by an electrolyte (or an
electrolytic membrane) that conducts protons and insulates
electrons, an interesting and useful phenomenon occurs; the
protons from the hydrogen atoms move through the
membrane but the electrons cannot. These electrons want to
recombine on the other side of the membrane to become more
stable. When a separate circuit is introduced that connects
the two sides, the electrons travel through it. This movement
of electrons through this external electrical circuit is
controlled to generate electrical energy. In this
electrochemical process, one side of the membrane is called
the anode and the other is called the cathode. The actual
reaction that occurs is broken down into two half reactions,
the oxidation half reaction and the reduction half reaction.
The oxidation half reaction, represented by (2), is the
dissociation of H2 atoms into protons and electrons and takes
place at the anode side of the fuel cell membrane. After the
dissociation, the protons are free to pass through the
electrolyte, and the electrons move through the external
circuit, which connects the anode and the cathode.
2 H 2 4 H + + 4e (2)
At this point, the reduction half reaction occurs at the
cathode, represented by (3). The surrounding air supplies the
oxygen gas that is needed for this half reaction.
O2 + 4 H + + 4e 2 H 2 0 (3)
The oxygen atoms dissociate and bond with the protons
coming through membrane and the electrons coming from the
external circuit forming water. The whole process,
represented in Fig. 1, takes place naturally, but. reactions
occur slowly limiting the power of fuel cells. To facilitate a
faster reaction, a catalyst is used.

Fig. 1. The basic workings of a fuel cell.
The type and chemical properties of the electrolyte used in
fuel cells determine their operating characteristics, e.g. them
their operating temperature.
A common catalyst used in low temperature fuel cells is
platinum (Pt). Platinum is used because of its unique
properties in dissociating both hydrogen and oxygen. In
addition to the two half reactions, there is an intermediate
step in which Pt atoms bond with both the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. The bond formed between platinum and both
hydrogen and oxygen is strong enough to pull apart the
atoms, but is weak enough to effectively release the hydrogen
or oxygen atom to allow the formation of the final products
[2]. This unique characteristic of platinum makes it an
excellent choice for the catalyst in PEM fuel cells. Platinum
also seems to be the only catalyst capable of generating high
rates of oxygen reduction. The performance of a PEM fuel
cell is primarily limited by the time it takes to complete the
oxygen reduction half reaction, which is more than one
hundred times slower than the hydrogen oxidation half
reaction. Some of the higher temperature fuel cells do not
need such expensive catalysts, because the increased
temperature quickens the dissociation.
IV. FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS
Fuel cells are growing in every industrial sector. There are
few energy applications that fuel cells cannot be used for.
They are being researched for powering electric vehicles,
homes, electrical grids, portable electronics, and many other
applications.
Powering electric vehicles is a field where fuel cells are
expected to flourish. Because of its characteristic of possibly
being a clean energy technology, there has been a large
amount of funds that have been diverted by the US
government into this field. Combustion automobiles are a
significant contributor to the environmental pollution across
the globe. Even replacing a small amount of the automobile
industry with fuel cell vehicles will be a big step in making
the vehicle industry environmentally friendly. Today, most
major automobile manufacturers have caught on [6,7]. In
March of 1998, Chicago started running the first hydrogen-
powered buses in the world. The two-year Chicago
experiment was successfully completed in March of 2000 and
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ran three buses powered by fuel cells. The buses clocked
5,000 hours in service, covered more than 300,000 miles, and
carried over 100,000 passengers [8]. Since then, there are
many fuel cell buses all over the world. In England, one can
take a ride in a fuel cell taxi. Toyota, Mazda,
DaimlerChrysler, Ford, and numerous other car companies
have introduced prototypes of fuel cell powered vehicles in
the past few years, and a few companies like DaimlerChrysler
have even pledged to have a competitive fuel cell vehicle by
2004. Industry analysts are projecting that fuel cell vehicles
will capture a small part of the automotive sales in 2004 and
beyond.
Small-scale stationary power is also on the rise in the fuel
cell technology field. This field includes providing power,
and in some cases heat, to residential homes and small
businesses [9]. The backup power generation industry is also
going to see fuel cell backup generators in the future.
Medium and large-scale power generation is also an
application for fuel cells. This includes powering large
buildings and providing city electrical power.
Fuel cells are also being researched and developed for
portable power applications. These applications include
powering cell phones and personnel equipment for the
military. In their pre-market phases, many companies are
boasting large advances over current battery technologies.
Other sectors such as boat power, submarine power, and
airplane power are also seeing some research and
development into fuel cells. NASA has also been using fuel
cells for space use.
V. FUEL CELL TYPES
The different types of fuel cells are generally separated
according to their electrolyte. These different types have
different operating temperatures, materials, and a slightly
different interaction, but the same basic reaction is the
backbone of all of them. Because of the differences in some
of the operating characteristics, the different types of fuel
cells are suited for different applications.
A. The Polymer Electrolyte/Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
is also commonly called proton exchange membrane (PEM)
fuel cell. This type of fuel cell has gained a lot of attention in
the last few years; it employs a solid polymer as the
electrolyte. The membrane is made of a Teflon-like material,
which is an excellent conductor of protons and an insulator of
electrons. Equations (4 though 6) represent the anode
reaction, the cathode reaction, and the overall reaction for the
PEMFC, respectively.
H 2 2 H + + 2e (4)
1 O + 2 H + + 2e H O (5)
2 2 2
H 2 + 1 O2 H 2 O (6)
2
One of the advantages of the PEM fuel cell is a higher
power density. Its power density is an order of magnitude
higher than any other fuel cell, with the exception of alkaline
fuel cells. This stems partially from the intensity in the
research and development of this technology in the last
decade.
The use of a solid electrolyte adds even more benefits.
Lower corrosion occurs because PEMFCs utilize a solid non-
corrosive solid electrolyte. The solid electrolyte also does not
require the liquid management, which is required of other
liquid electrolytes.
Another benefit is the lower operating temperature
(between 70C and 90C) of PEMFC. Because of this, the
PEMFC has a quick start, which is beneficial in applications
such as fuel cell vehicles, where the quick start is invaluable.
An attractive characteristic of PEMFCs is their long life.
In the past few years it has been proven in laboratory
conditions that the design of PEMFCs enables them to stay
running for extremely long periods of time and have a large
overall life. This has continued to make PEMFCs attractive
to many different application fields.
The use of platinum as a catalyst is a significant
disadvantage because of the cost of platinum. The amount of
platinum needed for this type of fuel cell has drastically come
down in the last decade, but further reduction of platinum is
needed in order to bring the cost of PEM fuel cells into a
range that is competitive with combustion engines and other
current technologies.
Another disadvantage is its sensitivity to carbon monoxide.
In order to compensate for this, the design becomes more
complicated [2].
PEMFCs are used in a variety of different applications.
Because of their quick start-up and high power densities,
vehicle applications of PEMFCs have been on the rise.
PEMFCs have also been given attention in the portable power
sector and in residential applications, where they are expected
to become commercially available in 2002.
B. Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) use a liquid solution of
potassium hydroxide as an electrolyte [10]. The electrolyte is
kept in a matrix, which hydrogen can pass through, but
electrons cannot. Equations (7, 8, 9) represent the anode
reaction, the cathode reaction, and the overall reaction of
AFCs, respectively.
H 2 + 2(OH ) 2 H 2 O + 2e (7)
1 O + H O + 2e 2(OH ) (8)
2 2 2
H 2 + 1 O2 H 2 O (9)
2 as in AFCs, the costs have gone down and the efficiencies
The limiting reaction in a fuel cell is the cathode reaction,
because it takes more time to react than the anode reaction.
In the AFC, the cathode reaction occurs much faster than
other types of fuel cells, which enhances the overall
performance of the AFC.
Much like the PEMFC, the lower operating temperature of
the AFC, between 70-90C, gives it a quick-start advantage.
72
One of the major disadvantages of AFCs is the fact that
they are very intolerant of carbon dioxide. Because of this,
AFCs cannot use normal outside air to provide the oxygen,
which they need; they employ a system, which removes the
carbon dioxide from the intake air streams.
The use of a corrosive electrolyte is also a disadvantage.
The corrosive electrolyte gradually eats away its parts, which
contributes to a shorter life span, which drives up the
operating cost. The use of expensive catalysts such as
platinum also contributes to a higher cost. The use of other
less expensive catalysts, such as low cost carbon and metal
oxide based electrodes, is also being researched.
AFC fuel cells have been used on many NASA shuttles
and have also been under development by the military, which
has helped to increase their efficiencies and decrease cost.
C. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC) utilize a liquid
phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. The acid is contained in a
Teflon matrix, which keeps the acid in place during the
reactions. The operating temperature of the PAFC is double
that of the PEMFC. This high operating temperature is
because the water, which is produced as a byproduct, at low
temperatures will be dissolved in the electrolyte. The
temperature needs to be high enough to be able to remove the
water as it comes out as steam. The operating temperature,
which is between 175-200C, cannot be too high because the
phosphoric acid will begin to decompose at about 210C.
Equations (10, 11, 12) represent the anode reaction, the
cathode reaction, and the overall reaction of PAFCs,
respectively.
H 2 2 H + + 2e (10)
1 O + 2 H + 2e H O
+
(11)
2 2 2
H 2 + 1 O2 H 2 O (12)
2
One of the major advantages of the PAFC is that it is very
tolerant to impurities in the reformed hydrocarbon fuels. This
characteristic is one of the reasons why the PAFC was
selected in the early stages for substantial development. The
ability of using impure fuels makes the PAFC a little cheaper
because it reduces the cost of the reformer.
Another advantage is the fact that PAFC technology is the
most mature fuel cell technology in terms of system
development and commercialization. This fuel cell has been
under development for more than 20 years. Because of this,
have increased.
Since PAFC has a higher operating temperature,
cogeneration can be used a lot more effectively than the other
low temperature fuel cells. This cogeneration increases the
efficiency of PAFCs to close to 85%.
A disadvantage of the PAFC, similar to the PEMFC, is that
it uses expensive catalysts such as platinum, which increases
its cost.
 As well as being an advantage, its high operating
temperature also works against it. A warm-up period is
required for the PAFC to function properly.
Other disadvantages are its relatively low current and
power densities and its size. The designs of the PAFC are
quite large and heavy. This makes its use in the vehicle and
portable power applications more difficult.
PAFCs are used in vehicle applications because of their
tolerance to fuel impurities. They are also used in medium
and large-scale power generation plants. PAFCs have the
longest history of development for large-scale applications
[11]; it is available off-the-shelf.
D. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) are high temperature fuel
cells. They use dense yttria-stabilized zirconia, which is a
solid ceramic material, as its electrolyte. This material is an
excellent conductor of negatively charged ions at high
temperatures. What is also significant is that SOFC can use
carbon dioxide as well as hydrogen as its direct fuel.
Equations (13, 14, 15) represent the anode reaction, the
cathode reaction, and the overall reaction of SOFCs,
respectively.
H 2 + O 2 H 2 O + 2e (13)
1 O + 2e O 2 (14)
2 2
H 2 + 1 O2 H 2 O (15)
2 methanol.
The high operating temperature of the SOFC, which is
about 600C to 1000C, creates some definite advantages
over the low temperature fuel cells. This high temperature
helps to increase the efficiency that the fuel cell can attain.
The high temperature also gives the SOFC the ability to use a
wide variety of less expensive catalysts than the low
temperature fuel cells. This is because the breaking down of
bonds happens at a much faster rate as the temperature
increases.
Another advantage of SOFC is the fact that the increased
temperature also frees up the SOFC to use more types of
fuels. With these fuels, reformation can even go on inside the
fuel cell rather than having to implement a separate reformer,
which just adds more cost. The high temperature can also be
used in cogeneration of both electricity and heat. When this
is done, the efficiency increases even more.
Since SOFCs employ a solid electrolyte, the corrosion and
management problems of using a liquid electrolyte are
eliminated. This helps to make the system simpler and
therefore reduces cost.
The increased temperature also brings its own
disadvantages and limitations to the applications of SOFCs.
The high temperature increases friction and speeds up the
breakdown of cell components. This breakdown shortens the
life of many of the parts of a SOFC. The only application
that such a high temperature fuel cell can have at this time is
medium and large-scale power generation.
73
E. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) use a molten
carbonate salt mixture as their electrolyte. The makeup of the
salt mixture varies but usually consists of lithium carbonate
and potassium carbonate. At high temperatures the salt
mixture is a liquid and is an excellent conductor of ions. This
electrolyte is contained in a porous ceramic matrix. Equations
(16, 17, 18) represent the anode reaction, the cathode
reaction, and the overall reaction of MCFCs, respectively.
H 2 + CO32 H 2 O + CO2 + 2e (16)
1 O + CO + 2e CO 2 (17)
2 2 2 3
H 2 + 1 O2 + CO2 H 2 O + CO2 (18)
2
The MCFCs have the same high temperature advantages
and disadvantages that the SOFCs have. Operating at
temperatures in the 600-1000C range, the only economically
viable application that MCFCs have at this time is large-scale
power generation. Systems as large as 250kW to 2MW have
been constructed and demonstrated [12].
F. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) are hybrids of
PEMFCs. DMFCs still use the same polymer membrane
used in the PEMFCs, but the difference is that DMFCs use
liquid methanol as fuel instead of reformed hydrogen [13].
The anode catalyst itself draws the hydrogen from the liquid
The DMFC technology is relatively new
compared to the rest of the types of fuel cells, but it does have
potential. It has similar advantages and disadvantages as the
PEMFC, but a DMFC does not need a reformer, which
lowers the overall cost.
VI. REGENERATIVE FUEL CELL SYSTEM
Regenerative fuel cell systems are even younger than
DMFCs. In this system water is first fed into an electrolyzer,
which could be powered by a renewable power generation
source, e.g. wind, solar, or a combination of the two [14].)
The electrolyzer separates the water into hydrogen and
oxygen, which are used to run the fuel cell. The water
produced by the fuel cell is then fed back into the electrolyzer
and the electrolysis process is repeated. NASA and some
private companies worldwide are researching this closed-loop
system.
VII. COST OF HYDROGEN FOR FUEL CELL
APPLICATION
A commonly raised question is the cost and amount of
hydrogen that is used in a typical fuel cell. To help answer
this question, a sample calculation of hydrogen needed to
produce 1kWh of electrical energy was performed. It was
assumed that a PEM fuel cell was used to generate one-
kilowatt-hour. This calculation is contingent on the voltage
that each cell produces. The typical value of voltage that was
assumed for the cells is 0.7V. The efficiency also affects the
calculation. The typical efficiency assumed for the
calculation was 40%. Equations (1926) give the step-by-
step procedure for finding the cost of hydrogen to produce
one kWhr of electric energy.
Power (W) / Voltage (V) = Current (A)
1 kWhr / 0.7V = 1428 Ahr
1 A = 6.28*1018 electrons / second
(1428 Ahr) * ((6.28*1018 e/sec)/1 A)*(3600sec/hr) =
3.23*1025 electrons
2 electrons per H2 molecule
(3.23*1025 electrons) / 2 =
1.61*1025 molecules H2
6.02*1023 H2 molecules per mole H2
(1.61*1025 molecules H2) / 6.02*1023 =
26.81 moles H2
2.016 grams per mole H2
26.81 moles * 2.016 g/mole =
54.06 grams H2
Efficiency = 40%
54.06 grams H2 / 0.40 =
135.14 grams of H2
1 lb = 453.6 grams
135.14 grams = 0.298 lbs
H2 cost = $1.00-1.40/lb [15]
Cost of hydrogen per kWhr = $0.298-0.417
With the current hydrogen fuel cost, running a typical PEM
fuel cell yields a cost that is quite higher than the cost of
conventional electricity. As the use of fuel cells becomes
more common, the desire for cheaper hydrogen and the need
for a hydrogen infrastructure will grow. This infrastructure
must include generation, transportation, and storage of
hydrogen, which is currently almost nonexistent.
VIII. FUEL PROCESSING AND DIFFERENT TYPES
OF FUEL FOR FUEL CELLS
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe,
and it is the ideal fuel for fuel cells. Also, there is no
greenhouse gas produced during its reaction with oxygen in
the fuel cell. However, it is not easy to store hydrogen, and
there is no infrastructure in place for its distribution. One
solution to the problem of lack of a hydrogen production and
distribution infrastructure is to use a fuel processing unit
through which hydrogen can be obtained from hydrogen rich
gases which have somewhat of an existing infrastructure.
Hydrogen can also be obtained by electrolyzing water or
through a steam-reforming process (2H2O 2H2 + O2), or
through partial oxidation, where light hydrocarbons like
butane and propane are transformed into H2 and CO. Other
fuels that can be processed to produce hydrogen for use in
fuel cells include reformulated gasoline, methanol, ethanol,
and natural gas.
Each of the above fuels has their own benefits and
disadvantages associated with them. Reformulated gasoline,
which already has an extensive infrastructure, has a high
potential for use in fuel cells. However, there are also some
disadvantages, the most important one being the fact that it
increases the dependency of electric power generation on oil
and increases petroleum consumption.
Natural gas also has a limited infrastructure in which it can
(19) be distributed. This tied in with its relatively low cost makes
it a good alternative fuel for fuel cells. Residential fuel cells
(20) are heavily looking into natural gas as a possible fuel.
Methanol and ethanol both have nearly no existing
infrastructure, but some interest has been put into these fuels
for powering fuel cells.
(21)
Propane also has a limited infrastructure, but it would have
to be expanded in order to use it. Residential fuel cells that
are coming to market are making more use of propane.
(22)
In general, fuel processing generates greenhouse gases.
However, since the temperature in a fuel processor is lower
than that during combustion in a boiler, the formation of
(23) greenhouse gases is lower.
IX. FUEL CELL ECONOMICS
(24) In order to become competitive in the energy market, fuel
cells have to begin to compete economically with
technologies currently offered. In order to do this, fuel cell
(25) costs need to meet certain price targets in order to be
profitable. These price targets vary a bit from industry to
industry, but they are divided into two general categories; the
(26)
stationary power price target and the vehicle price target.
The current price of stationary fuel cell power generators
for small, medium, and large-scale applications is in the
$3,000-$5,000 range per kW, which is quite higher than the
price of conventional power generation units. These power
generators cost about $1,000 per kW. The price target for
fuel cell generation units is set to be about $1,500 per kW of
generated electricity; their quietness, higher efficiency, and
ecologically clean processes will even the field. Once fuel
cells reach this goal and begin to surpass it, they are expected
to be commercially available in many different stationary
power sectors.
The current costs of stationary power fuel cells have come
down dramatically in the past ten years. The continued
research and development of commercial companies as well
as government agencies is expected to drive their costs into a
competitive range in the next few years.
Fuel cell vehicles are expected to enter the market in 2004-
5. The price target of fuel cells in the vehicle sector is
significantly different than that of the stationary fuel cells. In
order to become competitive with the current market, vehicle
fuel cell costs have to reach about $150 per kW. Although
there have been no cost estimates released that are even close
to this target,
X. CONCLUSION
This paper presented an overview of fuel cells. It included
their development, operation, applications, types, economic
considerations, and fuels. Fuel cells require significant
further development to operate at higher efficiencies and
become cost competitive in the power generation market. It is
74
clear, however, that their use will increase in the near future,
and they are going to be a large part of energy generation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Partial support of this research through the NSF-EPSCoR
(MONTS) Program at Montana State University is
acknowledged. Help of Mr. Donald Nelson in checking the
calculations for obtaining an estimate for cost of hydrogen is
appreciated.
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BIOGRAPHY
Jason Smith was born on July 31,
1977 and grew up in Anchorage,
Alaska. He is currently in his senior
year at Montana State University-
Bozeman pursuing a B.S. degree in
Electrical Engineering and a minor in
Mathematics. He has a strong interest in
fuel cells and alternative energy
sources. He was an intern at the Los
Alamos National Laboratory during the
summer of 2001; he has also worked
for the Alaska Building Structures.
M. Hashem Nehrir (Senior Member, IEEE) received the BS, MS
and Ph.D. degrees from Oregon State University in 1969, 1971, and
1978 respectively, all in electrical engineering. He has been on the
electrical and computer engineering faculty at Montana State
University since 1987, where he is a professor. His primary areas of
interest are control and modeling of power systems and electrical
machinery, alternative energy, and power system applications of
fuzzy logic. He is a member of Eta Kappa Nu and Tau Beta Pi
honor societies.
Victor Gerez (Senior Member, IEEE) received the Engineering
degree from the National University of Mexico and the M.S. and
Ph.D. degrees from the University of California at Berkeley in 1958,
1969, and 1972 respectively, all in Electrical Engineering. He
joined the Electrical Engineering Department at Montana State
University in 1983 , where he is a Professor; he was Department
Head from 1984.to 1996. He held academic and administrative
positions in Mexico before joining Montana State University.
Steven R. Shaw (Member, IEEE) received his doctoral degree from
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2000 in Electrical
Engineering and is currently an assistant professor in the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Montana
State University-Bozeman. Dr. Shaw is interested in sensors,
instrumentation, modeling, numerical and computational methods
associated with control and measurement problems.