Chapter 9.
2
ROCK BREAKAGE: EXPLOSIVES
CHARLES H. DOWDING AND C.T. AIMONE
9.2.1 BLAST DESIGN
C.T. AIMONE
The application of explosives to the fragmentation of rock
for mining or extractive purposes is often referred to as a science
as well asan art. In early years, explosives development became a
science as chemists strove to perfect stable yet powerful explosive
mixtures for a variety of purposes. In recent years, the needs to
minimize the costs of blasting and to control the environmental
effects of noise and ground motions have brought about carefully
engineered blast designs, aided by research. The research in-
eludes computer modeling, explosives formulation, high-speed
photography, and development of new initiators. In addition,
irnproved quality control in the manufacturing of explosive prod-
ucts and devices has evolved. Scientists and engineers, however,
along with practicing blasters, continue to agonize over the ideal
approach to optimizing the fracturing process. Systematic re-
search in rock blasting has provided a good understanding of
the many factors that influence fragmentation. Many of these
factors involve site geology, explosives selection, timing for indi-
vidual detonations, drilling pattern, and explosives loading char-
acteristics. Parameter studies in blasting research are limited to
two to three factors. The cumulative effects of these factors can
only be obtained through costly trial-and-error blasts. As a re-
sult, obtaining precise control of these factors is a constant chal-
lenge. Toe art in blasting evolves from the skillful way in which
the blaster uses an understanding of the influencing factors to
maximize blasting efficiency.
Chapter 9.2 provides a basic understanding of the principies
involved in the selection and application of commercial explo-
sives to rock blasting in the mining industries and ofthe monitor-
ing and control of blast etfects. In 9.2.1, entitled blast design,
the calculations and examples presented are to be used as guide-
lines and are representative of the many different methods of
calculation and design. This chapter begins with a discussion of
the chemical and physical properties of explosive mixtures. The
following description of explosive products and initiating sys-
tems includes a discussion on comparative properties of explo-
sives. An overview of important explosive thermodynamic prop-
erties is given with example calculations. Rock blasting practices
are presented with fracture theory and the effects of geology.
Aspects of safety in the transportation, storage, and handling of
explosives are discussed. Blast-design procedures and examples
applied to surface and underground mining are presented. Esti-
mating drilling and blasting costs and an overview of recent
advances in rock blasting conclude this portion of the chapter.
Throughout this segment, units of cubic centimeters (cm3)
are used for numerical examples that involve explosive quantities
on a bulk or volumetric basis. Notwithstanding usage norms
involving SI units, cm3 is used extensively in the explosives indus-
try to describe explosive properties. Densty values appear in this
text without units; however, for calculation purposes, the units
are assumed to be g/cm3
Segment 9.2.2, montoring and control ofblast effects, sum-
marizes vbration measurement and structural response associ-
ated with rock blasting. Experimental observations are included
722
SHOCK WAVE
PR 11\ARY REACT ION ZONE
DETONATION FRONT
UHREACTED EXPLOS I VE
C-J PLANE
EXPANDING GASES
P PRESSURE
V DETOHATION VELOCITY
f' DEHSITY
E I NTERNAL EHERGY
T TEIIPERATURE
Fig. 9.2.1.1. The detonation process for cylindrical explosivas.
to demonstrate the effects of blasting on ground motion p'arame-
ters. Blast design procedures to set safe criteria for the control
ofblast effects are exemplified. Blasting regulations and compu-
terized monitoring instrumentaton are also discussed.
9.2.1.1 Classification of Commercial Explosives
Detonation Theory: An explosive, or blasting agent, is a
compound or a mixture of compounds, which, when initiated by
heat, mpact, friction, or shock, is capable of undergoing a rapid
decomposition, releasing tremendous amounts of heat and gas.
The decomposition is a self-propagating, exothermic reaction
called an explosion. Toe stable end products are gases that are
compressed, under elevated temperature, to very high pressures.
It is the sudden rise in temperature and pressure from ambient
conditions that results in a shock wave, or a detonation, traveling
through the unreacted explosive. Toe velocity of detonations les
in the approxmate range of 5000 to 30,000 fps (1500 to 9000
mis), well above the speed of sound in the explosive material.
Dejlagration is the chemical burning of explosive ingredients at
a rate well below the sonic velocity. It is associated with heat
only and carries no shock. Deflagration occurs when less than
ideal hole-loading conditions or explosive formulation are in-
volved.
All commercial explosives are mixtures of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. The maximum energy release upon deto-
nation occurs when the explosive mix is formulated for oxygen
balance. An oxygen-balanced mixture is one in which there is no
excess or deficiency in oxygen, such that the gaseous products
formed are chiefly H20 (water vapor), C02 (carbon dioxide),
and N2 (ntrogen). In actual blasting practice, small amounts of
noxous gases such as NO (nitric oxide), CO (carbon monoxde),
NH4 (ammonia), CH4 (methane), and solid carbon, are formed
resulting in nonideal detonations and somewhat less than ideal
pressures and energes. Commercial explosive formulation at-
tempts to achieve an oxygen-balanced mixture.
The work done by chemical explosives in the fragmentation
and displacement of rock depends on the shock energy as well
as the energy of the expanding gases. Fig. 9.2.1.1 shows an
 ROCK BREAKAGE: EXPLOSIVES
A Class
1
w
o::
::,
(/)
(/)
w
o::
Q.
B Density-The density of an explosive is defined as the weight
-
TIME
Pressure pulse shapes for a high explosiva {A) and a
Flg. 9.2.1.2.
commercial explosiva containing high gas volume (8).
idealized detonation wave traveling through a cylindrical explo-
sive shape, producing an increase in pressure. Toe steady-state
chemical reaction takes place behind the shock front within the
reaction zone. At the end of this zone, a nonsteady-state region
exists, It is created by a flow of expanding gases in a direction
opposite to that of the traveling wave front. The boundary be-
tween the steady and nonsteady states is referred to as the
Chapman-Jouget (C-J) plane. At this plane, the chemical reac-
tion is complete, assuming an ideal detonation. It is at the C-J
plane that ali the thermodynamic properties of pressure P, veloc-
ity V, temperature T, internal energy E or heat of formation Q,
and density p, are calculated. Fig. 9.2.1.2 shows generalized
pressure waves produced from two detonations. Toe maximum
pressure and duration of a wave pulse is directly proportional to
the shock energy and gas pressure of the explosive, respectively.
High explosives such as military explosives or highly sensitive
commercial explosives are characterized by an intense shattering
effect upon detonation (known as brisance). They liberate gas-
eous products very quickly. Toe distance between the shock
front and the C-J plane is very short and results in a pressure
pulse of high amplitude and short duration. The pressure pulse
for less-sensitive commercial explosives showsa decreased pres-
sure amplitude and a longer pulse length. In this case, the reac-
tion is slower and the gas volume is greater.
Comparative Properties of Explosives: Explosives and blast-
ing agents are characterized by various properties that indicat
how they will perform under field conditions. These properties
include fume class, density, water resistance, temperature effects,
detonation velocity, detonation pressure, borehole pressure, sen-
sitivity, and strength.
Fume Class-Fumes are noxious gases that are produced
from the detonation of explosives. The production of these gases is
most critica} in underground and other confined workings. Many
factors affect the volume of poisonous gas produced in- cluding
oxygen balance and adverse loading of explosives. Toe fume class
is a measure of the toxic gases in cubic feet per 0.44 lb (200 g) of
unreacted explosive. Table 9.2.1.1 lists the current fume
classifications as adopted by the Institute of Makers of
Explosives (IME). Toe US Bureau of Mines (USBM) limits the
volume of poisonous gases produced by permissible explosives
(those used in underground coal and other gaseous mines) to 2.5 lb
(1.14 kg).
723
Table 9.2.1.1. Standards for Fume Class
Volume poisonous gas
per 0.44 lb explosiva,
ft3
1
2
3
0.16
0.16--0.33
0.33-0.67
Source: Dick et al., 1983.
per unit volume or the specific gravity. Commercial explosives
range in density from 0.5 to 1.7. Explosives with a density less
than 1 will float in water. Therefore, in water-filled holes, an
explosive with a density greater than 1 is required. For certain
granular explosives such as dynamite, density correlates to the
energy released in a given borehole volume. However, for water-
based explosives, this is not the case, and often the reverse is
true. Density is most useful in determining the loading density
LD or the weight of explosves one can load per unit length
of borehole (in pound per foot or kilogram per meter), and is
calculated in English units as
LD = 0.3405 p D2 (9.2.1.1)
where p is density, and D is explosive column diameter in in.
Knowledge of loading density is required for blast-design calcu-
lations.
Water Resistance-The ability of an explosive to withstand
exposure to water for long periods of time without loss of
strength or ability to detonate defines the water resistance. A
numerical rating is used based on the results of tests performed
on the explosive. However, explosive manufacturers individually
rate products based on a relative basis as good, fair, or poor
rating. The presence of moisture in amounts greater than 5%
dissolves chemical components in dry blasting agents and alters
the composition of gases produced, contributing to the formation
of noxious fumes and lower energy output. Gelled granular prod-
ucts have good water resistance, and certain water-based mix-
tures have an excellent rating.
Temperature Effects-Extreme low temperatures affect the
stability as well as the performance of explosives. The sensitivity
and detonation velocity are hampered for certain water-based
explosives at low temperatures while dynamites can become dan-
gerously unstable below freezing temperatures. Explosives man-
ufacturers recommend the appropriate range of temperature for
storage and use.
Detonation Velocicy-The detonation velocity is the speed at
which the detonation front moves through a column of explo-
sives. For high explosives such as dynamite, the strength of an
explosive increases with detonation rate. For dry blasting agents
and water-based explosives, field loading conditions greatly af-
fect detonation velocity. Such conditions include borehole diam-
eter, density, confinement within the borehole, the presence of
water, and other factors. The speed of detonation is important
when blasting in hard, competent rock where a brisance effect
is desired for good fragmentation.
For most explosives, there is a minimumdiameter Dmin below
which detonation velocity increases nonlinearly with increasing
borehole diameter (Fig. 9.2.1.3). Above Dmin the explosive has
reached its steady-state velocity. At this point, all thermody-
namic properties are at a maximum as the reaction front ap-
proaches a plane shock front. At diameters less than Dmi com-
724 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
,.
>- TEADY STATE VELOC ITY
u the ability to initiate an explosive directly with a standard cap.
o
..J
- - - - - =-_,...-------
">'
z
o reliable initiation can be propagated from one cartridge to an-
>-
..
z ter at which an explosive will maintain a steady-state detonation.
o Below this critical diameter, explosives may deflagrate or "dead
>-
"'
o press." Dead pressing occurs when an explosive is densified to a
0min
BOREHOLE OIAMETER
Flg. 9.2.1.3. Generalized relationship between detonation velocity
and borehole diameter.
plete reactions do not take place, and less than ideal energy and
pressure evolve from the slower detonation rates. This represents
a loss in terms of dollars spent on explosive energy.
Detonation Pressure-The detonation pressure is the maxi-
mum theoretical pressure achieved within the reaction zone and
measured at the C-J plane in a column of explosives. Toe actual
pressure achieved is somewhat less than this rnaximum due to
nonideal loading conditions always present in practice and due
to certain explosive formulation. Most commercial explosives
achieve pressures in the range of 0.29 to 3.48 X 106 psi (2 to 24
GPa). Although detonation pressure is related to the tempera-
ture of the reaction, a number of simplifying formulas are avail-
able for estimating detonation pressure for granular explosives
based on detonation velocity and density, such as (in English
units):
P = 3.37 (10)-3 p v2 (9.2.1.2)
where P is detonation pressure in psi, p is density, and V is
detonation velocity in fps (Anon., 1987a).
Boreho/e Pressure-Borehole pressure is the maximum pres-
sure exerted within the borehole upon completion of the explo-
sive reaction rneasured behind the C-J plane. Such measurements
cannot be made directly and are done during underwater tests
performed for energy and strength determinations. With the use
of hydrodynamic cornputer codes, theoretical calculations of
borehole pressures are made. There is little agreement in the
literature regarding specific estimates of actual borehole pres-
sures. In general, pressures after detonation within the borehole
are estimated to be less than 30% of the theoretical detonation
pressure.
Sensitivity-The definition of explosive sensitivity is two-fold.
It includes sensitivity against accidental detonations in addition
to the ease by which explosives can be intentionally detonated.
From the standpoint of safety and accidental detonations, the
sensitivity of an explosive to shock, impact, friction, and heat
determine its storage and handling characteristics. Standardized
tests for high explosives have been adapted for commercial explo-
sives that include the friction (pendulum), impact (fallhammer),
and projectile tests, among others. These tests are explained by
Meyer (1981).
The term properly used to define the propagating ability of
an explosive is sensitiveness. In this respect, tests such as the No. 8
strength blasting cap test, air-gap test, and the mnimum critica!
diameter test are used. Toe cap sensitivity test measures the
mnimum energy required for initiation and is used to classify
explosives (e.g., cap sensitive vs. noncap sensitive products) or
The No. 8 cap is an industry standard cap of specific dimensions
and charge characteristics. The air-gap test measures the dis-
tance between the ends of adjacent cartridge explosives for which
other. The critica/ diameter of an explosive is the smallest diame-
point that no free oxygen is available to ensure the start or
progression of detonation. Establishing the critical diameter of
ali explosives is an important explosive selection criteria.
Strength-The strength of an explosive is a measure of its
ability to break rock. Toe terms "weight strength" and "bulk
strength" were useful many years ago when explosives were
primarily comprised of nitroglycerin cartridges, packaged in 50-
lb (23-kg) boxes. In recent years, with the development of bulk
blasting agents and less sensitive ingredients, new testing meth-
ods have been established to determine relative energies for ali
commercial products regardless ofingredients or packaging. Toe
performance potential of an explosive is a function of the detona-
tion velocity and density, as well as the volume of liberated gases
and the heat of the reaction. A number of methods are used to
establish this energy including the use of theoretical computer
models and tests such as crater, ballistic mortar, and underwater
tests. Of these methods, underwater tests give the best correlation
to rock-breakage performance.
Underwater tests were developed to measure both the shock
energy and the gas (bubble) energy released during the detona-
tion of standard test samples. Cole (1948) describes the calcula-
tions involved while the test is detailed by Anon. (1987a) and
Anon.(1977). These energy values have been useful in predicting
the rock-breaking capabilities of explosives for comparative pur-
poses.
Other terminology widely used by manufacturers is based
on the theoretical heat of reaction determined by explosive for-
mulation. Absolute bulk strength (ABS) in calories per cubic
centimeter and absolute weight strength (AWS) in calories per
gramare computed from the heat liberated during the detonation
and formation of gaseous end products. Note ABS and AWS
can be computed from one another if density is known, and it is
the volumetric basis of reaction heat which correlates with en-
ergy. Most manufacturers of explosives will include either value
with technical product literature.
A mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) is by
far the most widely used commercial blasting product. De-
pending on the proportions of the mix, the heat of reaction is
approximately 850 cal/g. As a dry, free-running blasting agent,
ANFO is capable of being loaded or packaged at varying densi-
ties. For a typical density of 0.85 and an AWS of 850 cal/ g, the
ABS = (850 cal/g) (0.85) = 723 cal/cm3
Other common strength terms are the relative weight strength
(RWS) and relative bulk strength (RBS) in which the relative ~-'
measure of energy available per unit weight or volume of an
explosive is compared to an equal weight or volume of the stan-
dard commercial explosive ANFO. The RWS and RBS are com-
puted as a percentage of that available from ANFO. In Ex.
9.2.1.1, explosives A and B have ABS values of 645 and 980 cal/
cm3 and densities of0.8 and 1.25, respectively, and the RBS and
RWS are computed.
Example 9.2.1.1. Determine the relative strengths of explo-
sives A and B.
l

lilGH
EXPLOStVES PERP11SSIBLES
WATER GELS
3.2" 0.6"
OUARRY I NG ANO
COAl
Fig. 9.2.1.4. Industrial explosives and blasting agents sold in the US
for consumption in the US (A) by classification for 1988 and (B) by
use for 1987 (Anon., 1989).
Solution. Relative bulk strength:
Explosive A
[(645 cal/cm3)/(723 cal/cm3)) 100%
Explosive B
[(980 cal/cm3)/(723 cal/cm3)) 100%
Relative weight strength:
Explosive A
[(645 cal/cm3)/(0.8) (850 cal/cm3) 100%
Explosive B
[(980 cal/cm3)/(l.25) (850 cal/cm3)) 100% 92.2%
The value of RBS and RWS of ANFO is 100%. It should be
noted that based on a volumetric basis, explosive A is less power-
ful than ANFO while explosive B is more powerful than ANFO.
Commercial Explosive Products: There are a number of
ways in which commercial explosives are classified. Often mili-
tary explosives, referred to as high explosives (HE), are classified
separately from industrial explosives. Examples of military ex-
plosives include TNT, PETN, RDX (cyclonite), Tetryl, and
compositions such as A3, B, B4, C4, which are mixtures ofRDX,
TNT, and additives to provide a moldable consistency. These
explosives are chiefly used in the weapons industry. However,
small amounts of HE are added to commercial explosives to
increase strength and sensitiveness. Many commercial or indus-
trial explosives are classified as HE because they contain critica!
amounts ofmilitary explosives or nitroglycerin, and usually they
are cap sensitive. Others, such as dry blasting agents, are not
classified as HE, and require boosters or primers of HE for
initiation.
Industrial explosives are classified as one of the following:
nitroglycerin-based, dry blasting agents, water gels, emulsions,
permissibles, primers, and boosters. Two-component explosives, a
common category, actually contain mixtures or characteristics that
fall in other classifications. Often the difference among these
products is formulation; however, product packaging and con-
sistency can also change a classification. The USBM (Anon.,
1989) reported the relative consumption of these products as a
percentage of total industrial explosive use and consumption by
industry. These consumptions are shown in Fig. 9.2.1.4.
Explosive components are referred to as oxidizers, fuels,
absorbants, thickeners, and stabilizers. Oxidizers contribute oxy-
gen for oxygen balance, and include nitrated salts such as amrno-
nium nitrate (AN), sodium nitrate (SN), and calcium nitrate
(CN). Fuels include fue] oil, carbon, granular aluminum, TNT,
black powder, or any carbonaceous material that produces heat.
Man y of these components are also referred to as sensitizers and
can also act as absorbants. Absorbants are products, such as
wood pulp, sawdust, cotton, and cellulose, that incorporate liq-
ROCK BREAKAGE: EXPLOSIVES 725
11ETAL
MINING
uid explosive components such as nitroglycerin. Stabilizers in-
7.6%
CONSTRUCTION elude flame retardants, gelatins, densifiers, water, gum, emulsify-
ing agents, and thickeners.
Nitroglycerin-based Explosives-Dynamite is a trade name
introduced by Alfred Nobel. lt is comprised primarily of a stable
yet powerful mix of nitroglycerin (nitrostarch). Since its inven-
tion, a number of nitroglycerin (NG)-based products have been
developed and are outlined in Table 9.2.1.2. The three basic
MINING 71,6" types include granular, gelatin, and semigelatin, which are all
considered HE. Gelatins and semigelatins contain nitrocotton
that combines with NG to forma gel structure whose consistency is
controlled by the precentage of nitrocellulose. Dynamites are
Cal
packaged in cylindrical cartridges from Ya in. (22 mm) in diame-
ter and 8 to 24 in. (203 to 61O mm) in length. The quality of the
waxed paper wrapping is important to water resistance, fume
production, and the ease and safety of loading.
Straight dynamite derives its energy source frorn NG, SN,
and AN, including absorbants such as wood pulp and flour
that also act as combustibles. These dynamites come in varying
weight strengths (40, 50, and 60% being the most common)
which correspond to the weight percentage of NG contained in
= 89.2% the formulation. Ditching dynamite (50% NG) is a commonly
used product. These dynamites are characterized by high veloc-
= 135.5% ity and brisance, low flame temperature, and good water resist-
anee; however, these dynamites are sensitive to shock and pro-
duce poor fume quality.
94.9% Ammonia dynamite (or "extra" dynamite) is a granular mix
that contains a smaller quantity of NG mixed with AN and
SN. Two varieties are available. The high-density, high-velocity
product is available in weight strengths of20 to 60%. They have
poor water resistance and low explosion temperature. The low-
density variety comes in either a high- or low-velocity series and a
constant 65% weight strength.
Gelatin dynamites are either straight gelatin or ammonium
(extra) gelatin. Each has similar mixtures as straight and ammo-
nia (extra) dynamites with the addition of nitrocellulose for a
gel consistency. Ammonia gelatins are commonly used as boost-
ers and as primers to initiate cap insensitive explosives.
Blasting gelatin is one ofthe strongest commercial products,
with 92 to 94% NG gelatinized with 6 to 8% nitrocellulose. As
the most energetic product available, it prirnarily is used in the
seismic industry, although sorne commercial products are used
as primers and boosters.
Semigelatins are ammonia gelatin with a small amount of
nitrocellulose and a 65% weight strength. They are also used as
primers and boosters.
Dry Blasting Agents-Dry blasting agents are one form of a
general category ofblasting agents. A blasting agent is, by defin-
tion, a mixture of fuel and oxidizer. It is not classified as an
explosive, and cannot be detonated with a No. 8 blasting cap. A
dry agent is a granular, free-running mix of a solid oxidizer
(usually AN), prilled into porous pellets onto which a liquid fue!
oil or propellant is absorbed. ANFO is the most widely used
blasting product, with approximately 94.5% industrial-grade
ammonia nitrate and 5.5% No. 2 grade diese! fuel oil for a nearly
oxygen-balanced mix. It is available in bulk form for onsite
mixing of the AN and fue! or in 50-lb (23-kg) premixed bags as
pourable forms. Waxed card board and woven polypropylene
tubes of diameters required for various borehole sizes are avail-
able for wet hole conditions. Typical values of specific gravity
range from 0.75 to 0.95.
Toe properties of dry blasting agents vary significantly with
borehole diameter, density, confinement, particle size, water con-
ditions, and size of primer used for initiation. Fig. 9.2.1.5 illus-
trates the effect of charge diameter on detonation velocity for
ANFO and other selected explosives. The steady state detonation
'1
726 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 9.2.1.2. Basic Properties of Nitroglycerin-based Products
Detonation
Specific Velocity, Water Fume
Explosiva Gravity fps Resistance Ouality
Straight dynamite 1.3-1.4 9,000 to 19,000 Poor to Good Poor
Extra dynamite 0.8-1.3 6,500 to 12,500 Poor to Fair Fair to Good
Blasting gelatin 1.3 25,000 Excellent Poor
Straight gelatin 1.3-1.7 11,000 to 25,000 Excellent Poor to Good
Extra gelatin 1.3-1.5 16,000 to 20,000 Very good Good to Very good
-Semi-gelatin 0.9-1.3 10,500 to 12,000 Fair to Very good Very good
Source: Dick et al., 1983. Conversion factor: 1 fps = 0.3048 mis.

20,000 ---..-----/.,.....,.-.----.-- .......-....--..----,--. Table 9.2.1.3. Typical Compostiions of Sorne Slurries

1 SLURRIES and Emulsion
/ /,.(/:
1 ~

.
.."..'.. Aluminum Sensltlzed Slurry Water Gel Slurry
~
/
.:'

- --- - ANFO
15% Water

--- --

. '/ ..
1//"/

.,,,/1 EMULS I ONS 10% Aluminum 13 % Amine nitrate

e
.
"C

I I ..
5% Ethylene glycol
44% Ammoniumnitrate 15% Water
e
o .. /" ~
25% Calciurn nitrate 5% Sodium nitrate
-: /_,, ,- 3% Ammonium perchlorate
Ammonium nitrate
63%
~
>
t- 10,000
/1/. l.'. -- ANFO PRILLS
1% Guar gum 1% Guar gum
u - - HEAVY ANFO Explosives Sensitized Slurry Emulslon
o
..J
UI -- SLURRY (CSJ 25% TNT, smokeless powder or 6% Wax/oil
> nitrostarch 2% Emulsifier
SLURRY (NOT CS)
z
o --- - EMULSION (CS)
25% Water 14% Water
t- -'Y->-- EMULS ION ( NOT CSJ
15% Sodium nitrate 76% Ammonium nitrate
e(
z 44 % Ammonium nitrate 2% Hollowmicroballoons
o == SEM!GELATIN DYNAM!TE 1% Guar gum
t-
UI 50% NG DYNAMITE
o e AMMONIUM DYNAM!TE
o .... . . ,__ .__ _, .. .. ......._..._~
o 4 8 12 16 20

"BOREHOLE
Fig. 9.2.1.5. Variation in detonation velocity with borehole diameter
for selected commercial explosivas. Conversion factors: 1 in. = 25.4
mm, 1 fps = 0.3048 m/s.
velocity of ANFO is over 15,000 fps (4500 m/s) and is achieved
in borehole diameters greater than 15 in. (381 mm). The critical
diameter of ANFO is between 2 and 4 in. (51 and 102 mm) and
is a topic of controversy among blasters and, in particular, those
who blast underground using small-diameter holes. The exact
values of the critica! diameter depends on the loading conditions;
however, ANFO does not detonate reliably within the range
cited above. Only explosive manufacturers can verify the mni-
mum reliable diameter for initiation. The cost of ANFO ranges
from as low as $0.10/lb ($0.22/kg) for bulle form to $0.15 to
$0.18/lb ($0.33 to $0.40/kg) for package forms.
OIAMETE R (in) One form of dry blasting agent that is used in a variety of
applications is referred to as a high-density (HD) ammonium nitrate
agent. AN prills, crushed to a flakelike consistency, are mixed just prior
to use with approximately 11 % propellant (rocket fuel) such as
nitromethane or nitroethane. The resulting product has a density higher
than ANFO and generates more gas pressures based on the fuel used.
The product is packaged in two components, often mixed in small
batches for specialty uses such as secondary boulder breakage or
removing tree stumps. Two-component blasting agents and explosive,
however, can comprise a variety of mixtures for specialty blasting purposes
including seismic exploration and are generally not used in large
quantities.
 Aluminum in granular form can be added to
ANFO to increase the heat or energy output. For
increasing percentages of aluminum by weight up to
6%, a measurable increase in fragmentation energy is
noted (Thornley and Funk, 1981). Toe cost of additional
aluminum beyond 6% does not result in pro- portionally
increased work output and, therefore, is not cost
effective.
WetBlasting Agents-Blasting agents that contain more than
5% water by weight are referred to as wet blasting
agents. Within this category are water gels or slurries,
emulsions, and heavy ANFO. The latter is a
combination of prilled ANFO and emul- sion. The
development of wet blasting agents, led by slurries in
the l 950s, carne about in response to the disadvantages
of ANFO in certain applications. These were the lack
of water resistance and the Iow bulle strength due to
low density. Typical composi- tions of water gels and emulsions
are shown in Table 9.2.1.3. The critica! diameter of wet blasting
agents is often less than 1 in. (25 mm).
Three varieties of wet blasting agents are in common use in
the mining industry.
l. Slurries (water gels) are a colloidal suspension of solid AN
particles suspended in a liquid AN solution that is gelled, using
cross-linking agents. The gels (guar gum) effectively surround
the solid AN, rendering the oxidizer water resistant while thick-
ening the explosive mix. Fuels and sensitizers such as TNT,
nitrostarch, Composition B, ethyl alcohol, fuel oil, and glass
bubbles (microspheres) are dissolved or added to the liquid
phase. Granular aluminum, added as a sensitizer, increases
weight and bulk strength. Up to 18% aluminum by weight has
been found to provide increased energy output. In general, 20%
water is used. Certain mixtures, containing high-explosive sensi-
'
:
 ROCK BREAKAGE:
tizers, are cap sensitive and hence should not be classified as a
blasting agent, but rather as a slurry explosive.
Slurries are characterized by excellent water resistance, high
density and bulk strength, good oxygen balance, confinement,
and coupling within the borehole. The density of slurries ranges
from 1.1 to 1.3, while detonation velocities vary from 13,500 to
20,000 fps (4115 to 6096 mis), with borehole diameter as shown
in Fig. 9.2.1.5. Detonation pressures range from 0.73 to 1.5 X
106 psi (5 to 10 GPa). Experiments performed by Bauer et al.
(1984) show that decreasing explosive temperature decreases
detonation velocity, while certain explosive diameters failed to
detonate below OF (-17.8C).
Products can be delivered for onsite mixing or premixed
(only the gelling agent is added during hole loading) for bulk
storage and loading. Plant-mixed slurries are packaged in poly-
ethylene cylindrical bags in a variety of diameters and lengths.
Onsite mixing has the advantage of varying explosive density
and strength for hole loading conditions or for geological require-
ments. Prices range from $0.18/lb ($0.40/kg) for bulk products
to as high as $0.35/lb ($0.77/kg) for packaged slurries and those
containing aluminum or other sensitizers.
2. Emulsions are a two-liquid phase containing microscopic
droplets of aqueous nitrates of salts (chiefly AN) dispersed in
fuel oil, wax, or paraffin using an emulsifying agent. The water-
in-oil structure depends on entrapped air or microspheres for
sensitivity, thereby eliminating the need for expensive explosive
compounds. Microspheres, microscopic glass, or plastic air-filled
bubbles and the AN droplets form the oxidizer, while the fue!
ol exists as the ol phase, Emulsions provide high detonation
pressures of 1.45 to 1.74 X 106 psi (10 to 12 GPa) with detona-
tion velocities between 14,500 to 18,500 fps (4420 to 5640 m/s),
as shown in Fig. 9.2.1.5. Densities range from 1.15 to 1.45.
Emulsions have excellent water-resistant properties regardless of
packaging, and they remain stable at low temperatures. The cost
of emulsion products is within the range for slurries.
The excellent properties of emulsions are due to the intimate
contact between the microscopic droplets and the continuous oil
phase containing the fuel. Over time, the oil phase migrates,
and droplets combine to form larger particles sizes whose bulk
surface area is reduced. Less fuel is in contact with the oxidizer,
and less than ideal explosive properties are achieved. Current
research on emulsions will lead to formulations with longer shelf
life.
Emulsions can be mixed onsite and pumped from bulk
trucks. Premixed emulsions are available in plastic tubes in a
variety of diameters and lengths. Depending on product diameter
and sensitizers used, emulsions can be cap sensitive; however,
the manufacturer must be consulted for primer requirements.
Certain site-mixed emulsions require heating the mixture
prior to loading depending on the hydrocarbon used as the fuel.
Waxes and paraffin require heating to fluidize the product for
ease of loading while fue] ol can be pumped cold.
3. Heavy ANFO. Recent developments in explosives have
produced a heavy ANFO product that is comprised of up to 45
to 50% ammonium nitrate emulsion mixed with prilled ANFO
in an attempt to increase the bulk density of ANFO. The only
fuel component is in the ANFO (or a liquid fuel), while the
emulsion contains no solid fuel, making the mixture a "repump-
able" consistency. The final product has improved strength and
provides good water resistance in comparison to ANFO, with a
price range between that of ANFO and emulsions. Research has
shown, however, that the ability of emulsion to prevent ANFO
from being dissolved in the presence of water, thereby reducing
blasting efficiency, is questionable.
Bulk trucks for the loading of heavy ANFOs are designed
to blend components prior to loading and provide loading of
EXPLOSIVES 727
emulsion or ANFO alone, or a combination of the two, in vary-
ing proportions. Heavy ANFO products are also available in a
variety of packages and sensitivities,
Permissibies=-Permissible explosives are those made of spe-
cial mixtures, which produce short-lived detonation flames, and
do not ignite methane or fine coal dust within the air of under-
ground coal mines. Salt (NaCI) is used in the mix to produce a
quenching reaction. The USBM (Anon., 1961) developed criteria
for permissible explosives and maintains a list of manufacturers
supplying permissible products.
Primers and Boosters-A primer charge is an explosive ig-
nited by an initiator, which, in turn, initiates a noncap-sensitive
explosive or blasting agent. A primer contains cap-sensitive high
explosive ingredients. Often cartridges of dynamites, highly sen-
sitized slurries, or emulsions are used with blasting caps or deto-
nating cord. Other primers are cast into specific shapes and
weights, using TNT and PETN, designed with wells for initiator
acceptance. Most primers are used in weights ranging from 12
oz (340 g) to over 5 lb (2.27 kg). An overview of explosive
priming techniques is given by Dick et al. (1983).
Boosters are highly sensitized explosives or blasting agents,
used either in bulk form or in packages of weights greater than
those used for primers. Boosters are placed within the explosive
column where additional breaking energy is required. Often-
times, cartridge or plastic-bagged dynamites or sensitized wet
blasting agents are used as prirners as well as boosters. Boosters
are often used near the bottom of the blasthole at the toe level
as an additional charge for excessive toe burden distances. They
are also placed within the explosive column adjacent to geologi-
cal zones that are difficult to break or intermittently within the rnain
explosive charge to ensure continuous detonation.
Initiators and Initiation Systems: Initiatorsare devices con-
taining high explosives that, upon receiving an appropriate me-
chanical or electrical impulse, produce a detonation or burning
action. Initiators are used as components within a system of
explosives and other devices to start the detonation of ali other
components. Initiation systems are either electric or nonelectric,
and include blasting caps, safety fuse, detonating cord, or non-
electric shock tubes. Certain primers, which are shape-cast or
contained in plastic shells, are provided with wells for cap or
cord insertion.
Electric blasting caps are the most commonly used method
of initiation. Electrical energy (acorde) is sent through copper
or iron legwires to heat an internal-connecting bridgewire. This
heat, in turn, starts a chain reaction of explosives burning within f
the metal cap shell, through a powder delay train. This process ;~
detonates a high-explosive base charge, igniting a cap-sensitive
explosive. They are manufactured with an instantaneous (no
delay train) time of initiation, or time delays (in milliseconds)
used in delayed blasting practices. Time delays with intervals of 1
1
25, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 ms are available for short- (ms) or
long-period (LP) delays. Table 9.2.1.4 summarizes typical delay
time intervals available for electric and nonelectric initiating
systems. Short delays are used in surface blasting operations, 1
while longer delays are used underground where blasting condi-
tions are more confined. The use of time delays in blasting ~n-
hances fragmentation and the control of ground vibrations (see
9.2.2). In recent years, improvements have been made in the
manufacturing of blasting caps that increase the accuracy in
detonation time. The next generation of high-precision detona-
tors will contain an electronic circuit instead of pyrotechnical
delay elements. Toe integrated circuits will permit microsecond
rather than millisecond timing accuracy and allow programma-
bility for onsite selection of each cap detonation timing.
Ac power lines and capacitor-discharge de power sources
approved for blasting are used to energize caps. Precise calcula-
728 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 9.2.1.4. Typical Delay Times for Electric and Nonelectric Delays
Short-Period Delays Long-Period Delays
Electric Nonelectric
Delay time, Delay time. Delay time,
Period ms Period ms Period sec
o o o o o o
1 25 1 25 ~ 0.1
2 50 2 50 1 0.2
3 75 3 75 1~ 0.3
4 100 4 100 2 0.4
5 150 5 125 2Y:i 0.5
6 200 6 150 3 0.6
7 250 7 175 4 1.0
8 300 8 200 5 1.4
9 350 9 250 6 1.8
10 400 10 300 7 2.4
11 450 11 350 8 3.0
12 500 12 400 9 3.8
13 550 13 450 10 4.6
14 600 14 500 11 5.5
15 650 15 600 12 6.4
16 700 13 7.4
17 800 14 8.5
18 900 15 9.6
19 1000

tions are needed to determine the entire blasting circuit resist-
anee, including all accessory connecting wires. This is to ensure
that the power source supplies the correct current to each cap
in the circuit. Excellent source on blasting circuit calculations
are provided in the Blasters Handbook (Anon., 1977) and Hand-
book o/ Electric Blasting (Anon., 1985a). Safe blasting practices
dictate that precautions are used to avoid blasting in the vicinity
of extraneous electricity such as stray current, static electricity,
electrical storms, and radio frequency energy when using electric
caps (Anon., 1974).
Nonelectric initiation systems include a cap similar to that
of an electric cap, but they are connected to plastic tubing or a
transmission line that carries an initiation (shock and heat) to
initiate the cap. The energy source in the tubing is either a gas
mixture or an interna! coating of special explosive. Nonelectric
tubing is not used in underground coal or gassy mines as it
carries an open flame. The plastic tube itself does not detonate;
therefore, the only noise source is the cap itself. Caps and tubes
of varying lengths are connected with special connectors between
boles to configure unique blast pattern arrays. Surface delay
elements, when used in conjunction with in-hole delays, provide
nearly infinite numbers of delays in blasting pattems. Delays are
available in short and long periods as well as in-hole and surface
delays. The advantage of nonelectric systems over electric sys-
tems is the ability to design blasts with a greater number ofholes
than traditional electric blasting. In addition, concems about the
effects of accidental detonations of electric caps due to stray
currents are elirninated with the use of nonelectric systems.
Blasting Safety: Due to the fact that explosive materials
are deemed hazardous, the sales, transport, storage, and use of
explosives are regulated by a multitude of federal, state, and
local agencies. In addition, safe blasting practices dictate that
companies or agencies engaged in the use of explosives provide
standard operating procedures (SOPs) for personnel that outline.
the acceptable safe and legal handling of hazardous materials.
Depending on the situation under which explosives are being
used, the blaster may be required to comply with a number of
different codes as well as be tested for certification or license.
The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms ofthe US Depart-
ment ofTreasury (Anon., 1988c) regulates commerce in explo-
sives importation, manufacturing, distribution, and storage. The
US Department ofTransportation (001) regula tes the transport
of explosives on highways, railroad, water, and in the air (Anon.,
1988b). Ofimportance is the classification of explosives outlined
in these regulations and the requirement of ail shippers and
manufacturers of packaged products for shipment to identify
ali explosives and their classification with standard labels. The
following list outlines the classification defined by DOT and
used in the commercial blasting industry:
Class A Explosives:Explosives that contain detonating mate-
rials or materials of maximum hazard: in general, these explo-
sives, are cap-sensitive,
Class B Explosives: Explosives that carry a flammable
hazard.
Class C Explosives:Explosives that contain components clas-
sified as either Class A or B but in limited quantities.
Blasting Agents: A mixture of fuel and oxidizer that is not
defined as an explosive and cannot be detonated with a No. 8
test blasting cap.
Under the Department ofLabor, the Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA) (Anon., 1988a), and the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) (Anon., 1988) regu-
late the storage and use of explosives in certain mining activities
and In general industry use, respectively. MSHA outlines safe
blasting practices for surface and underground metal, nonmetal,
sand and gravel, and underground coal mines. OSHA similarly
outlines procedures for good practices to handle and load explo-
sives in other industries. Toe Office of Surface Mining, Depart-
ment of Interior (Anon., 1983), is concerned with the environ-
mental etfects and safety of explosives used in surface coal mines.
These regulations restrict the quantities of explosive loading in
the vicinity of dwellings to control noise, ground vibrations, and
flyrock.
An excellent source of explosive safety information is the
Institute of Makers of Explosives. The IME is an association of
commercial explosive manufacturers concemed with safe and
 ROCK BREAKAGE: EXPLOSIVES 729
Table 9.2.1.5. Thermodynamic Data for Selected Explosiv~ componente a_nd Gases
/.1.l.f. .J 1 .o Moles/kg J,.....:..~ Enthalpy,
kcal/kg
Explosive Formula C H O N

mroglycerin 13.21 22.02 39.62 13.21 , - 392.0

immonium nitrate 49.97 34.48 24.99 -1091.0
"NT 30.82 22.01 26.40 13.20 62.5

Jieselfuel ,,.. + 898.0

Heat Capacity Constants,
cal/rnole-K
b, e, Enthalpy,
Formula a 10-3 10-s kcal/mole
Gases

;arbon dioxide q.85 8.53 -2.48 -94.05 1

~ater (vapor) 6.89 3.28 -0.34 -57.80

. '
~itrogen 6.30 1.82 -0.35 o ; ~
)xygen 6.13 2.99 -9.81 o
Source: Meyer, 1981.

iroper practices in transport, storage, and use of their products. Solution. The mass-balance equation is
.ts members are involved with legal affairs and regulatory moni-
.or ing of legislation affecting industry operations. A number of
C13_21H22.0239.62N13.21 .... 13.21 C02
/aluable publications are available from the IME (Anon., 1985
.hrough 1987). + 22.02/2 HP + 13.21/2 N2
1/. 01 . ~.,01' .
+ (39.62/2 - 13.21 - 11.01/2) 02 (9.2.1.2)
~.2.1.2 Explosive Thermochemistry ;r.1/ 5J1J

All explosives are mixtures of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,

where subscripts denote mole numbers of each element in 1 kg.
md oxygen, plus other components used for special purposes.
Oxygen in excess
ln order to achieve maximum rock-breaking efficiency from an
explosive, an oxygen-balanced mixture is formulated to ensure
:he formation of nonnoxious gases upon detonation. With an + 1.095 moles 02
oxygen-balanced formula, it is assumed that optimum values
of thermodynamic properties such as energy, temperature, and +2.19 moles O
pressure are achieved, and that these values are not affected by
changes in the reactants (explosive mixture). This is the case
Oxygen balance (OB)
for ideal reactions. Unfortunately, commercial explosives are
nonideal materials. Changes in the physical nature rather than
the chemistry of the explosive mixture, such as particle size and = {[O (excess)]/0 (available) J (100%)
borehole diameter, vary the rate of detonation and hence affect
thermodynamic variables. Furthermore, many granular explo- = 5.53%
sives, such as ANFO and nitroglycerin, do not completely react,
whereas water-based blasting agents react more efficiently, re- With the exception of ammonium nitrate and nitroglycerin,
leasing optimum energy as predicted by formulation. most explosive components are oxygen deficient. Oxygen balance
It is possible, however, to estmate the thermodynamic prop- for TNT is given next in Ex. 9.2.1.3.
erties of an explosive reaction, assuming an oxygen balance. Toe Example 9.2.1.3. Find the oxygen balance for TNT,
following calculations are made to illustrate the methods used C,Hs06N3.
to estmate explosive properties of interest. Although there are Solution.
a number ofmethods available (Cook, 1958, 1974; Manon, 1976-
1977; Meyer, 1981), the procedures selected herein are the least
difficult to apply. Thermodynamic data used for these calcula-
tions are found in Table 9.2.1.5 and given by Meyer (1981).
Oxygen Balance: As explained in 9.2.1.1, an oxygen-bal- + 22.02/2 H20 + 13.2/2 N2 + (26.4/2 ; ~
anced explosive formula is one in which the amount of oxygen 30.82 - 22.01/4) 02 =
02 is sufficient to form the desired detonation gases C02, H20,
and N2, but not noxious fumes such as CO, NO, and CH4 (if the -42.25 moles O (9.2.1.3)
mix is oxygen deficient), or free oxygen (if the mix has an excess
of oxygen). Oxygen balance for an explosive component or a
Oxygen balance for an oxygen-deficient component is
mixture of components is usually reported in percentages or as
moles of monatomic oxygen. lt is computed using the mass

balance relationship for a reaction of 1 kg of explosive, assuming = {O (deficient)/[0 (deficient) - O (required)]J (100%)
the formation of ideal gaseous products. The computations are
illustrated using nitroglycerin, TNT, and ANFO mixture. -63.7%
=
Example 9.2.1.2. Find the oxygen balance for nitroglycerin, Example 9.2.1. 4. Find the oxygen balance for the mixture,
C3H509N3 ANFO.
 ----- - -~~ ~---

j
730 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Solution. For the mix of 94.5% AN, NH4N03,

Explosion Temperature: The theoretical temperature can be
calculated assuming that the detonation reaction takes place
r-
!
under an adiabatic condition, and that the reaction takes place
5.5% FO, CH2 (approximate) as a constant pressure process from ambient temperature T1 In
this case, the temperature of the explosion T2 is calculated by
For 1 kg of each component, the subscripted mole numbers are expressing the enthalpy of the products as a function of their '
temperature. Toe enthalpy Q is expressed in terms of T1 and T2
AN for n moles of product as ,.
(

FO (9.2.1.6)
;;;(:) .,1,
.r
Mass balance for the mixt ure
1 .
/
Expressing CP, molal heat capacity, as a quadratic function of
Percentage of Mole contrbuon to each element temperature, CP = a + bT + cT2, where a, b, ande are constants
component in
o H experimentally derived and available in standard chemistry hand
mixture CtH
books. Integrating Eq. 9.2.1.6, the heat of formation is
94.5% AN 47.22. 35.42 23.62
5.5% FO 2.05 7.85 Q = n [a (T2 - T1) + b/2 (T/ - T.1)
Total moles
2.05 55.07 35.42 23.62 .
'1
J ..,_
+ c/3 (Ti3 - T13)] (9.2.1.7)
in 1 kg mix

For a reaction involving more than one product, the enthalpy of

Ci.osHs4.91035.42N23.62 - 2.05 C02 each product is obtained in the form ofEq. 9.2.1.7. The sum of
+ 55.07 /2 H20 + 23.62/2 N02 ,
ali products is set equal to the heat of formation of the reaction
(based on 1 mole of explosive), and explosion temperature T2 is
+ 1.89 02 = +3.78 moles O determined.
Toe following example involving ANFO illustrates the cal-
OB = 10.7% (9.2.1.4)
'\.) culations involved to compute explosion temperature. Toe con-
. stants for heat capacity of the products are given in Table 9.2.1.5.
Explosive Energy: Energy is expressed in terms of heat of Example 9.2.1. 7. Find the temperature of ANFO detonation.
formation (or enthalpy) for a reaction involving constant volume, Solution.
given as kilocalories (kcal). It is computed as the sum of tbe Heat of formation based on cal/mole:
heats of formation for the products minus the sum for the re-
actants. Toe reaction is based on 1 kg of explosive component Weighted

or mixture (reactants). Toe enthalpies are given for the reactants Atomic Mass, Atomic Mass,
in terms of kilocalorie per kilogram ( calorie per gram or weigbt Component Percentage g/mole g/mole
strength), and for tbe gaseous products, in terms of kcal/mole. 94.5% 80 75.60
AN
Using the single component NG and the number of moles formed 0.77
ofthe various gas products as shown in Eq. 9.2.1.3, Ex. 9.2.1.5 FO 5.5% 14
Total 76.37
calculates energy.
Example 9.2.1.5. Energy (heat of formation) for nitro-

glycerin mole/kg = (lOOOg!kg)/(76.37 g/mole) = 13.09 mole/kg

Solution.
Enthalpy
Q= [13.21 moles (-94.05 kcal/mole) + 11_.0l moles = (- 803.64kcal/kg)/(13.09 mole/kg)
-r.. : ~
_i: J.~.~
(-57.8 kcal/mole)] - (-392. kcal)]"= ~ [2.05 mole (-94.05 kcal/mole) + 27.54 mole (-57.8
ii ;:, kcal/mole) - (-981.61 kcal)]
,' ~ 1487 kcal/kg of NG
= -803.64 kcal/kg (9.2.1.5)
For mixtures, the enthalpy contribution of each component
must be determined.
Example 9.2.1.6. Find the energy for ANFO.
Solution.
Net enthalpy
= [(-1091 kcal/kg)(0.945 kg AN) + (898 kcal/kg)(0.055
kg FO)]
= -981.61 kcal

Energy, Q
 = -61,393 cal/mole (9.2.1.8) (9.2.1.8)

From Eq. 9.2.1.5, for 13.09 moles of ANFO explosive, 1 mole

of ANEO produces
Ji'. ::J
,
tj.-;
: '").., (

; '~ 0.157 mole C02 + 2.104 moles HP 0.9 mole N2 +

1

+ 0.144 02 = 3.31 moles of gas

products

Substituting T1 = 298K in Eq. 9.2.1.7 for each

gas product gives the following results:

C02 = .157 [6.85 (T2 - 298) + 8.533/2 (10-3)(T/ - 2982) -

2.48/3 (10-6)(T/ - 2983)]
H20 = 2.104 [6.89 (T2 - 298) + 3.28/2 (10-3)(T/ - 2982) -
0.34/3 (10-6)(T/ - 2983)]
N2 = 0.90 [6.30 (T2 - 298) + 1.82/2 (10-3)(T/ - 2982) -
0.35/3 (10-6)(T/ - 2983)]
 ROCK BREAKAGE: EXPLOSIVES 731

02 = 0.144 (6.13 (T2 - 298) + 2.99/2 (10-3)(Ti2 - 2982) -

'o
0.81/3 (10-6)(Ti3 - 2983)] 1-
z
w
The sum is equal to -61,393 cal/mole, and the cubic forro (Eq. z DYNAMIC
9.2.1. 7) becomes o COMPRESSIVE
Q.

::. STRENGTH
o
O = 22.137 T2 + 0.00516 T/ - 5.13 (lo-7) T3 - 68365 o
...J
et "'
The solution to the cubic equation has three roots (determined -o
graphically or solved numerically), one of which lies between et
a:
reasonable values of 2000 to 5000K. The graphical solution
gives the explosion temperature for ANFO as 2204K. TI ME
Detonation Pressure: The equation of state for explosive (/)
(/) ~
gases produced by detonations must define the temperature- w 1-
pressure-volume relationships at high temperatures and pres-
z
sures. Man y equations of state for nonideal gas pressure calcula- a: w
1- z
tions are proposed (Cook, 1958; Fickett and Davis, 1979; Mader, (/) oQ.
1979; Johansson and Persson, 1970). These solutions require the, ::.
use of large hydrodynamic computer codes and the knowledge o
o
of empirically derived constants from high-pressure experiments. ...J
A simple expression used to estimate pressure is the covolume et

equation of state:
-
1-
z
w
o l
P (V, - a) = nR T (9.2.1.9) z l et
where V.is specific volume of the explosive (in verse of p explo-
1-
l
sive density), T is explosion temperature in K, n is the number ~,
of gas moles, and R is the gas constant, 82.06 cm3-atm/mole-K.
}
Covolume a is a measure of the actual volume of gas molecules. Fig. 9.2.1.6. Generalized stress vs. time for radial and tangential
Pressure is thus related to the inverse of P - a, or free volume. components of stress at two distances R from the borehole center
Experimental values of a are given by Cook (1958) as a function (a, = original borehole radius).
of p and appro.ximated by,

a = e-0.4p X 1Q3 cm?/kg (9.2.1.10)

Example 9.2.1.8. Calculate the detonation pressure for p = 1.59

ANFO. P = 1.1 X 106 psi (7.57 GPa)
Solution.
Given 1 kg of ANFO mixture, which agrees with experimental results.
n = 43.285 mole
C:.' v,).,t r.. ~
T = 2204o K 9.2.1.3 Blasting Practices

p = 0.85 The use of explosives to break rock requires the proper

selection of explosives and blasting devices, the careful design of r,..: ~ ,_.- )
a= 711.8 cm3/kg (from Eq. 9.2.1.9) borehole patterns, loading characteristics, and delay blasting, ,
"') sequence, and the control of ground vibration, airblast~-
1 \' V, = (1000 g/kg)/(p) = 1176.5 cm3 /kg
r~ck: Ef!icient blast designs produce ~he desired particle s~e ! t: , '
' <~ j
1V""
~,' ' distributions and placement of muckpiles for easemrocl re-
Pressure, P = .:(43.285 moles):(..8:2_.06 cm'-atm/mole-'KX
~22_04'K).:(_l.4:....7_ p:_s_
. i-atm.):. moval and handling. f"t
0~
(1176.5 cm3/kg - 7_11.8 cm3/kg)
Rock Breakage Using Explosives: There are a number of
= 0.247 X 106 psi (1.7 GPa) (9.2.1.11) theories used to describe rock fragmentation by blasting (Winzer
and Ritter, 1980; Anon., 1987a). Two bread areas of breakage
For explosives that are not oxygen balanced such as TNT, mechanisms include (1) the role of stress waves generated from
experimental data for n are required and vary widely among the explosive detonation (shock) force, and (2) the role of bore-
experimentalists. Cook (1958) among others gives experimental hole pressures created by the detonation gas products.
data for TNT. Effect of Stress Waves-The theoretical treatment of explo-
Example 9.2.1. 9. Calculate the detonation pressure for TNT. sively generated stress waves is given by Kutter and Fairhurst
(1971), Rinehart (1975), and Mohanty (1985). Upon detonation
Solution. within a borehole, a shock wave is generated and travels into the
Given 1 kg of TNT, rock, quickly decaying in peak pressure a.mplitude and dispersing
in shape as the wave travels away from the borehole. The c~-
drically divergent wave carries both a radial and tangential stress
n = 23 moles
component whose stress time histories are shown, idealized, in
T = 4100K Fig. 9.2.1.6. The response of the rock adjacent to the bdrehole
1