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Optimal design of conical springs

Article in Engineering With Computers March 2009

DOI: 10.1007/s00366-008-0112-3 Source: DBLP

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Optimal design of conical springs
Engineering with Computers (2009) 25:147154
DOI 10.1007/s00366-008-0112-3

MANUEL PAREDES, EMMANUEL RODRIGUEZ

Universit de Toulouse; INSA, UPS; LGMT (Laboratoire de Gnie Mcanique de Toulouse); 135,
avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse, France
manuel.paredes@insa-toulouse.fr
Fax 33 5 61 55 97 00
Tel 33 5 61 55 97 15

Abstract: Mechanical systems often use springs to store energy though their axial length must
sometimes be significantly reduced. This leads to the use of conical springs as they are able to
telescope. Designers of mechanical systems can call on a large number of tools to assist them
though most of these are merely validation tools requiring concomitant trial and error strategies.
Optimization strategies can be applied to provide synthesis assistance tools for which the designer
simply specifies his requirement. Thus the tool directly indicates the spring best suited to standards
and requirements. Recent advances in the study of constant pitch conical springs have provided
analytical expressions of their behaviour even in the non-linear phase. Considering this, we have
used optimization strategies to provide a synthesis tool for conical spring design. An example of
application is presented. The tool introduced here is thus a synthesis assistance tool that can be of
considerable interest for designers who require a conical spring in their design.
Key words: conical spring, optimization, design, assistance tool, industrial
application

Notation (based on DIN [1] standards)

A: least compressed state of the spring
B: most compressed state of the spring
D1: small mean diameter [mm]
D2: large mean diameter [mm]
Df: diameter limiting free coils and coils at solid [mm]
DiL: large inner diameter [mm]
DiS: small inner diameter [mm]
DoL: large outer diameter [mm]
DoS: small outer diameter [mm]
d: wire diameter [mm]
F1: minimum operating load [N]
F2: maximum operating load [N]
Fc: solid load [N]
FT: transition operating load [N]
fe: natural frequency of surge waves [Hz]
G: wire torsion modulus [N/mm2]
k: stress correction factor
L0: free length [mm]
L1: maximum operating length [mm]
L2: minimum operating length [mm]
La: free length of active coils [mm]
Lc: solid length [mm]
LK: buckling length [mm]
Ln: minimal operating length to keep within the operating range [mm]

1
Ls: solid length of active coils [mm]
LT: transition length [mm]
M: spring mass [g]
rm: radial pitch of the spring [mm]
na : number of active coils
ni : number of inactive coils for the ends related to L0
nf : number of coils free to deflect during a compression phase
nT: total number of coils
R: spring rate of the linear range [N/mm]
Rm: ultimate tensile strength of the wire [N/mm2]
Sh : spring travel [mm]
w1 : spring index related to D1
w2 : spring index related to D2
2: percentage of Rm at L2
c: percentage of Rm at Lc
F: fatigue life factor
: maximum helix angle [degrees]
: end fixation factor

Left superscripts
S: from the specifications sheet
M: from manufacturers constraints or standards
Right superscripts
U: Upper limit
L: Lower limit

1 Introduction
Springs are often used in mechanical devices to store energy. Several types of
spring have been developed to cover a wide range of applications, including
compression, traction and torsion springs [2]. The linear behaviour of cylindrical
springs makes it possible to write analytical formulae for use in optimization
strategies. Recently, optimization methods have been applied to define assistance
tools for designers. An example of this is the Advanced Spring Design 7
software from the Spring Manufacturers Institute [3] and Universal Technical
Systems [4] which has been designed in a full graphic environment with
convenient and automatic unit conversion as well as easy access to dynamic plots
and reports. ASD utilises the TK Solver collaborative math engine to use a
process known as backsolving to solve a variety of combinations of input and
output variables. Consequently it is useful for design verification [5].
Synthesis tools have been proposed for cylindrical compression [6], traction [7]
and torsion springs [8] to provide enhanced assistance. Such tools make use of
optimization processes in order to propose a spring that directly satisfies the
designers needs. The research work performed on optimal compression spring
design is now included in the Spring CAD software packages distributed by the
Institute of Spring Technology [9].

The most commonly used springs are cylindrical compression springs which are
also the most reliable. However, when the reduction of axial length is necessary,
they can be replaced by conical compression springs. Indeed, depending on their

2
geometrical design, conical springs can telescope, leading to an axial length close
to the wire diameter. This type of spring is often used in electrical devices such as
contactors (see Fig. 1).

Figure 1
Conical compression springs with constant pitch (which are those most commonly
used) have a two-phase compression curve (see Fig. 2). Length vs. load is first
linear from 0 to FT. The associated spring rate R has been defined by Wolansky
[10]. When the coil portion with the largest diameter reaches its maximum
deflection, the spring rate starts to increase until the coil portion with the smallest
diameter reaches its maximum deflection. This induces a non-linear second phase
between FT and FC as described in Figure 2.

Figure 2
To define the non-linear phase, the Institute of Spring Technology [9] proposes a
dedicated algorithm. This algorithm discretises the active coils of the spring,
making it possible to define the active length of a spring for a given load. Wu and
Hsu [11] developed an analytical model for a particular type of conical spring.
Their study focuses on a conical spring with a constant helix angle that does not
telescope, and with cylindrical closed and ground ends. This model is based on a
separating analysis between free coils and solid/ground ones, and gives spring
deflection as a function of load. The result is approximated in a third order
polynomial for a dynamic study. This study is thus not applicable for common
conical springs with constant pitch.

Rodriguez [12] recently highlighted the influence of end coils on spring

behaviour. He also developed analytical formulae for the non-linear phase [13]
that enable calculating length L for a given load F.

2 F D4 n D 4

n n f
L(F) = L0
1 a
1 + 2 1 f
1 + (La LS ) 1
G d (D2 D1 )
4
D1 n
a
n a

With
1/ 2
D 2 D 1
2

L S = max 0 , (n a d)
2

2
L a = L0 n i d
(L L ) G d 4
1/3

na a D1 ; n a ; 0
n f = max min
S

D2 D1 8 F n a

In light of this, it is now possible to analytically define not only the external
length for a given load but also the load for a given length for a conical spring,
regardless of the compression phase. These formulae are implemented in the
ASD7 software proposed by UTS and SMI (the ASD6 software used previously
proposed conical spring validation but simplified conical spring behaviour by
transforming it into a linear phenomenon).
3
We thus consider that optimization strategies can be used to define an assistance
tool related to conical spring design. First, the main parameters related to conical
springs are presented after which the assistance tool is described. Finally, an
example of an application is proposed.

2 Notions about conical springs

2.1 Design parameters

The main parameters that define spring geometry are: D1 , D2 , d, L0 , nT. Figure 3
illustrates these parameters that characterise the intrinsic properties of the spring.
Note that nT = na + 2.

Figure 3
These design parameters allow other useful parameters to be calculated:
spring rate of the linear range: R
inner and outer values of small diameter: DiS ; DoS
inner and outer values of large diameter: DiL ; DoL
solid length and load: Lc ; Fc

2.2 Operating parameters

A spring traditionally works between two configurations, one corresponding to
the least compressed state A and the other corresponding to the most compressed
state B. The main parameters defining the use of a spring are L1 , L2 , F1 , F2 , and
Sh (see Fig. 4). Once the design parameters are known, two independent operating
parameters (to be taken from among F1 , F2 , L1 , L2 and Sh) are necessary to
determine the two points A and B.

Figure 4
2.3 Additional parameters
In addition to the design and operating parameters, other parameters can be
considered by the designer as they can play a major role in some studies:
Spring mass (M)
Natural frequency of surge waves (fe)

2.4 Calculating stress

Calculating torsional stress for a conical spring is more complicated than for a
cylindrical compression spring. Actually, the stress on the wire depends on the
considered mean diameter. Thus in a cylindrical spring with a constant pitch, the
stress is constant along the entire wire. In a conical spring, the stress increases
with the mean diameter of the wire. The question is: What mean diameter should
be considered?

4
Figure 5
During the linear phase, the largest active diameter is D2. It must therefore be
considered in order to calculate the stress. Along the non-linear phase [TC] (see
Fig. 2), the active coils are gradually stacked one above the other as presented in
Figure 5. During this phase, nf coils are free and na nf coils are at solid/ground,
i.e. either at solid for a non telescoping spring, or at ground for a telescoping
one.

nf represents the number of coils that are still free to deflect. The associated
diameter Df must be considered to calculate the stress.
The stress formula related to the most compressed state B is thus:

k2 = 8 Df F2 k / ( d3)

Df = D1 + nf (D2 - D1) / na
k = (Df / d + 0.5) / (Df / d - 0.75)

When considering fatigue life, the stress corresponding to the least compressed
state A has to be calculated, making it necessary to take into account the same
mean diameter. As the stress is proportional to the load for a given mean diameter,
the stress at load F1 can be calculated easily.

k1 = k2 F1 / F2

3 Assistance tool
The proposed assistance tool is based on the work of Paredes [6] related to
cylindrical compression springs. It has been adapted to fit the requirements for
conical compression springs.

3.1 Window interface

The assistance tool is based on a user-friendly window interface divided into three
main areas called Data 1, Data 2 and Results (see Fig. 6).

Figure 6
The data required to pose the problem are defined in the Data 1 area. The designer
specifies the material, the spring ends required and the allowable operating range.
The number of cycles must also be defined to calculate the fatigue life factor F.
In the case where buckling must be avoided the user selects the end fixation factor
in an additional window to enable calculating the buckling length. The
permitted percentage for the Ultimate Tensile Strength Rm at Lc, called ScU must
also be defined. The elastic limit of steel is about 50% of Rm. This is the default
value of ScU but higher Rm percentages can be accepted where we are certain that
the spring will not be compressed to its solid length Lc. Designers also define
whether the spring must telescope. Finally, an objective function has to be

5
provided to be able to calculate the best spring. It consists of selecting a design or
an operating parameter that must be maximized or minimized.

Solutions to most industrial problems require taking into account a large range of
parameters. They define not only spring geometry but also its use. The problem
parameters are defined in the Data 2 area. The tool proposed can be used at any
design stage. However, in the early design stages, many parameters remain
uncertain and still require fixing. Thus, it is difficult to give fixed values for a
spring and it is more convenient to define parameters through their possible lower
and upper limits. For this reason, the Data 2 area comprises a specification sheet
defined using interval values. Thus all the parameters can be set by giving their
limits (lower and/or upper: SXL , SXU). To set the value of a parameter, it has to be
placed within both the lower and upper limits defining the parameter interval on
the specification sheet (see DiS ; Sh ; L1 ; F1 in Fig. 6).

The Results area contains all the parameter values for the proposed solution
including design and operating parameters. It also shows values for the parameters
considered by standards such as the spring index or the maximum helix angle. To
assist in design analysis, the objective function value is bordered and the
parameter values that reach a limit of the problem (defined by the user, or
imposed by standards or the spring manufacturer) are highlighted.

In addition, the designer can determine those limits that can be relaxed to derive
an advantage by exploiting the sensitivity study. The results are presented in an
additional window (see Fig. 7). This window shows the benefits for the objective
function that can be obtained by relaxing limits.

Figure 7
Sometimes no spring can be found to fit requirements. In this case, the design
closest to the specifications is proposed.

3.2 The optimization problem

Finding the conical spring design that offers the best possible value for an
objective function involves an optimization problem with seven continuous
variables. Five design parameters (D1 , D2 , d , L0 , nT ) and two operating
parameters (L1 and L2) are stored in the vector of design variables X, so X = [D1
, D2 , d , L0 , nT , L1 , L2]T.

Table 1 lists 46 selected constraints capable of expressing not just designer

specifications but also standards and the spring manufacturers technical
capability limits. This makes it possible to resolve most real-life industrial
problems. As an example, the constraints related to the radial pitch rm are defined
to conform to the criterion of the spring telescoping or not.

Table 1

6
The objective function is selected by the designer and is expressed using the
conventional form:
Minimize or Maximize F(X)
where F(X) is either the fatigue life factor, or any one of the parameters that can
be written on the specifications sheet: DoS , DiS , DoL , DiL , d, L0 , nT, R, Sh , F1 , F2
, L1 , L2 , Lc, Fc , M, fe .

3.3 Solving the optimization problem

Once the optimization problem has been defined, it has to be solved
automatically. The algorithm proposed by Paredes [6] is used to provide an
automatic solution whatever the specifications.
As continuous variables have to be managed, we have chosen to use
mathematical programming [14] and, more specifically, to implement an SQP
(Sequential Quadratic Programming) algorithm. With such a direct method, each
step in the resolution process is based on a displacement inside the solution area.
This kind of property is useful if the resolution process is interrupted before
completion (when full convergence proves difficult), with the tool being more
likely to provide an acceptable if non-optimal solution to the designer.
Direct methods require a starting point inside or close to the solution area. Indeed,
the closer the starting point is to the final solution, the more likely the algorithm
will converge towards the optimal solution. This is especially true here in view of
the high number of constraints. For this reason, we have developed a dedicated
strategy to find a suitable starting point. Interval arithmetic [15] is used to build
up a virtual catalogue of springs relating to the specifications. These springs are
defined by the five design parameters (D1 , D2 , d, L0 , nT) of the vector of design
variables. But for each spring, the two operating parameters (L1 and L2) still
remain to be determined in order to fully define X. For a given virtual spring, this
involves finding the optimal values of (L1 and L2) related to the requirements. The
problem is solved by exploiting the Johnson method [16] dedicated to solving
optimization problems with a small number of variables. Thus, the proposed
algorithm [17] first determines the optimal operating parameters for each virtual
spring depending on the specifications and on the objective function. Each design
obtained is then compared with the requirements and the best one is selected to
initialize the mathematical programming process.

4 Example of an application
The application example is based on the electrical contactor shown in Figure 1.
The left side contains the electrical contacts that must be switched on/off. The
right side contains an electromagnet. The middle contains a moving core and a
conical spring. When the electromagnet is activated, the moving core goes to the
right and the current is switched on. When the electromagnet is not activated, the
conical spring maintains the moving core on the left side and the electrical contact
is off.

The spring (see Fig. 8) used in the contactor was designed by hand. It is made of
stainless steel with radial closed ends, the other characteristics are: d = 0.85 mm ;
DiS = 18 mm ; DoL = 29.6 mm ; nT = 4 ; L0 = 29 mm.

7
Figure 8
This spring induces a maximum load of 6.55 N. A conical spring leading to a
lower value of F2 would be of great interest to minimise the constraints on the
electromagnet.
What follows is a description of how the proposed assistance tool offers the
opportunity to achieve enhanced design.

There are a number of constraints relating to the overall design. The moving core,
which is already used in other devices, has to be kept as it is. This leads to certain
technical specifications for the conical spring. The inner diameter of the spring
has to be equal to 18 mm. Moreover, the spring has to maintain the open position
on a 10g acceleration, thus the mass of the moving part, F1 = 2.45 N must be taken
into account. The travel of the core is 5.5 mm and the radial space allowed means
the outer diameter of the spring has to be less than 30 mm. To maintain the
operating points at the same position as the initial design, L1 is set equal to 7.55
mm.
The spring has to telescope fully while remaining within the elastic limit and
without buckling and the number of cycles must be greater than 107.
The objective is to find the conical spring offering the lowest value for F2.
As shown in Figure 6, the assistance tool rapidly finds a suitable design. The
design proposed leads to a maximum operating load of 2.90 N and a conical
spring offering a 56% improvement on the maximum load.

5 Conclusion
A comprehensive process for optimal conical spring design was presented. Its
main advantage is to link industrial and mathematical knowledge to propose an
optimal design that functions directly from global specifications.

In addition, the specification sheet of the proposed tool can take into account data
tolerances for use in the early design stages. The short calculation time achieved
allows the designer to test a number of configurations in order to determine which
is best. This is a useful exploratory tool as the designer can readily modify
requirements or the objective function to test several design options.

The present study shows that conical springs with constant pitch can now be
designed to solve most current industrial problems.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Schneider Electric S.A. for their financial and technical
support.

References
1. DIN, Burggrafenstraa` e 6, postfach 11 07, 10787 Berlin, Germany
2. Wahl AM (1963) Mechanical springs. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York

8
3. SMI, Spring Manufacturers Institute, 2001 Midwest Road, Suite106 Oak Brook, Illinois 60521,
USA
4. UTS, Universal Technical Systems (E), Ltd, 1 Brittens Court, Clifton Reynes, Olney,
Buckinghamshire MK46 5LG, United Kingdom, http://www.uts.com
5. Deford R (2004) Exploring ASD6. Springs, The international Magazine of Spring Manufacture, pp
3840.
6. Paredes M, Sartor M, Daidi A (2005) Advanced assistance tool for optimal compression spring
design. Engineering With Computers, Springer, 21(2):140-150.
7. Paredes M, Sartor M, Masclet C (2001) An optimization process for extension spring design.
Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 191:783797.
8. Paredes M, Sartor M, Wahl JC (2002) Optimization techniques for industrial spring design.
Optimization in Industry, Springer, pp 315326.
9. IST (1980 2005) Essential Spring Design Training Course, handbook, The Institute of Spring
Technology, Sheffield, United Kingdom
10. Wolansky E (1996) Conical spring buckling deflexion. Springs,Winter:62.
11. Wu MH, Hsu WY (1998) Modelling the Static and Dynamic Behavior of a Conical Spring by
Considering the Coil Close and Damping Effects. Journal of Sound and Vibration, ASME, 214(1):17-28.
12. Rodriguez E, Paredes M (2005) Ends effects on conical spring behaviour. Springs, 44:32-36.
13. Rodriguez E, Paredes M, Sartor M (2006) Analytical Behavior Law for a Constant Pitch Conical
Compression Spring. Journal of Mechanical Design, Transactions of ASME, 128:1352-1356.
14. Vanderplats GN (1984) Numerical optimization techniques for engineering design. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York
15. Moore RE (1979) Methods and applications of interval analysis. SIAM, Philadelphia
16. Johnson RC (1980) Optimum design of mechanical elements.Wiley, New York
17. Paredes M, Sartor M, Fauroux JC (2000) Stock spring selection tool. Springs, Winter:5367.

Fig. 1 Electrical contactor containing a conical spring from Schneider Electric S.A.
Fig. 2 Behaviour of a conical spring
Fig. 3 Design parameters of a conical spring
Fig. 4 Operating parameters of a conical spring
Fig. 5 Distribution of active coils, at any step of the non-linear phase
Fig. 6 Assistance tool window interface
Fig. 7 Sensitivity Study window
Fig. 8 Initial conical spring used in the contactor

Table 1 Constraints of the optimization problem

Constraint Upper limit: Lower limit:
on:
DoS g1(X): DoS - SDoSU 0 g2(X): SDoS L, - DoS 0
d g3(X): d - Min(Sd U, Md U ) 0 g4(X): Max(Sd L, Md L) - d 0
L0 g5(X): L0 - Min(SL0U, ML0U) 0 g6(X): SL0L - L0 0
R g7(X): R - SR U 0 g8(X): SR L - R 0
L1 g9(X): L1 - SL1U 0 g10(X): SL1L - L1 0
L2 g11(X): L2 - SL2U 0 g12(X): SL2L - L2 0
D2 g13(X): D2 - MDU 0 *******
DiS g14(X): DiS - SDiSU 0 g15(X): SDiSL - DiS 0
DiL g16(X): DiL - SDiLU 0 g17(X): SDiLL - DiL 0
DoL g18(X): D oL - SD oL U 0 g19(X): SD oL L - DoL 0
na ******* g20(X): MnaL - na 0
nT g21(X): nT - SnTU 0 g22(X): SnTL - nT 0
g23(X): - M U 0 *******
F1 g24(X): F1 - SF1U 0 g25(X): SF1L - F1 0
F2 g26(X): F2 - SF2U 0 g27(X): SF2L - F2 0
Sh g28(X): Sh - SShU 0 g29(X): SShL - Sh 0
w g30(X): w2 - MwU 0 g31(X): MwL - w1 0
Ln ******* g32(X): Ln - L2 0
LK ******* g33(X): LK - L2 0

9
 Lc g34(X): Lc - SLcU 0 g35(X): SLcL - Lc 0
Pc g36(X): Pc - SPcU 0 g37(X): SPcL - Pc 0
fe g38(X): fe - SfeU 0 g39(X): SfeL - fe 0
M g40(X): M - SM U 0 g41(X): SM L - M 0
2 g42(X): 2 - 2U 0 *******
c g43(X): c - ScU 0 *******
F ******* g44(X): 1 - F 0
rm g45(X): rm - SrmU 0 g46(X): SrmL - rm 0

Fig. 1 Electrical contactor containing a conical spring from Schneider Electric S.A.

10
Fig. 2 Behaviour of a conical spring

Fig. 3 Design parameters of a conical spring

11
Fig. 4 Operating parameters of a conical spring

Fig. 5 Distribution of active coils, at any step of the non-linear phase

12
Fig. 6 Assistance tool window interface

Fig. 7 Sensitivity Study window

13
 Fig. 8 Initial conical spring used in the contactor

14

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