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Educational Module on

Introductory Aerodynamics

Kentucky Wing Design Competition:


A partnership between the
Kentucky Institute for Aerospace Education and the University of Kentucky

Sponsored by the NASA Kentucky Space Grant Consortium

Module created by Dr. Sean C. C. Bailey,


Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module
Outline

1. Introductory Concepts
Dimensions and Units

The Four Forces of Flight

The Physics of Flight

2. Lift
How is Lift Produced?
Pressure Distribution and Pitching Moment
Aerodynamic Stall
Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
Effect of Airfoil Shape on Performance
Lift Augmentation
Finite Wing Effects

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 1


Outline

3. Drag
Drag on a Two-Dimensional Airfoil
Induced Drag
Other Forms of Drag
Strategies for Drag Reduction

4. Aerodynamic Considerations for Wing Design


An Exercise in Trade-offs
Wing Loading
Choosing an Airfoil
Choosing a Planform
Choosing an Aspect Ratio

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 2


Introduction to Aerodynamics

1. Introductory Concepts

2. Lift

3. Drag

4. Aerodynamic Considerations for Wing Design

5. Further Reading

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 3


Dimensions and Units

A fluid is any form of matter that does not sustain a shear stress.
(i.e. a fluid must ``flow)
Although some solids flow (such as sand), they can sustain a

shear stress (for example, sand forms into piles when not
flowing)
All liquids and gasses are fluids
Therefore air is a fluid and the study of aerodynamics requires
dealing with a variety of fluid characteristics
Qualitatively: we can describe these characteristics using
dimensions
There are four primary dimensions:

Length, Mass, Time and Temperature


For example, the width of an object has dimensions of Length,

the velocity of the same object has dimensions of Length/Time

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 4


Dimensions and Units

Quantitatively: we describe these characteristics using a


number and a standard by which these numbers can be
compared. These standards are called units
For example, standard units for length include, feet, inches,

miles, meters, millimeters, ngstroms , etc.

It is very important when using equations that you use a


consistent set of units
For example, if the equation requires units of pressure,

velocity and length


If the length is in feet, then the velocity should be in
feet/second and the pressure should be pounds force/foot2
If the length is in meters, then the velocity should be in
meters/second and the pressure should be in Pascals
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 5
The Four Forces of Flight

Aircraft in flight are under


the influence of four
forces
These forces act at the
center of mass of the
aircraft
The rate at which an
aircraft climbs or
descends and increases
or decreases forward
flight depend on the
balance of these forces

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 6


The Four Forces of Flight

All aircraft have mass and


are subject to
gravitational force
i.e. the aircraft weight

WEIGHT = mass x gravitational acceleration

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 7


The Four Forces of Flight

An airplane in forward flight


generates aerodynamic
forces
The aerodynamic forces are
divided into two different
types:
LIFT the component of
aerodynamic force which
is necessary for flight
DRAG the component of
aerodynamic force which
resists forward motion

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 8


The Four Forces of Flight

THRUST is the force that is


needed to overcome the
aerodynamic drag force and
provide forward flight
On an airplane, thrust is
provided by an engine
i.e. through a propeller
or jet engine

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 9


The Four Forces of Flight

By definition:
Lift is the component of
aerodynamic force
perpendicular to the
oncoming air flow
Drag is the component
of the aerodynamic
force in the direction of
the oncoming air flow
The lift and drag vectors are
always perpendicular to
each other

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 10


The Physics of Flight Properties of Air

To understand how aerodynamic forces are produced, we need to


know a little more about some of the properties of the air in which
the aircraft flies.
Air has many physical properties, for low speed aerodynamics
there are three important ones
Density
Pressure
Viscosity

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 11


The Physics of Flight Properties of Air

Density
Density of a material is a measure of the heaviness of the
material
Defined as how much mass is contained within a certain
volume
The symbol, , will be used to represent density

mass
=
volume

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 12


The Physics of Flight Properties of Air

Pressure
Air molecules are in constant
motion
This motion causes the
molecules to continually impact a
surface that is in contact with the
air, exerting pressure force
against the surface
Air pressure is the amount of this force per unit area. The symbol P is
used to represent pressure
Pressure Force
P=
Area
When not in contact with a surface, the pressure force acts in all
directions with equal magnitude. When in contact with a surface, the
pressure force always acts perpendicular to the surface.
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 13
The Physics of Flight Properties of Air

Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of how much interaction
neighboring parcels of air have with each other
Can be thought of as an internal friction or stickiness within the
fluid
Viscous fluids are gooey and sticky
Air is considered to be a low viscosity fluid or and the effects of
viscosity are often ignored in aerodynamic analysis
However, air does have some viscosity and we will see later
that the viscosity of the air plays a large role in the production
of aircraft skin friction drag through the generation of
boundary layers along surfaces

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 14


The Physics of Flight Bernoullis Equation

It is possible to show for a fluid with low density and viscosity (such
as air), when combined with some other approximations, that
Newtons second law of motion (F=ma) can be rewritten as

Pressure Density Velocity

1
P+ V 2 = constant
2
Static Dynamic
Pressure Pressure

This equation, called Bernoullis Equation, says that the pressure (or
static pressure), plus one-half of the density times velocity squared
(or dynamic pressure) is constant everywhere in the flow

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 15


The Physics of Flight Bernoullis Equation

Bernoullis Equation connects the air pressure to its velocity and says
that when the velocity of a flow increases, its pressure decreases and
when the velocity of a flow decreases its pressure increases
1
P + V 2 = constant Stagnation Point
2
Velocity = 0
Pressure = Stagnation
Velocity High Velocity Low
Pressure
Pressure Low Pressure High

When the velocity of the flow is zero at a location in the flow, the
static pressure at that location is at a maximum.
That pressure is called the stagnation pressure, and the location
is called the stagnation point

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 16


EXAMPLE

A Pitot-static tube is a device used to measure air velocity


Single hole which
measures
stagnation
pressure
Stagnation
point, V1 = 0

1
2
Series of holes P
Gauge which
which measure measures the P = P1 - P2
the static pressure
pressure difference

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 17


EXAMPLE

A Pitot-static tube is a device used to measure air velocity

Oncoming Stagnation
airflow point, V1 = 0
P = P3, V = V3

3 1
2
At the static P
pressure holes P = P1 - P2
P2 = P3, V2 = V3

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 18


EXAMPLE

A Pitot-static tube is a device used to measure air velocity

We want to determine V3,


the velocity of the oncoming
air flow. Stagnation
point, V1 = 0

3 1
2
From Bernoullis equation: P
P+1/2V2 = const P = P1 - P2
That means
P1+1/2V12 = P2+1/2V22

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 19


EXAMPLE

A Pitot-static tube is a device used to measure air velocity

Also, since V1 = 0 and V2=V3


P1+1/2V12 = P2+1/2V22
becomes
P1 = P2+1/2V32 Stagnation
point, V1 = 0

3 1
2
Therefore, by measuring P1-P2, and knowing density, we P
can find V3 from P = P1 - P2
2( P1 P2 )
V3 =

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 20


The Physics of Flight Conservation of Mass

Since mass cannot be created or destroyed, it must be conserved


As a result, it can be shown that
VA = constant

Density Average Area through


of air velocity which the air
of air flows

When the air velocity is less than Mach 0.3, density is also
constant and
VA = constant
This tells us that when we reduce the area through which the air
flows, its velocity must increase and when we increase the area
through which the air flows, its velocity must decrease

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 21


The Physics of Flight Conservation of Mass

Because of conservation of mass, as the air flows through this


nozzle, when the area decreases, the velocity will increase, when the
area increases back to being the same as A1, the velocity will return
to being the same as V1
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 22
EXAMPLE
A venturi is a device used which can be used to regulate fuel flow.
What is the pressure of air at point 2 if the average velocity of air at
point 1 is 10 m/s, and the pressure at point 1 is 100,000 Pa. The
density of the air remains constant at 1.2 kg/m3 and the area at
location 1 is 0.4m2 and at location 2 is 0.1 m2.

Air fuel
Air in 1 2 mixture
out

Fuel in

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 23


EXAMPLE
A venturi is a device used which can be used to regulate fuel flow.
What is the pressure of air at point 2 if the average velocity of air at
point 1 is 10 m/s, and the pressure at point 1 is 100,000 Pa. The
density of the air remains constant at 1.2 kg/m3 and the area at
location 1 is 0.4m2 and at location 2 is 0.1 m2.

Air fuel
Air in 1 2 mixture
out

Fuel in

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 24


EXAMPLE
A venturi is a device used which can be used to regulate fuel flow.
What is the pressure of air at point 2 if the average velocity of air at
point 1 is 10 m/s, and the pressure at point 1 is 100,000 Pa. The
density of the air remains constant at 1.2 kg/m3 and the area at
location 1 is 0.4m2 and at location 2 is 0.1 m2.

Air fuel
Air in 1 2 mixture
out

Fuel in

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 25


EXAMPLE
A venturi is a device used which can be used to regulate fuel flow.
What is the pressure of air at point 2 if the average velocity of air at
point 1 is 10 m/s, and the pressure at point 1 is 100,000 Pa. The
density of the air remains constant at 1.2 kg/m3 and the area at
location 1 is 0.4m2 and at location 2 is 0.1 m2.

Air fuel
Air in 1 2 mixture
out

Fuel in

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 26


Introduction to Aerodynamics

1. Introductory Concepts

2. Lift

3. Drag

4. Aerodynamic Considerations for Wing Design

5. Further Reading

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 27


How is Lift Produced?

For an airplane, lift is produced by the wings


At the heart of how a wing produces lift is the shape of the wings
cross-section
This shape is called the airfoil
There are many different explanations for how an airfoil produces lift,
but they are usually just different ways to describe the same physical
phenomenon
The simplest explanation uses the combination of conservation of
mass and Bernoullis equation

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 28


How is Lift Produced?

As the air approaches the airfoil, it will divide and flow over and under
it
Much like with the nozzle, as the air flows around the airfoil it will be
forced into a smaller area.

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 29


How is Lift Produced?

Conservation of mass tells us that the air will increase in velocity


Bernoullis equation tells us that the pressure will therefore decrease

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 30


How is Lift Produced?
Airfoils are designed so that as the air flows around the airfoil, the air will flow at a
different velocity over the top surface and bottom surface and produce a pressure
difference
Often the air will slow down as it flows along the bottom surface, creating higher
pressure than in the surrounding air
As a result, along each surface, the pressure distribution changes and there is a net
pressure force created by the resulting pressure difference
Recall that the pressure force on a surface is equal to the Pressure x Area (since
P = F/A)

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 31


How is Lift Produced?

Therefore the difference in pressure between the upper surface and


the lower surface results in a net force being produced
The component of this force perpendicular to the oncoming flow is the
lift force
The lift force can be said to act at a particular location on the airfoil
called the center of pressure

Oncoming
Flow

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 32


How is Lift Produced?

When the curvature of an airfoil is the same on the top surface as the
bottom, the airfoil is called a symmetric airfoil
This means that the pressure difference between the two surfaces is
zero and no lift is produced
However symmetric airfoils are often used on airplanes, particularly
aerobatic airplanes which are designed to fly upside down
So how do these airfoils work?

Symmetric Airfoil

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 33


How is Lift Produced?

At one point along the front of the airfoil, the velocity will be zero and
there will be a stagnation point formed
The air hitting the airfoil above the stagnation point will move over the
top surface of the airfoil and the air hitting the airfoil below the
stagnation point will move along the bottom surface of the airfoil

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 34


How is Lift Produced?

Changing the angle of the airfoil with respect to the oncoming air flow
will cause the stagnation point to move along the airfoil surface
The angle of the airfoil to the air flow is called the angle of attack
and is represented by the Greek character,
Increasing the angle of attack causes the stagnation point to move
along the bottom surface of the airfoil
As a result, more air flows over the top of the airfoil than the bottom
and the resulting velocity/pressure difference creates a lift force

The same behavior occurs for non-symmetric airfoils, resulting in a


dependence of the lift force on the angle of attack for all airfoils
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 35
Pressure Distribution and Pitching Moment

The air velocity will be different at each point along the airfoil surface
As a result, the pressure is also different at each point, resulting in a
pressure distribution
The pressure distribution for each surface can be replaced by a
simple pressure force
The resulting pressure forces often act as though applied at
different locations for the upper and lower surfaces

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 36


Pressure Distribution and Pitching Moment

The difference in location of the net pressure forces results in a


torque, or moment, which will tend to rotate the airfoil
This moment is almost always trying to force the front of the airfoil
down, and is called the pitching moment (standard engineering
practice means that this nose-down rotation direction is in the
negative direction)

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 37


Pressure Distribution and Pitching Moment

The actual value of the pitching moment depends on what point along the
airfoil you are using as a reference
The pitching moment is zero at the center of pressure. This would make
it a good point of reference, except that the center of pressure on the
airfoil changes location along the airfoil with changes in angle of attack
The aerodynamic center is the location along the airfoil where the pitching
moment remains constant with angle of attack

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 38


Pressure Distribution and Pitching Moment
The aerodynamic center changes from airfoil to airfoil but is usually close to
the chord location
In order to have a common reference point which will not change much with
changing angle of attack and between different airfoils, the airfoil chord
location is used as a standard
Therefore we can represent the effect of the pressure distribution on the
airfoil through a combination of forces and moment acting at the airfoil
chord location (As we will see later, there will also be a drag force produced
by the aerodynamic forces in in addition to the lift force)

Drag Force

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 39


Aerodynamic Stall
As weve seen, the pressure changes along the airfoil surface
The rate of pressure change is called the pressure gradient

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 40


Aerodynamic Stall
When the pressure decreases along the airfoil surface, it is called a
favorable pressure gradient

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 41


Aerodynamic Stall
When the pressure increases along the surface of the airfoil, the
pressure gradient is called an adverse pressure gradient

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 42


Aerodynamic Stall
An adverse pressure gradient pushes against the flow along the
airfoil surface

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 43


Aerodynamic Stall

As the airfoil angle of attack increases, the rate at which the flow
slows down along the upper surface increases
Therefore the adverse pressure gradient increases

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 44


Aerodynamic Stall

Further increases in angle of attack result in increasingly stronger


adverse pressure gradients occurring along the airfoil
Increasing resistance to the flow along the upper airfoil surface

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 45


Aerodynamic Stall
Eventually, at a high enough angle of attack, the adverse pressure
gradient becomes too strong
The momentum of the flow along the upper airfoil surface is not
sufficient to overcome the adverse pressure gradient and the flow
can no longer follow the surface of the airfoil
The flow then separates from the airfoil
The location at which separation occurs is called the separation

point

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 46


Aerodynamic Stall
Flow separation disrupts the lift producing mechanism of the airfoil
resulting in a loss of lift
This is called aerodynamic stall or often just stall

As a result of flow separation, a turbulent wake forms behind the


airfoil
The separation point can move upstream along the airfoil surface
with increasing angle of attack, causing even more loss of lift
The stall is said to deepen

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 47


Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
The total lift force and pitching moment produced by an airfoil
depends on several factors
The chord length of the airfoil, c

The relative velocity between the airfoil and the oncoming air, V

The density of the air,

To combine these different factors into a single quantity, engineers


use the lift coefficient and pitching moment coefficient

Lift force per unit span Pitching moment per unit span

Lairfoil M airfoil
cL = cM =
1 1
V 2 c V 2 c 2
Lift coefficient 2 2 Chord length
Chord length Velocity
Velocity
Density Pitching moment coefficient
Density
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 48
Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
Since an airfoil is a two-dimensional object, the lift force and pitching
moment produced are described as being per unit span
Therefore, to determine the total lift force or pitching moment
generated by an entire wing with a span of length b using a
particular airfoil we need to multiply by the per unit span lift force or
pitching moment by the span
L = Lairfoil b M = M airfoil b
span Total pitching span
Total lift force
Lift force moment Pitching moment
per unit span per unit span
Therefore to find the total lift force and pitching moment generated
by the entire wing from the lift and pitching moment coefficients we
can use
1 1
L = cL V 2 caveb M = cM V cave b
2 2

2 2
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 49
Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients

The wing area, S, of the wing can also be found from

S = caveb
When the chord length changes along the span, the average

chord length is used


Therefore we can also find the total lift force and pitching moment
generated by the entire wing from the lift and pitching moment
coefficients using
1 1
L = cL V 2 S M = cM V 2 Scave
2 2

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 50


EXAMPLE

What is the expected lift force in Newtons and pitching moment in


Newton-meters for a rectangular wing with average chord of 11.2 in.,
span of 67 in., traveling at 75 mph, in air with density of 1.2 kg/m3, if
the lift coefficient is 0.3 and pitching moment coefficient is -0.075?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 51


EXAMPLE

What is the expected lift force in Newtons and pitching moment in


Newton-meters for a rectangular wing with average chord of 11.2 in.,
span of 67 in., traveling at 75 mph, in air with density of 1.2 kg/m3, if
the lift coefficient is 0.3 and pitching moment coefficient is -0.075?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 52


Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
The lift force and pitching moment (and therefore the lift coefficient
and pitching moment coefficient) produced by an airfoil change with
angle of attack
Engineers summarize this dependence in lift and pitching

moment coefficient plots of cL vs and cM vs


cL vs cM vs

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 53


Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
We can see from the lift coefficient curve how the lift coefficient
increases up to the stall angle, and then lift starts to drop with
further increase of angle of attack
The stall angle corresponds to the maximum lift coefficient which
can be generated by the airfoil
cL vs

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 54


Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
We can also see that for this particular airfoil, the airfoil produces
zero lift at = -5.2o
This is called the angle of zero lift

cL vs

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 55


Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
We see from the pitching moment coefficient curve that
The pitching moment is negative, at all angles of attack,

indicating a tendency to rotate the front of the airfoil down


The change in pitching moment is usually much smaller than the

change lift coefficient, since it is determined at the wing chord


location which is near the aerodynamic center
cM vs

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 56


EXAMPLE

From the lift and pitching moment coefficient curves below, what
would the lift and pitching moment coefficient be at an angle of
attack of 5 degrees?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 57


EXAMPLE

From the lift and pitching moment coefficient curves below, what
would the lift and pitching moment coefficient be at an angle of
attack of 5 degrees? o =5

cL = 1.12

cM = -0.085

= 5o

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 58


Effect of Airfoil Shape on Performance

A typical airfoil can be described using several parameters

Changing these parameters changes the shape and therefore the


performance of the airfoil

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 59


Effect of Airfoil Shape on Performance

Changing the airfoil parameters changes the shape and therefore


the performance of the airfoil:
Angle of zero lift

A symmetric airfoil has zero camber. Therefore the angle of


zero lift is zero
Increasing the camber causes the angle of zero lift to
become negative since even at zero angle of attack there is a
pressure difference across the airfoil

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 60


Effect of Airfoil Shape on Performance

Changing the airfoil parameters changes the shape and therefore


the performance of the airfoil:
Maximum lift coefficient and stall

Since the maximum lift coefficient depends on the angle of


attack at which stall occurs, the stall angle and maximum lift
generated by an airfoil are closely related
Attributes which affect the rate at which pressure increases
along the airfoil surface have the greatest effect
Airfoil thickness

Increasing thickness increases maximum lift, but also


increases drag
Camber

Increasing camber increases maximum lift, but also


reduces stall angle
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 61
Effect of Airfoil Shape on Performance
The shape of an airfoil can also influence the behavior of the stall
Three types of stall include gentle, sharp, and sudden loss of lift

The roundness of the leading edge and the wing thickness have the
greatest effect on the stall behavior
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 62
Reynolds Number Effects

An additional parameter which affects the airfoil behavior is the


viscosity of the air
A measure of the magnitude of the effect of viscosity is provided

by the Reynolds number


Velocity Velocity
Density Chord Chord
Vc or Vc
Re c = Re c =

Dynamic Kinematic
Viscosity Viscosity
There are many different Reynolds numbers in aerodynamics,
using different velocity and length scales, this one can be
referred to as the Reynolds number based on chord length

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 63


EXAMPLE
What are the Reynolds numbers for an airliner with a wing area of
845 m2, span of 80 m, and traveling at 560 mph and an R/C aircraft
with an average chord of 11.2 traveling at 75 mph in air with density
of 1.2 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity of 1.8 x 10-5 Ns/m2?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 64


EXAMPLE
What are the Reynolds numbers for an airliner with a wing area of
845 m2, span of 80 m, and traveling at 560 mph and an R/C aircraft
with an average chord of 11.2 traveling at 75 mph in air with density
of 1.2 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity of 1.8 x 10-5 Ns/m2?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 65


Reynolds Number Effects
The Reynolds number can be thought of as a ratio of the inertia of the air to its
viscosity
Additional inertia (higher Reynolds number) helps the air flow to resist
separation
For a full scale airplane Rec can be around 10 million to 100 million
For an R/C airplane, Rec can be around 500 thousand
Therefore R/C airplanes stall at lower angles of attack than full scale
planes

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 66


Lift Augmentation
Higher camber translates to higher maximum lift coefficient, but also higher drag
This means that there is a limit to the performance benefit of increasing
camber
There are situations where gaining more lift is more important than minimizing
drag (i.e. during landing)
Methods have been developed by which the camber or chord length (and
therefore wing area) can be temporarily increased to increase lift
The simplest way to temporarily increase camber is to hinge a portion of the
airfoil at the trailing edge

This is the principle behind control surfaces, where the pilot has direct control of
the airfoil camber through the control surface
Therefore the pilot can control the amount of lift produced by the section of
the wing or stabilizer which has the control surface
For example, ailerons, elevator, rudder, etc.
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 67
Lift Augmentation

Flaps are control surfaces used to temporarily increase the lift of the
airfoil during slow speed flight (i.e. during landing and takeoff)
As well as increasing camber, some flaps are designed to increase
the wing area (by increasing the airfoil chord)
Flaps can also be located at the leading edge of the airfoil, creating
a leading edge flap, which further increases the camber

Slats are devices at the leading edge of the airfoil which create slots
along the leading edge that allow high pressure air to flow from the
lower surface to the upper surface, adding extra momentum to the
air and helping to prevent flow separation
As a result, the stall angle, and hence maximum lift coefficient,

increases

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 68


Lift Augmentation
Flaps which increase the airfoil camber, increase the lift coefficient
by cL
Slats increase the stall angle

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 69


Lift Augmentation
Flaps which also increase the airfoil chord increase the wing area by
S
We see, since
1 1
L = cL V 2 S L = (cL + cL ) V 2 ( S + S )
2 2
Without flaps and With flaps and slats
slats deployed deployed
that when flaps and slats are deployed, an airfoil can generate the
same magnitude of lift at slower speeds, than it can without flaps
and slats deployed
This is very useful during takeoff and landing to reduce takeoff

distance through reduced landing speed


The increased drag caused by deploying flaps is also useful for
slowing an aircraft down for landing, but inefficient during regular
flight
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 70
Lift Augmentation
There are many different types of lift augmentation systems which
have varying degrees of effectiveness and complexity

Plain

Slotted

Split
Some examples:
Zap

Fowler

Double Slotted

Double Slotted
Flap and Leading
Edge Slat
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 71
EXAMPLE
An airplane weighing 96 oz., with a wing area of 0.484 m2 and lift
coefficient of 0.2 flies in air with a density of 1.2 kg/m3. It has a flap
system that increases wing area by 15%, and lift coefficient by 20%.
What is the required speed of the aircraft to maintain level flight (a)
without flaps deployed and (b) with flaps deployed?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 72


EXAMPLE
An airplane weighing 96 oz., with a wing area of 0.484 m2 and lift
coefficient of 0.2 flies in air with a density of 1.2 kg/m3. It has a flap
system that increases wing area by 15%, and lift coefficient by 20%.
What is the required speed of the aircraft to maintain level flight (a)
without flaps deployed and (b) with flaps deployed?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 73


Finite Wing Effects
An airfoil is only a two-dimensional section of an entire wing
For example, cL and cM curves are determined using two-

dimensional computer modeling or wind tunnel tests where the


wing spans the entire width of the wind tunnel
Real wings are three-dimensional (its often said that they have finite
span)
Therefore, wing span and planform have a strong effect on

performance
Planform is the shape of the
wing when viewed directly
from above or below

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 74


Finite Wing Effects Trailing Vortices
Since lift is generated by producing a pressure difference between
the top and bottom of the wing, air wants to flow from the bottom
surface to the top surface at the tips of the wing

This introduces rotation in the flow at the tip


of the wing. The rotation results in spin
introduced in the air behind the wing, often
called a wingtip vortex or trailing vortex

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 75


Finite Wing Effects Downwash
The trailing vortices introduce downward motion of the air along the
wing called downwash
Greatest at the trailing edge of the wing, but some downwash

everywhere along the entire chord

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 76


Finite Wing Effects Downwash
As a result of the downwash, the angle at which the air approaches
the wing is altered, creating an induced angle of attack, and the
orientation of the lift vector is tilted backwards

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 77


Finite Wing Effects Aspect Ratio
The only way to eliminate trailing vortices and downwash is to have
no wing tips at all. This would require an infinitely long wing!
However, we can reduce the downwash by increasing the span

of the wing, which approaches the ideal, infinitely long wing


Increasing the span of the wing, while keeping the chord

constant, increases the aspect ratio


Span Span
b 2
b
AR = or AR =
cave S
Aspect Aspect
Average Wing
Ratio Ratio
chord Area

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 78


EXAMPLE
What is the wing area of a wing with span of 67 and an average
chord length of 11.2? What is its aspect ratio?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 79


EXAMPLE
What is the wing area of a wing with span of 67 and an average
chord length of 11.2? What is its aspect ratio?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 80


Finite Wing Effects Aspect Ratio

Original wing area and aspect ratio

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 81


Finite Wing Effects Aspect Ratio

Same wing area, higher aspect ratio

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 82


Finite Wing Effects Aspect Ratio

Same wing area, lower aspect ratio

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 83


Finite Wing Effects Lift Distribution
At the tips of the wings, the pressure has to be equal
Therefore the lift produced at the tips of the wings has to be zero

Downwash induced by the trailing vortices tends to be strongest at the tips


of the wing and decreases towards the wing root
The combined effect is a decrease of lift generation from a maximum at the
center of the wing towards zero at the wing tips
Actual lift distribution is dependent on a combination of different factors

including the chord length at each spanwise position (i.e. planform) and
the downwash at each spanwise position.

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 84


Finite Wing Effects - Planform
There are three basic planform
shapes
Rectangular

Can be described using only


its aspect ratio
Tapered

Can be described by its


aspect ratio and its taper
ratio
ctip
=
croot
Elliptic
Has a chord following:
y2
c( y ) = croot
2
4croot
b2
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 85
Finite Wing Effects - Planform
The benefit of the elliptic wing is that it produces the least
downwash, however it is more difficult to manufacture
The rectangular wing is simplest to manufacture, but produces
the most downwash
The tapered wing is a compromise between the two, reducing
downwash with only a little increased manufacturing complexity

Tapered and elliptical wings have smaller chord at the wingtips


Lower Reynolds number at the tip and therefore could stall at

lower angle of attack if poorly designed

There are infinitely many possible planforms, including


Backwards and forwards sweep

Combinations of rectangular, tapered and elliptical

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 86


Finite Wing Effects Stall Patterns Due to Planform
The induced angle of attack due to
downwash varies along the span
This means that the effective angle of
attack (the airfoil angle of attack plus
the induced angle of attack) will also
vary
Therefore stall can occur at different
spanwise positions along of the wing
for different angles of attack
Tapered wings stall first near the tip of the
wing and therefore near the aileron, this
could create loss of control and an inability
to recover from a stall once it occurs
Stall at the tips can be avoided by
changing the angle of incidence (the
angle with respect to the fuselage) of
the wing airfoils near the tip (i.e. by
adding wing twist or washout)

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 87


Finite Wing Effects Modification of Lift Coefficient

It is possible to modify the cL vs curve for a two-dimensional


airfoil to account for the three dimensional effects of the wing
This is done by determining the induced angle of attack
Lift coefficient Factor to account for
of 2D airfoil planform effects
cL 0 (1 + ) 180o
=
AR
Induced angle
of attack Aspect ratio
(in degrees)

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 88


Finite Wing Effects Modification of Lift Coefficient
Planform modification parameter:
For an elliptical wing, = 0

For a rectangular wing: For a tapered wing:

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 89


Finite Wing Effects Modification of Lift Coefficient
Once the induced angle of attack, , is known, the angle of attack
needed to achieve a specified lift coefficient (i.e. the effective
angle of attack) can be found from
eff = 0 +
Effective angle Induced angle
of attack Angle of attack of attack
for 2D airfoil

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 90


EXAMPLE

What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 91


EXAMPLE

What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 92


EXAMPLE

What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?

We can find from and


the figure presented earlier

= 0.03

= 0.5

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 93


EXAMPLE

What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?

We can find cL0 from the


cL0 = 1.79
stall angle on the lift curve

We can also find the stall


angle from this plot, we will
need this to find the effective
angle of attack

0 = 16o

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 94


EXAMPLE

What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 95


Introduction to Aerodynamics

1. Introductory Concepts

2. Lift

3. Drag

4. Aerodynamic Considerations for Wing Design

5. Further Reading

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 96


Drag
Drag is a term which describes the aerodynamic resistance force felt by an
object as it is moving through a fluid (i.e. through air)
Drag can come from many sources, including the generation of lift, and is
an unavoidable consequence of motion through a fluid
The drag experienced by a two-dimensional airfoil, sometimes called profile
drag, can be considered to come from two sources
Pressure drag the net effect of pressure acting on the flow
Skin friction drag resulting from the viscosity of the air
For the entire wing and aircraft, drag can come from many additional sources
Induced drag created by the downwash
Interference drag caused by disturbed flow at the junction of aircraft
components
Cooling drag resulting from the diversion of air flow through heat
exchangers
etc.
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 97
Pressure Drag
As we noticed when we discussed lift, the change in velocity along
the airfoil surface results in a change of pressure and the
development of a pressure distribution along each airfoil surface
Since pressure always acts perpendicular to a surface, there will
always be a component of the resulting net pressure force which
acts in the direction of the oncoming air flow
Since airfoils are thin bodies, they do not have much surface area
perpendicular to the flow
Therefore, pressure drag for airfoils is relatively low

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 98


Pressure Drag

Pressure drag is much more


important when there is a region of
separated flow behind a body (i.e. a
wake)
The wake is a low pressure
region and produces a large
pressure difference between the
upstream and downstream
surfaces of the body
Therefore a wider wake will
create more pressure drag than
a narrower wake

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 99


Skin Friction Drag The Boundary Layer
Air must follow the no-slip condition
When a fluid, such as air, is in contact with a solid surface, the fluid will always
take on the velocity of the solid surface at the point of contact
The viscosity of the air, which is a measure of the airs internal stickiness, causes air
particles to be pulled by their neighbors
Therefore, near a solid surface, there is a region where the velocity of the air
changes from the surface velocity to that of the surrounding air (the free stream)
This region is called the boundary layer

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 100


Skin Friction Drag The Boundary Layer

The boundary layer represents a volume of air which is being dragged by the
surface which is travelling through it
Results in a force resisting forward motion which is analogous to friction between
solid objects rubbing together
Therefore this resistance is called skin friction drag

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 101


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers

Fluid flows can be classified into laminar, turbulent, and transitional


flows
Laminar flow is when the fluid flows in a smooth, layered fashion

Turbulent flows are highly chaotic, moving in a random, irregular,

unpredictable way
Transitional flows exhibit behavior characteristic of both laminar

and turbulent flow


The majority of flows encountered in engineering practice are
turbulent!

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 102


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers
The easiest way to visualize these three different types of flow is to
slowly increase the flow rate through your sink faucet

Increasing flow rate

Laminar Transitional Turbulent

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 103


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers
Boundary layers can also be laminar, turbulent or transitional
This is a flow visualization which shows a turbulent boundary

layer along a surface in a laminar free stream

Van Dyke (1982) An Album of Fluid Motion


The Parabolic Press, Stanford, USA

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 104


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers
One factor which determines whether a boundary layer is laminar or
turbulent is the Reynolds number
Distance from
Velocity Velocity Distance from
the start of the
Density the start of the
boundary layer
boundary layer
V or V
Re = Re =

Dynamic Kinematic
Viscosity Viscosity
Notice that this is a different Reynolds number than the one that we
saw earlier
Rel uses the distance from the start of the boundary layer, Rec

uses the chord length


As we will see later, they are related

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 105


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers
In general, at low Rel , the boundary layer will be laminar and at high Rel , the
boundary layer will be turbulent
The boundary layer starts at a stagnation point where l = 0

As the air travels along the wing surface l increases and therefore Rel increases

Once Rel is high enough, the flow will start to transition to turbulence
As l increases even farther downstream, Rel increases further, the transition

process completes and the boundary layer becomes fully turbulent

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 106


EXAMPLE
Transition between laminar and turbulent flow for the boundary layer forming along a
flat plat at Rel=500,000. Air of density 1.2 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity 1.8x10-5
Ns/m2 flows over a plate at velocity of 75 mph, is boundary layer expected to be
laminar or turbulent at a distance of 4 from the leading edge? What about at a
distance of 12?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 107


EXAMPLE
Transition between laminar and turbulent flow for the boundary layer forming along a
flat plat at Rel=500,000. Air of density 1.2 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity 1.8x10-5
Ns/m2 flows over a plate at velocity of 75 mph, is boundary layer expected to be
laminar or turbulent at a distance of 4 from the leading edge? What about at a
distance of 12?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 108


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers
Because of the mixing created by the turbulence, slow moving fluid
from near the surface is carried far away from the surface
Therefore a turbulent boundary layer is much thicker than a laminar

boundary layer and therefore creates more skin friction drag


It is therefore frequently desirable to maintain a laminar boundary layer
along a surface as long as possible to minimize skin friction drag
The Rel at which transition occurs is dependent on several factors
Pressure gradient

Favorable pressure gradients increase Rel of transition occurs


Adverse pressure gradients decrease Rel of transition occurs
Surface roughness

Rougher surfaces cause transition at lower Rel

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 109


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers
The mixing caused by turbulence in the
boundary layer can also be
advantageous
Turbulence brings high velocity fluid

closer to the surface, increasing the


momentum of the flow near the
surface and therefore helps to
prevent flow separation
The visualization on the right shows

how a turbulent boundary layer


separates farther along the sphere
surface than does a laminar boundary
layer

Van Dyke (1982) An Album of Fluid Motion


The Parabolic Press, Stanford, USA

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 110


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers
It is common practice to introduce turbulence onto a wing surface,
particularly upstream of control surfaces, to prevent flow separation
and help delay stall
One way that turbulence is introduced is through the use of vortex
generators

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 111


Skin Friction Drag Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers

The state of the boundary layer is important to the aerodynamic


behavior of the wing
Since the longest distance that the boundary layer can grow is
approximately the chord length of the airfoil (where l c), at the
trailing edge of the airfoil Rel is approximately equal to Rec
Therefore Rec tells us something about what to expect
regarding the state of the boundary layer at the trailing edge
of the airfoil
At lower Rec, the airfoil is more likely to have laminar boundary

layers near the trailing edge and is therefore more likely to stall
This helps to explain why the stall angle can decrease when Rec

decreases

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 112


Drag Coefficient
As with lift, the magnitude of the drag force depends on the relative
velocity between the airfoil and the surrounding air, the density of the
air and the size of the airfoil (represented by the chord length)
Therefore, as we did with lift, we can define a drag coefficient
which conveniently combines these effects
Drag force per unit span

Dairfoil
cD =
1
V 2 c
Drag coefficient 2 Chord length
Velocity
Density

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 113


Drag Coefficient

Also, as with lift, the drag force used to find the airfoil drag coefficient
is per unit length
For a full wing we can multiply the per unit length drag force by
the span of the wing to find the drag force for the entire wing from
the airfoil drag coefficient using
1
D = cD V 2 S
2

Wing area

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 114


EXAMPLE
What is the expected drag force a for a tapered wing with root chord
of 12 and taper ratio of =0.5, span of 70, traveling at 75 mph, in
air with density of 1.2 kg/m3, if the drag coefficient is 0.02?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 115


EXAMPLE
What is the expected drag force a for a tapered wing with root chord
of 12 and taper ratio of =0.5, span of 70, traveling at 75 mph, in
air with density of 1.2 kg/m3, if the drag coefficient is 0.02?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 116


Drag Polar
Since the drag coefficient is dependent on angle of attack, it is common practice to
present how the drag coefficient changes as a curve, much in the same way the lift and
pitching moment coefficient are presented
However, for the drag coefficient, it is more common to present the change in drag
coefficient as a plot of cL vs cD called a drag polar
This type of plot makes it easy to identify the lift coefficient where the drag
coefficient is at a minimum, indicating the most efficient lift coefficient for that airfoil

Drag at a
minimum:
Most
efficient lift
coefficient

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 117


Induced Drag
As discussed previously, unlike ideal two-dimensional airfoils, real wings have finite
length and generate wingtip vortices and their corresponding downwash
The downwash serves to introduce an induced angle of attack, , and tilt the
oncoming flow near the wing
As a result, the lift vector is tilted in the downstream direction, resulting in a
component of the lift force opposing forward motion
This component of the lift force opposing forward motion is called induced drag

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 118


Induced Drag

Since induced drag is created by the downwash produced by lift, the


amount of induced drag produced is dependent on the amount of lift
produced, as well as the aspect ratio and planform of the wing
The induced drag coefficient can be found from
Factor to Lift
account for coefficient
planform
k cL2
cD i =
Induced drag AR
coefficient Aspect ratio

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 119


Induced Drag
The total drag coefficient for a finite wing can therefore be
expressed as a combination of the drag from the two dimensional
airfoil (i.e. profile drag) plus the induced drag

cD = cD0 + cDi
Total drag Drag coefficient
Induced drag
coefficient for for the two-
coefficient
wing dimensional
airfoil

or

k cL2
cD = cD0 +
AR

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 120


Induced Drag
k is a factor which accounts for the effect of different lift and
downwash distributions created by different planform shapes
For an elliptical wing, k = 1

This is the minimum value possible for k

Rectangular Wing Tapered Wing

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 121


EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 122


EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady, level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 123


EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady level flight for a 96
oz. airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if
its wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What
drag force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used
by the airplane are shown below.

cL = 0.7

0 = 1o
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 124
EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady, level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.

= 0.03

= 0.5

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 125


EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady, level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.

cL = 0.7

cDp = 0.013
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 126
EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady, level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.

k = 1.01

= 0.5
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 127
EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady, level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 128


Other Forms of Drag Interference Drag

There are several other sources of drag which can reduce the
performance of an aircraft
Interference drag arises at the interface between different aircraft

components, such as at the junction between the wings and


fuselage
Small, turbulence producing vortices form at these junctions,
resulting in disturbed airflow and flow separation, therefore
producing drag
If you calculate the drag force produced by each individual
component of the aircraft and then sum them up, it would be
less than the drag coefficient determined for the aircraft as a
whole due to the additional interference drag

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 129


Other Forms of Drag Cooling Drag

There are several other sources of drag which can reduce the
performance of an aircraft
Cooling drag results from the requirement that most aircraft

engines to require some form of cooling, whether direct


convective cooling, or through a heat exchanger
A heat exchanger is often also required to cool the fluids
circulating through the engine
The diversion of airflow to cool the engine and its fluids
results in a loss of efficiency and the corresponding
production of drag

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 130


Strategies for Drag Reduction Pressure Drag
Pressure drag increases dramatically
when flow separation occurs, therefore the
easiest way to reduce pressure drag is to
eliminate or minimize flow separation
This is usually done by putting fairings

Decreasing drag
around objects with blunt trailing edges
which result in a rapid change in area
through which the air must flow and
therefore large pressure gradients
It is also beneficial to keep the trailing

edges of the wing, tail and horizontal


stabilizer sharp
Reducing the region of low speed fluid at
the leading edge of objects also helps to
reduce the pressure drag
Adding fairings to the leading edge of

blunt objects reduces the region of


high pressure at the leading edge
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 131
Strategies for Drag Reduction Skin Friction Drag

Since skin friction drag is produced by the interaction between a


surface and the air flowing along it, the amount of skin friction drag
can be reduced by reducing the surface area of the aircraft
Turbulent boundary layers produce higher skin friction drag than
laminar boundary layers
Therefore maintaining laminar boundary layers for as long as

possible reduces the skin friction drag


Keep surfaces smooth and free of disturbances
Maintain a favorable pressure gradient for as long as
possible
Move location of maximum thickness downstream

This is the principle behind laminar flow airfoils

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 132


Strategies for Drag Reduction Induced Drag

One simple way to reduce induced drag is through an increase in


aspect ratio
However, this tends to lead to smaller chords and lower Rec

Stall at lower angle of attack


Also causes greater bending stresses at the wing roots due to

the longer wings


Induced drag can also be minimized through the planform design
Elliptical planform produces the minimum induced drag but is

difficult to manufacture
Tapered planforms and combinations of straight and tapered

planforms can often approach the aerodynamic performance of


the elliptical planform while being easier to produce

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 133


Strategies for Drag Reduction Induced Drag
Induced drag can also be reduced by modifications to the wingtip
geometry
Modifications are designed to cause the wingtip vortices to form

farther away from the fuselage, reducing the downwash along


the span
Effectively increases the aspect ratio without increasing the
span of the wing

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 134


Strategies for Drag Reduction Induced Drag
Wingtip modifications vary in complexity and effectiveness
Some might even increase the total drag at off-design conditions!

Raked tip

Hoerner
wingtip

Winglet Split tips


Examples of wingtip
modifications

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 135


Strategies for Drag Reduction Interference Drag
The strongest interference drag is produced by sharp interfaces
between different aircraft components
The simplest way to minimize this effect is by making the

junction between surfaces occur at right angles whenever


possible and through the use of filleting, or fairing, of these
interfaces

Wing root fairing


January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 136
Strategies for Drag Reduction Cooling Drag
Reduction of cooling drag on an aircraft is particularly challenging,
since reduction of this type of drag typically results in a decreased
effectiveness of engine cooling
One strategy is to introduce cowl flaps

Control the amount of air diverted for cooling depending on


how much air flow is required

Cowl flap

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 137


Introduction to Aerodynamics

1. Introductory Concepts

2. Lift

3. Drag

4. Aerodynamic Considerations for Wing Design

5. Further Reading

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 138


An Exercise in Trade-Offs
The design process is an exercise in finding the correct balance of
qualities in order to achieve optimal performance
There is no perfect design which will allow an aircraft to do
everything perfectly
Most design decisions that lead to improvement in one aspect of
performance will reduce a different aspect of performance
For example, reducing skin friction drag through reduction in

wing area will lead to lower lift production, requiring higher


landing speeds and possibly added weight for lift augmentation
devices
A designer must compromise, exchanging gains in performance in
one area for reduced performance in others
There are infinitely many possible combinations of planform, airfoil,
angle of incidence, washout, aspect ratio etc. which can be applied
to achieve a specific performance objective.

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 139


Wing Loading

One consideration that can guide the selection of the wing geometry
is the desired wing loading
Lift Force L
Wing Loading = =
Wing Area S

Since for level flight, the lift force must equal the weight of the
aircraft, wing loading is more commonly expressed as

Aircraft Weight W
Wing Loading = =
Wing Area S

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 140


EXAMPLE
The Fokker F-28, a 65 seat regional jet, has a maximum takeoff
weight of 29,000 kg and a wing area of 76.4 m2. The McDonnell
Douglas F-15 air superiority fighter has a maximum takeoff weight of
approximately 30,000 kg and wing area of 56.5 m2. What is the
wing loading of each of these aircraft?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 141


EXAMPLE
The Fokker F-28, a 65 seat regional jet, has a maximum takeoff
weight of 29,000 kg and a wing area of 76.4 m2. The McDonnell
Douglas F-15 air superiority fighter has a maximum takeoff weight of
approximately 30,000 kg and wing area of 56.5 m2. What is the
wing loading of each of these aircraft?

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 142


Wing Loading
Generally speaking, higher wing loading leads to better high speed
performance due to the reduction in skin friction drag caused by the
reduced wing area
However, since the lift force produced is
1
L = cL V 2 S
2
To produce enough lift force to equal weight for steady, level flight when S
(wing area) is reduced means that there must be an increase in either
aircraft speed, V, or lift coefficient, cL
Achieving higher cL usually means operating at a higher angle of attack,
leaving less available range of angle of attack between the level flight
angle of attack and the stall angle
Therefore, high-speed performance from higher wing loading usually

comes at the price of requiring higher takeoff and landing speeds,


longer takeoff and landing distances and lower payloads
For the same reasons, turning performance also tends to decrease
in aircraft with higher wing loading
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 143
Wing Loading

Once the desired wing loading is determined, a careful prediction of


the aircraft weight provides an estimate of the target wing area
needed to achieve that wing loading
Knowledge of the target wing area and estimated aircraft weight
then provides guidelines as to what lift coefficient and flight speeds
will be required for the aircraft
Can also then determine how changing the aspect ratio will

change the wing chord and therefore flight Reynolds number,


etc.

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 144


Choosing an Airfoil
Airfoil selection is obviously an important component of wing design. There are many
airfoil sections available to choose from
For example, the NACA 4-digit, 5-digit and 6-digit, Joukowski, Eppler and Selig
families, just to name a few
There are many considerations which play into the selection of the correct airfoil
Lift-to-drag ratio at the target flight conditions (i.e. design point)

Maximizing this ratio maximizes efficiency


Maximum attainable lift coefficient

Higher maximum lift coefficient means lower stall speeds and corresponding
takeoff and landing speeds
The stall behavior

Abrupt stalls can potentially lead to loss of control of the aircraft


Pitching moment

Higher pitching moment requires more down force and induced drag from
the horizontal stabilizer
Thickness

Sufficient thickness must be provided for internal components and structural


members

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 145


Choosing a Planform

Planform selection is the second major element in wing design


The elliptical planform is ideal for minimizing induced drag but is

difficult to manufacture
The tapered planform is easier to manufacture and, if properly

designed, can have similar induced drag minimizing


performance to the elliptical wing
The rectangular planform is easiest to manufacture, but has poor

induced drag performance and can often be heavier than


necessary due to extra, unnecessary structure at the wing tips
where little lift is generated
Many other planforms as well as combinations of these three basic
planforms are also possible, offering different advantages and
disadvantages

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 146


Choosing a Planform

The stall behavior of different planforms must also be considered


Elliptic wings stall evenly across the entire wing

Tapered wings can stall at the wing tip first, resulting in loss of

control during stall


Rectangular wings have the safest stall behavior, stalling at the

wing root first

The change in Rec must also be considered, particularly for R/C


aircraft, since chord length changes across the span of the wing can
result in different stall angles at different spanwise positions due to
Reynolds number effects

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 147


Choosing an Aspect Ratio
The third criteria that must be considered is the aspect ratio of the wing
For a given wing area, increasing the aspect ratio will reduce the

induced drag
The lift coefficient increase per degree of angle of attack also
increases so that the aircraft can fly at a lower angle of attack
However, increasing aspect ratio will also reduce the chord of the

wing, resulting in lower Rec and a corresponding decrease in stall


angle
Increasing aspect ratio will also result in the lift being generated

further away from the aircraft center of mass, resulting in larger


bending moment being applied to the wing and requiring a stronger
wing
A stiffer wing is also required to prevent aileron reversal

When the pitching moment created by aileron movement causes


the wing tip to twist in a way which produces the aerodynamic
forces opposite to those which should have been produced by
that aileron action The aircraft rolls in the wrong direction!
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 148
Introduction to Aerodynamics

1. Introductory Concepts

2. Lift

3. Drag

4. Aerodynamic Considerations for Wing Design

5. Further Reading

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 149


Further reading.
The material covered here only scratches the surface of the fascinating world of
aerodynamics and is meant only as an introduction to many of the concepts relevant
to low speed flight
There are numerous texts and websites available which discuss these concepts in
greater detail
Some suggestions for further reading:
An Illustrated Guide to Aerodynamics by H.C. Skip Smith

An excellent, easy-to-read introduction to aerodynamics


Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach by Daniel P. Raymer

A thorough treatise on the design process for full-scale aircraft


Basics of R/C Model Aircraft Design by Andy Lennon

Describes many design aspects particular to designing R/C aircraft (look out
for typos!)
Aerodynamics for Engineers by John Bertin

A standard university undergraduate engineering aerodynamics text which


covers the mathematical background of the material presented here
Also covers other advanced topics including material relevant to high speed
(transonic, supersonic and hypersonic) flight

January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 150

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