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Introductory Aerodynamics
1. Introductory Concepts
Dimensions and Units
2. Lift
How is Lift Produced?
Pressure Distribution and Pitching Moment
Aerodynamic Stall
Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
Effect of Airfoil Shape on Performance
Lift Augmentation
Finite Wing Effects
3. Drag
Drag on a Two-Dimensional Airfoil
Induced Drag
Other Forms of Drag
Strategies for Drag Reduction
1. Introductory Concepts
2. Lift
3. Drag
5. Further Reading
A fluid is any form of matter that does not sustain a shear stress.
(i.e. a fluid must ``flow)
Although some solids flow (such as sand), they can sustain a
shear stress (for example, sand forms into piles when not
flowing)
All liquids and gasses are fluids
Therefore air is a fluid and the study of aerodynamics requires
dealing with a variety of fluid characteristics
Qualitatively: we can describe these characteristics using
dimensions
There are four primary dimensions:
By definition:
Lift is the component of
aerodynamic force
perpendicular to the
oncoming air flow
Drag is the component
of the aerodynamic
force in the direction of
the oncoming air flow
The lift and drag vectors are
always perpendicular to
each other
Density
Density of a material is a measure of the heaviness of the
material
Defined as how much mass is contained within a certain
volume
The symbol, , will be used to represent density
mass
=
volume
Pressure
Air molecules are in constant
motion
This motion causes the
molecules to continually impact a
surface that is in contact with the
air, exerting pressure force
against the surface
Air pressure is the amount of this force per unit area. The symbol P is
used to represent pressure
Pressure Force
P=
Area
When not in contact with a surface, the pressure force acts in all
directions with equal magnitude. When in contact with a surface, the
pressure force always acts perpendicular to the surface.
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 13
The Physics of Flight Properties of Air
Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of how much interaction
neighboring parcels of air have with each other
Can be thought of as an internal friction or stickiness within the
fluid
Viscous fluids are gooey and sticky
Air is considered to be a low viscosity fluid or and the effects of
viscosity are often ignored in aerodynamic analysis
However, air does have some viscosity and we will see later
that the viscosity of the air plays a large role in the production
of aircraft skin friction drag through the generation of
boundary layers along surfaces
It is possible to show for a fluid with low density and viscosity (such
as air), when combined with some other approximations, that
Newtons second law of motion (F=ma) can be rewritten as
1
P+ V 2 = constant
2
Static Dynamic
Pressure Pressure
This equation, called Bernoullis Equation, says that the pressure (or
static pressure), plus one-half of the density times velocity squared
(or dynamic pressure) is constant everywhere in the flow
Bernoullis Equation connects the air pressure to its velocity and says
that when the velocity of a flow increases, its pressure decreases and
when the velocity of a flow decreases its pressure increases
1
P + V 2 = constant Stagnation Point
2
Velocity = 0
Pressure = Stagnation
Velocity High Velocity Low
Pressure
Pressure Low Pressure High
When the velocity of the flow is zero at a location in the flow, the
static pressure at that location is at a maximum.
That pressure is called the stagnation pressure, and the location
is called the stagnation point
1
2
Series of holes P
Gauge which
which measure measures the P = P1 - P2
the static pressure
pressure difference
Oncoming Stagnation
airflow point, V1 = 0
P = P3, V = V3
3 1
2
At the static P
pressure holes P = P1 - P2
P2 = P3, V2 = V3
3 1
2
From Bernoullis equation: P
P+1/2V2 = const P = P1 - P2
That means
P1+1/2V12 = P2+1/2V22
3 1
2
Therefore, by measuring P1-P2, and knowing density, we P
can find V3 from P = P1 - P2
2( P1 P2 )
V3 =
When the air velocity is less than Mach 0.3, density is also
constant and
VA = constant
This tells us that when we reduce the area through which the air
flows, its velocity must increase and when we increase the area
through which the air flows, its velocity must decrease
Air fuel
Air in 1 2 mixture
out
Fuel in
Air fuel
Air in 1 2 mixture
out
Fuel in
Air fuel
Air in 1 2 mixture
out
Fuel in
Air fuel
Air in 1 2 mixture
out
Fuel in
1. Introductory Concepts
2. Lift
3. Drag
5. Further Reading
As the air approaches the airfoil, it will divide and flow over and under
it
Much like with the nozzle, as the air flows around the airfoil it will be
forced into a smaller area.
Oncoming
Flow
When the curvature of an airfoil is the same on the top surface as the
bottom, the airfoil is called a symmetric airfoil
This means that the pressure difference between the two surfaces is
zero and no lift is produced
However symmetric airfoils are often used on airplanes, particularly
aerobatic airplanes which are designed to fly upside down
So how do these airfoils work?
Symmetric Airfoil
At one point along the front of the airfoil, the velocity will be zero and
there will be a stagnation point formed
The air hitting the airfoil above the stagnation point will move over the
top surface of the airfoil and the air hitting the airfoil below the
stagnation point will move along the bottom surface of the airfoil
Changing the angle of the airfoil with respect to the oncoming air flow
will cause the stagnation point to move along the airfoil surface
The angle of the airfoil to the air flow is called the angle of attack
and is represented by the Greek character,
Increasing the angle of attack causes the stagnation point to move
along the bottom surface of the airfoil
As a result, more air flows over the top of the airfoil than the bottom
and the resulting velocity/pressure difference creates a lift force
The air velocity will be different at each point along the airfoil surface
As a result, the pressure is also different at each point, resulting in a
pressure distribution
The pressure distribution for each surface can be replaced by a
simple pressure force
The resulting pressure forces often act as though applied at
different locations for the upper and lower surfaces
The actual value of the pitching moment depends on what point along the
airfoil you are using as a reference
The pitching moment is zero at the center of pressure. This would make
it a good point of reference, except that the center of pressure on the
airfoil changes location along the airfoil with changes in angle of attack
The aerodynamic center is the location along the airfoil where the pitching
moment remains constant with angle of attack
Drag Force
As the airfoil angle of attack increases, the rate at which the flow
slows down along the upper surface increases
Therefore the adverse pressure gradient increases
point
The relative velocity between the airfoil and the oncoming air, V
Lift force per unit span Pitching moment per unit span
Lairfoil M airfoil
cL = cM =
1 1
V 2 c V 2 c 2
Lift coefficient 2 2 Chord length
Chord length Velocity
Velocity
Density Pitching moment coefficient
Density
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 48
Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
Since an airfoil is a two-dimensional object, the lift force and pitching
moment produced are described as being per unit span
Therefore, to determine the total lift force or pitching moment
generated by an entire wing with a span of length b using a
particular airfoil we need to multiply by the per unit span lift force or
pitching moment by the span
L = Lairfoil b M = M airfoil b
span Total pitching span
Total lift force
Lift force moment Pitching moment
per unit span per unit span
Therefore to find the total lift force and pitching moment generated
by the entire wing from the lift and pitching moment coefficients we
can use
1 1
L = cL V 2 caveb M = cM V cave b
2 2
2 2
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 49
Lift and Pitching Moment Coefficients
S = caveb
When the chord length changes along the span, the average
cL vs
From the lift and pitching moment coefficient curves below, what
would the lift and pitching moment coefficient be at an angle of
attack of 5 degrees?
From the lift and pitching moment coefficient curves below, what
would the lift and pitching moment coefficient be at an angle of
attack of 5 degrees? o =5
cL = 1.12
cM = -0.085
= 5o
The roundness of the leading edge and the wing thickness have the
greatest effect on the stall behavior
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 62
Reynolds Number Effects
This is the principle behind control surfaces, where the pilot has direct control of
the airfoil camber through the control surface
Therefore the pilot can control the amount of lift produced by the section of
the wing or stabilizer which has the control surface
For example, ailerons, elevator, rudder, etc.
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 67
Lift Augmentation
Flaps are control surfaces used to temporarily increase the lift of the
airfoil during slow speed flight (i.e. during landing and takeoff)
As well as increasing camber, some flaps are designed to increase
the wing area (by increasing the airfoil chord)
Flaps can also be located at the leading edge of the airfoil, creating
a leading edge flap, which further increases the camber
Slats are devices at the leading edge of the airfoil which create slots
along the leading edge that allow high pressure air to flow from the
lower surface to the upper surface, adding extra momentum to the
air and helping to prevent flow separation
As a result, the stall angle, and hence maximum lift coefficient,
increases
Plain
Slotted
Split
Some examples:
Zap
Fowler
Double Slotted
Double Slotted
Flap and Leading
Edge Slat
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 71
EXAMPLE
An airplane weighing 96 oz., with a wing area of 0.484 m2 and lift
coefficient of 0.2 flies in air with a density of 1.2 kg/m3. It has a flap
system that increases wing area by 15%, and lift coefficient by 20%.
What is the required speed of the aircraft to maintain level flight (a)
without flaps deployed and (b) with flaps deployed?
performance
Planform is the shape of the
wing when viewed directly
from above or below
including the chord length at each spanwise position (i.e. planform) and
the downwash at each spanwise position.
What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?
What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?
What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?
= 0.03
= 0.5
What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?
0 = 16o
What is the stall angle for a wing which has a tapered wing of span
70 taper ratio =0.5, croot=14, using an airfoil with the lift curve
shown below?
1. Introductory Concepts
2. Lift
3. Drag
5. Further Reading
The boundary layer represents a volume of air which is being dragged by the
surface which is travelling through it
Results in a force resisting forward motion which is analogous to friction between
solid objects rubbing together
Therefore this resistance is called skin friction drag
unpredictable way
Transitional flows exhibit behavior characteristic of both laminar
As the air travels along the wing surface l increases and therefore Rel increases
Once Rel is high enough, the flow will start to transition to turbulence
As l increases even farther downstream, Rel increases further, the transition
layers near the trailing edge and is therefore more likely to stall
This helps to explain why the stall angle can decrease when Rec
decreases
Dairfoil
cD =
1
V 2 c
Drag coefficient 2 Chord length
Velocity
Density
Also, as with lift, the drag force used to find the airfoil drag coefficient
is per unit length
For a full wing we can multiply the per unit length drag force by
the span of the wing to find the drag force for the entire wing from
the airfoil drag coefficient using
1
D = cD V 2 S
2
Wing area
Drag at a
minimum:
Most
efficient lift
coefficient
cD = cD0 + cDi
Total drag Drag coefficient
Induced drag
coefficient for for the two-
coefficient
wing dimensional
airfoil
or
k cL2
cD = cD0 +
AR
cL = 0.7
0 = 1o
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 124
EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady, level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.
= 0.03
= 0.5
cL = 0.7
cDp = 0.013
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 126
EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady, level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.
k = 1.01
= 0.5
January 17, 2011 Aerodynamics Learning Module 127
EXAMPLE
What angle of attack will be required to maintain steady, level flight for a 96
oz airplane, flying at 28 mph at sea level ( = 1.2 kg/m3, = 1.8 Ns/m2) if its
wing has a span of 70, root chord of 12 and taper ratio of 0.5? What drag
force would be generated by the wing? The curves for the airfoil used by
the airplane are shown below.
There are several other sources of drag which can reduce the
performance of an aircraft
Interference drag arises at the interface between different aircraft
There are several other sources of drag which can reduce the
performance of an aircraft
Cooling drag results from the requirement that most aircraft
Decreasing drag
around objects with blunt trailing edges
which result in a rapid change in area
through which the air must flow and
therefore large pressure gradients
It is also beneficial to keep the trailing
difficult to manufacture
Tapered planforms and combinations of straight and tapered
Raked tip
Hoerner
wingtip
Cowl flap
1. Introductory Concepts
2. Lift
3. Drag
5. Further Reading
One consideration that can guide the selection of the wing geometry
is the desired wing loading
Lift Force L
Wing Loading = =
Wing Area S
Since for level flight, the lift force must equal the weight of the
aircraft, wing loading is more commonly expressed as
Aircraft Weight W
Wing Loading = =
Wing Area S
Higher maximum lift coefficient means lower stall speeds and corresponding
takeoff and landing speeds
The stall behavior
Higher pitching moment requires more down force and induced drag from
the horizontal stabilizer
Thickness
difficult to manufacture
The tapered planform is easier to manufacture and, if properly
Tapered wings can stall at the wing tip first, resulting in loss of
induced drag
The lift coefficient increase per degree of angle of attack also
increases so that the aircraft can fly at a lower angle of attack
However, increasing aspect ratio will also reduce the chord of the
1. Introductory Concepts
2. Lift
3. Drag
5. Further Reading
Describes many design aspects particular to designing R/C aircraft (look out
for typos!)
Aerodynamics for Engineers by John Bertin