Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124

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Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci

Horizontal axis wind turbine research: A review of commercial CFD, FE MARK

codes and experimental practices

J.M. O'Briena, T.M. Younga, D.C. O'Mahoneyb, P.C. Grina,
a
School of Engineering, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
b
Centre for Integrated Sustainable Energy Technology, Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, Ireland

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: A review of wind turbine aerodynamics research is presented. The review is limited to Horizontal Axis Wind
Horizontal axis wind turbines Turbine (HAWT) investigations. The focus is on recent near wake experiments, wake predictions by commercial
CFD CFD codes and current FSI and structural modelling attempts. For the near wake, the review considers
Fluid-structure Interaction modelling experiments carried out in controlled conditions whereby the incoming freestream is perpendicular to the rotor
Near wake
plane. Additional anomalies such as wind shear, gusts and yaw transition are not considered. The survey of 3D
commercial codes is also focused on HAWT models in parallel ow conditions. Finally, the structural models
reviewed are divided into two separate categories: 1) blade deection and performance under aerodynamic
loads, and 2) the vibrational response of blades under aerodynamic loading. The aim is to highlight common
trends within near wake experiments and investigate both CFD and FE modelling strategies to identify current
limitations and future opportunities within the sector.

1. Introduction
An increase in demand for renewable energy worldwide has pushed
the scale of wind turbines to dramatic sizes. This is a direct conse-
quence of the fact that the energy harvested by a turbine is proportional
to the swept area of the rotor. Larger diameter turbines also benet
from greater mean wind speeds as the tower is taller and consequently
the inuence of the ground on the wind gradient is less. The size of
commercial wind turbines has increased considerably from 50 kW
devices with rotor diameters of 1015 m typical of the 1980's to very
large facilities capable of generating up to 810 MW of power today.
These new turbine facilities can have rotor diameters in excess of
160 m, which is considerably greater than the wingspan of the world's
largest passenger aircraft, the Airbus A380 at nearly 80 m. Increasing
the size of wind turbines, however, has led to signicant design
challenges. The large size of turbine rotors results in very heavy
structures. In order to improve the cost-eective energy eciency of
wind turbines, however, turbine blades are designed to be as light as
possible. This results in a more slender, exible blade design. For such
designs, aeroelastic deformation is unavoidable. Such deformations can
lead to unsteady vibratory loading and reduced performance of the
blades. The vibratory loads experienced by the blades may also induce
severe stability problems and shorten the operational life of the turbine
[1]. Furthermore, bending of the blades can reduce the eective rotor
area of the turbine which contradicts the initial design parameter
whereby a larger rotor area results in more kinetic energy harvested
from the wind [2]. Presently the major cost associated with wind
turbines is dominated by operations and the maintenance of the wind
turbine system. Currently, it is shown that a typical wind turbine
averages 2.6 component failures per year, within the rst 10 years of
operation [3]. These failures remain unpredictable within the industry.
Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) modelling is critical to the advance-
ment of wind turbine technologies. FSI models are required to improve
blade design and fatigue life predictions (without the need for
expensive full scale tests), and thus reduce maintenance costs. In
terms of improving the overall FSI modelling process, accurate
modelling of the ow eld over blades has been identied as an area
requiring further development [4].
Unfortunately, up until recently, most aerodynamic modelling has
been greatly simplied, with only a few researchers [58] simulating
the full turbine structure. The application of Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) models have been hindered due to the complexity
associated with modelling the relative motion between rotating and
stationary turbine components. In addition, high performance compu-
tational resources are often not available, which results in CFD models
being highly simplied. These simplications include neglecting the
tower structure or just modelling one turbine blade, taking advantage
of the 120 periodicity. Such models are not able to model the unsteady

Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jerry.obrien@ul.ie (J.M. O'Brien), trevor.young@ul.ie (T.M. Young), Denis.OMahoney@gmit.ie (D.C. O'Mahoney), philip.grin@ul.ie (P.C. Grin).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2017.05.001
Received 20 December 2016; Received in revised form 25 April 2017; Accepted 8 May 2017
Available online 16 May 2017
0376-0421/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.M. O'Brien et al.
phenomena associated with rotor tower/nacelle interaction, which has
been shown to contribute very high levels of turbulent kinetic energy
and Reynolds stress in the wake [9,10]. With respect to future wind
turbine structural modelling attempts, an understanding of the spatial
distribution of stresses generated within the wake is important. The
uctuating velocity components in the ow directly contribute to the
unsteady forces acting on turbine blades. Limited information about
the spatial distribution of turbulence and vortex behaviour in the near
wake, hinders the capability of the engineering community to predict
wind turbine power production and fatigue loads in wind farms [11].
This paper aims to review the area of wind turbine aerodynamics by
discussing previous near wake experimental studies, the use of
dierent turbulence modelling strategies for wake prediction and
nally a review of current FSI modelling attempts. The near wake
studies reviewed in this paper will focus on single turbines submerged
in a ow perpendicular to the rotor plane. Studies involving yawed
turbines or non-uniform inlet conditions are not reviewed. Again, all
CFD cases surveyed involve investigating the ow around a Horizontal
Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) perpendicular to the rotor plane. Finally,
the FSI studies reviewed are focused on blade displacement and
vibrational characteristics.
2. Current wind tunnel investigations
A review of current wind tunnel investigations of HAWT wakes is
presented. Regarding experimental studies of the near wake of a
HAWT, it is noted that a lot of work has been carried out since the
review study on HAWT aerodynamics by Vermeer et al. [12]. Noted by
Vermeer et al. [12] the majority of wind turbine investigations are
conducted in a controlled environment as these provide data which is
suitable for the validation of numerical methods. However, as a result
of this, many experiments do not address topics such as the eect of
wind shear, yawed conditions or dynamic inow. This is guided by the
realisation that, although there have been attempts to tackle these
areas, the basics of wind turbine dynamics is still not fully understood
[12]. Furthermore, eld experiments aimed at recording turbine wakes
are often rendered obsolete as unpredictable changes in weather
conditions (i.e wind force) result in the formation of a wake to which
the boundary conditions are relatively unknown, increasing the di-
culty of modelling the wake formation and disintegration process. It is
hoped that once condence can be established in dierent turbulence
modelling strategies, that future work regarding CFD simulations
should look at realistic cases whereby CFD models will model the
varying inow onto the rotor and look at the ever changing wake. This
could include the inuence of gusts on the wake and how the wake
develops when the turbine transitions from one yaw value to another. A
summary of wind tunnel experiments is presented in Table 1. This
table can be considered an extension of that created by Vermeer et al.
[12] and should be treated as such.
2.1. Experimental setup practices
Before a discussion is presented on current near wake experiments,
the following section reviews common trends associated with the setup
of wind tunnel experiments.
As noted by Medici et al. [13], the fundamental behaviour of the
helical tip vortices and turbulent wake ow structures downstream of
wind turbines is almost independent to the chord Reynolds number. A
common trend in the literature is that the characteristics of the
turbulent wake ow behind a HAWT, including root/tip vortices,
turbulent characteristics, helical shape and velocity decits were found
to vary signicantly with varying tip-speed ratio. Therefore, most
experimental testing is carried out with varying tip-speed ratios rather
than varying incoming freestream velocities. The majority of experi-
mental studies fall into a Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) range between 3 and 6
with few others carried out with values as high as 8 and 10. Ne et al.
2
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
[14] noted that in order to attain coherence with full scale wind
turbines, dimensionless similarity parameters attained in the eld must
be matched. These dimensionless parameters result from the need to
attain geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarity. Dimensional
analysis suggests that important properties which control wake beha-
viour are: tip speed, Reynolds number, Thrust Coecient (Ct) and
Power Coecient (Cp). Within the reviewed literature the Ct values vary
from 0.13 to 0.45 and Cp values from 0 to 0.58. Typically, HAWT
models operating around a TSR of 4 will have Ct and Cp values of 0.4
and 0.38 respectively. See Table 2 for the performance coecients
from previous three-bladed HAWT experiments.
Another factor considered for wind tunnel investigations using
model HAWTs is the model to tunnel area ratio. This aects the
blockage ratio, which is the ratio of blade swept area to test cross-
sectional area [10]. If the blockage ratio is too large, the blockage eect
can occur, whereby the rotating blades will eectively block the airow
in the tunnel. This will prevent free expansion of the wake downstream
and eect the development and degradation of the turbine wake. The
blockage ratio varies in the reviewed literature between 1% and 10%
[1520]. If it is higher than this then the wind tunnel walls can
interfere with wake measurements and prevent expansion of the wake
downstream. For measurements downstream, the blockage eect can
be neglected if the wake can expand freely. Using the Wind Atlas
Analysis and Application Program (WAsP) wake model expression (see
eqn 1) where D is the turbine diameter, Dw is the wake diameter, x is
the distance downstream from the turbine and k is the wake decay
coecient, (typically between 0.04 and 0.05) an estimate of the wake
expansion can be made [21]. A 10% upper limit criteria has been
established by McTavish et al. [22]. This study identied that near
wake expansion was not signicantly modied if the blockage ratio
remained between 6% and 10%. Values greater than 14% caused the
wake to narrow by 35%.
Dw = D + 2kx (1)
A nal consideration, as pointed out by Sherry et al. [19], is that
most model turbines used in wind tunnel experiments have a gap
between the nacelle and the rotor. Within this gap a rotating ow is
developed and periodically expelled when a root vortex passes over the
gap. However, this rotating cavity of air rotates in the opposite
direction of the root vortex. When both ows interact, they destabilise
the root vortex which is another possible cause as to why a root vortex
is dicult to measure experimentally. Therefore, this area should be
addressed when designing the turbine model as this gap is often
neglected in numerical simulations, resulting in another potential
source for error between numerical and experimental measurements.
3. Near wake experiments
3.1. Near wake properties
Research regarding the near wake region is primarily targeted at
wind turbine performance and the physical process of power extrac-
tion, whereas in the far wake the focus is on wake interaction with
downstream turbines and its impact in a wind farm situation. In the
near wake the eects of blade aerodynamics, shedding from the tower
and the inuence of the boundary layer of the nacelle play a large part
in the formation of the overall turbine wake. The presence of the wake
is made apparent by the number of blades, blade aerodynamics
(including stalled ow), the root and tip vortices and three dimensional
eects such as the circulation of the wake [12].
It has been noted that few experiments regarding the near wake
have been undertaken with most been performed at low Reynolds
numbers (as related to blade chord and rotational speed) [12]. This is
not an issue as long as the characteristics of the chosen aerofoil are
known for the Reynolds number range being tested (i.e. using a small
model results in working at a lower Reynolds number. Therefore drag
J.M. O'Brien et al. Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124

Table 1
Summary near wake experiments.
Part A
Author Whale et al. [23] Ebert et al. [24] Magnusson et al. [25] Dobrev et al. [26] Karlsen [27] Hu et al. [16]
Ebert et al. [28] Magnusson [29]
Ebert et al. [30]

Year 1996 19972001 1999 2008 2009 2009

Type 3-bladed HAWT 2-bladed HAWT (ITN) Commercial 3-bladed 3-bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT
Modelled like a HAWT Modelled like a
propellor propeller

Diameter 0.9 m 0.25 m 23 m 0.5 m 0.9 m 0.5 m

Testing facility Two-dimensional Wind tunnel Alsvik wind farm Wind tunnel Wind tunnel Wind tunnel
water flume

Freestream velocity n/a 26.5, 21.4, 17.3 n/a 9.3 9.97 n/a

TSR 1.64.8 2, 4, 6 n/a 2.8 012 0.33.0

Blockage ratio n/a n/a n/a 0.088 0.1239 0.15

Aerofoil NACA632XX NACA 4418 n/a n/a NREL s826 NREL S809

Characteristics Mean velocity, Mean velocity (1997, Mean velocity (both), Mean velocity, Ct vs , Cp,
investigated 1999, 2001),
turbulence intensity turbulent energy Ct (both), circulation, Cp vs , mean velocity,
(1997,1999),
(ITN) turbulent kinetic (M) took velocity vorticity turbulence intensity
energy (1997), measurements
(Data taken at hub vorticity (1999,2001), in rotor plane only (ITN) (ITN)
height)
angular momentum Took measurements
flux (1999) in a
Data taken to hub vertical plane to hub
height (1997,1999) height

Measurement PIV Hot-wire Meteorological PIV Force balance, Pitot-static tube,

techniques
(X-probe) masts (phase-locked) pitot probe single slanted hot-wire

Part B
Author Chamorro et al. [9] Yang et al. [10] Schepers et al. [31] Schmann et al. [32] McTavish et al. [33] Aubrun et al. [34]

Year 2009 2011 2011 2013 2013 2013

Type 3-bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT 3 bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT
2-bladed HAWT Porous disc

Diameter 0.15 m 0.254 m 4.5 m 0.9 m Both are 0.25 m Both are 0.416 m

Testing facility Wind tunnel Wind tunnel DNW wind tunnel Wind tunnel Water channel Wind tunnel

Freestream velocity 2.5 4 1030 10.5 0.10.27 2.5

TSR 4.4 and 4.2 04.5 3.310 6 6 (3-blade) 5.8

6, 8 (2-blade)

Blockage ratio n/a 0.009 0.18 0.12 0.1 0.033

(Isotropic Turbulent
Flow)
0.0054 (Neutral
ABL)

Aerofoil GWS/EP6030x3 MA0530TE DU91-W2250 NREL S826 Eppler E387 (3- n/a
rotor blade)
RIS-A121 NACA 0012 (2-
blade)
NACA 64418

Characteristics Mean velocity, Ct, Blade pressure Mean velocity, Ct, Static pressure
investigated distributions, coefficients,
turbulence intensity, turbulence intensity, Influence of rotational turbulence intensity, flow vis, mean velocity,
speed
kinematic shear vortex evolution on aerodynamic (tandem wake characteristics power spectral density
stress, coefficients, arrangement) analysis
(continued on next page)

3
J.M. O'Brien et al. Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124

Table 1 (continued)

Part A
power spectral turbulent kinetic axial force coefficients, (wake expansion etc) Measurements taken at
density analysis energy hub height
Cp, Ct, (ITN)
radial velocity
measurements.
Same characteristics were
investigated for yawed
flow.

Measurement Hot-wire, PIV, Use of 148 Kulite pressure Five-hole probe, Signet 2536 Rotor-X Pitot tube,
techniques Flow Sensor,
Pitot-static tube force balance sensors to record blade single hot-wire force balance hot-wire
pressure
Blade loads monitored
using two strain gauge
bridges
at each blade root
Force balance
PIV (Phase-locked)

Part C
Author Sherry et al. [19]

Year 2013

Type 3-bladed HAWT

Diameter 0.23 m

Testing facility Water channel

Freestream velocity 0.092

TSR 4, 7, 10 0.14

Blockage ratio 0.086

Aerofoil NACA 4412

Characteristics Mean velocity,

investigated
vorticity,
(ITN)

Measurement PIV,
techniques
(Phase-locked)

Note: ITN is defined as Influence of the Tower is Neglected

n/a is defined as Not available

Table 2 they can be used to verify numerical models. As mentioned earlier, the
Performance coefficients from previous three-bladed HAWT experiments. fundamental behaviour of the helical tip vortices and turbulent wake
ow downstream of wind turbines is almost independent to the chord
Case Tip Speed Thrust Power
Ratio Coecient Ct Coecient Cp
Reynolds number.
Axial pressure gradients forming over the rotor plane and devel-
Zhang et al. [11] 3.7 0.42 0.37 oping through the near wake are important for the development of the
Sherry et al. [19] 4 0.14 0.452 0.39 wake and aforementioned velocity (momentum) decit. As air ap-
Hu et al. [35] 3 0.31
Shimizu et al. [36] 3.5 0.4
proaches the wind turbine the freestream velocity decreases and the
Medici et al. [37] 0.424.87 0.130.35 00.32 pressure increases. As it crosses the rotor plane there is a sudden
Ebert et al. [24] 26 0.130.38 decrease in pressure. Non-uniform pressure and axial velocity decits
Karlsen [27] 0.3611.45 0.21.39 0.58 exist in the region directly downstream of the rotor [38]. The velocity
(Max at TSR=6)
decit is proportional to the thrust on the rotor, thus higher loading of
Hu et al. [16] 0.31.5 0.050.23 the rotor (typical of low wind speed operation) results in a greater
Yang et al. [10] 3.2 0.337 velocity decit in its wake [39].
The velocity decit in the wake induces the formation of an annular
shear layer at its edge due to the velocity dierence between the
is increased due to increased viscous eects. This makes the aerofoil turbulent wake and the surrounding, faster moving, laminar, ambient
susceptible to laminar separation. If a formed separation bubble bursts, ow. The presence of the shear layer is enforced by the presence of the
this can lead to ow separation from the leading edge and stall). tip vortex system. The tip vortex develops downstream in a helical
Despite these types of experiments not resembling a full-scale turbine, pattern and rotates in the opposite direction of the turbine as

4
J.M. O'Brien et al.
Fig. 1. Flow visualisations using smoke, depicting the path of the tip vortex in experiments carried out by Alfredsson et al. [41].
mentioned earlier. The inclination angle of the helical trajectories is a
function of the tip speed ratio. For high tip speed ratios, the inclination
angle of the vortex tube is small and the layer encompassing the tip
vortices, can be considered as an annular shear zone separating the
ow within the wake from the ambient ow [40,12]. The vortices shed
from the blade tips play an important role in wind turbine aerody-
namics as being a major source of unsteadiness, aerodynamic noise and
uid-structure interaction.
Important properties of the tip vortex in particular include wake
expansion (dened by the tip vortex path) and vortex spiral twist angle
or the tip vortex pitch [12]. The distinct vortex core may be clearly seen
in the ow visualisations carried out by Alfredsson et al. [41] (Fig. 1,
left). The images also depict the strength of the tip vortices in the
smoke trails which are sucked into the vortex spirals (Fig. 1, right).
Yang et al. [10] noted the presence of smaller vortex structures
appearing at the inboard of the blades tips between 50% and 60% blade
span. These structures were found to move outward under the
inuence of wake expansion as they travelled downstream. They
merged with the tip vortex structure at a distance of 2R (R is dened
as the rotor radius) downstream. These smaller vortical structures were
formed due to a separation region at 70% blade span. This character-
istic was also seen by Whale et al. [42].
Shear ow within this layer brings about the development of
turbulent eddies which act as a mixer, mixing the slow moving uid
in the wake with that of the freestream ow. Moving downstream the
annular shear layer expands towards the centre of the wake due to
turbulent diusion, pressure within the wake gradually recovers
tending towards ambient pressure. Momentum is also transferred into
the wake by turbulent mixing, resulting in expansion of the wake and a
gradual reduction of the velocity decit.
At a certain point downstream, the shear layer expands enough that
it reaches the centre of the wake; this point can be identied as the end
of the near wake region. Vermeer et al., Sanderse, and Gomez-Elvira
et al. [12,43,44] identify this point as being somewhere between 2 and
5 rotor diameters downstream. Ainslie [45] estimates the end of the
near wake region as being between 3 and 5 rotor diameters down-
stream; whereas Manwell et al. [46] distinguished this point as being
between 1 and 3 rotor diameters downstream. The imprecise descrip-
tion of this point results from the various factors that contribute to its
occurrence, including ambient turbulence intensity and the amount of
shear between the wake and ambient ow.
Helmis et al. [47] argued that the length of the near wake region is
overestimated in wind tunnel experiments in comparison to measure-
ments from eld testing, due to the absence of wind shear and
freestream turbulence, which is normally present under eld condi-
tions. Additionally, Hoegstroem et al. [48] stated that the velocity
decit is higher in wind tunnel testing, which could be attributed to
blockage eects. The process of wake development is shown in Fig. 2.
The velocity decit is highest in the near region directly behind the
rotor. Turbulent mixing in the shear layer leads to expansion of the
wake and shear layer with the velocity gradually recovering when
moving downstream towards the far wake.
Root vortices are also present in the near wake region. Most
5
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
modern turbines have blade designs which continue the aerofoil prole
of the blade up to the connection point at the hub. This reduces the
strength of the root vortex, but there is also a trade o as structural
stiness of the turbine blade is compromised. Other designs taper the
aerofoil prole into a cylindrical shape before attachment to the hub.
This design has a reduced impact on the formation of the root vortex,
but is usually used as it stiens the blade and aids against blade-tower
collisions. Root vortices typically have a short lifespan. The presence of
the nacelle and tower induce turbulence in the wake of a wind turbine
[43]. Furthermore, the root vortices are in close proximity to each
other. This, combined with the induced turbulence from the turbine
structure, cause the root vortices to be destroyed much earlier than the
tip vortices. Observed by Sherry et al. [19], the root vortices are
subjected to highly turbulent, three-dimensional low velocity uid.
Momentum transfer occurs between the outer regions of the wake and
the central wake. This combined with the highly turbulent and three-
dimensional ow promotes instabilities, leading to the eventual break-
down of the root vortex. Early breakdown was attributed to the
interaction between the nacelle boundary layer and the root vortex.
This is because the vorticity created within the nacelle boundary layer
is of the same order of magnitude and opposite in sign to the coherent
root vortices, resulting in cross-annihilation of vorticity between the
root vortex and the nacelle boundary layer. Therefore, root vortices do
not play a role in eecting the performance or structural loading of a
turbine far downstream and have minimal impact on the turbine from
which they originated in comparison to tip vortices.
3.2. Turbulence characteristics
Detailed wake measurements in the near wake are very rare with
most concerned with power production, turbine performance and wake
velocity decits as opposed to turbulence characteristics. Furthermore,
of the few studies that do investigate the velocity characteristics in the
near wake, few look at the turbulence characteristics of the wake. An
understanding of the distribution of turbulence quantities in the near
wake is essential for FSI modelling. The uctuating velocity compo-
nents in the ow directly contribute to the unsteady forces acting on
turbine blades.
An experimental investigation carried out by Yang et al. [10]
provides a detailed study of the turbulent structure of a turbine wake.
Wake measurements were recorded using Particle Image Velocimetry
(PIV) techniques. Measurements were recorded for both free-run
(free-run condition means that measurements were recorded over a
period of time while the turbine model was operational. These results
represent a statistical average of the oweld over a period of time.)
and phase-locked (phase-locked condition means that measurements
were recorded when the turbine rotor was at a certain position i.e.
measurements are triggered by a certain event. This measurement
method is useful for looking at vortex age etc.) conditions in order to
quantify the time evolution of the wake structure of a single HAWT in
an atmospheric boundary layer wind.
Free-run PIV measurements recorded areas of high turbulence
intensity in the wake, particularly along the path of the tip vortices and
J.M. O'Brien et al.
Fig. 2. Wake development of a horizontal-axis wind turbine, adapted from Sanderse [43].
the regions behind the nacelle and tower structure. An increment in the
v-component of turbulence intensity was noted in the region of the
blade tips and was seen the decrease downstream. This increment was
larger than that observed for the u-component of turbulence intensity.
The existence of the blade tip played a larger role in aecting the v-
component of turbulence intensity. Regions of high turbulence inten-
sity behind the nacelle tower structure were attributed to the periodic
vortical structures shed from the tower and their interaction with the
rotor wake. The region of highest turbulence intensity was recorded
under the nacelle [10]. This was also noted by Zhang et al. [11].
The variation of Reynolds stresses in the ow were recorded by
Yang et al. [10]. Reynolds shear stresses were found to be highest in the
regions along the tip vortex system, the root vortex shedding path and
at 70% of the blade span where separation occurred over the blade
[10]. High values of Reynolds stresses and turbulent kinetic energy in
the region directly behind the nacelle suggested a highly unsteady root
vortex shedding process combined with ow separations from the
nacelle structure. These ndings were similar to observations by
Chamorro et al. [9].
An experimental investigation of a HAWT wake was also carried out
by Schmann et al. [32]. Cross-section measurements of the near and
far wake were recorded using a single hot-wire and a ve-hole probe.
Similar to Yang et al. [10], the wake was observed to be bordered by a
sharp transitional zone which was dened by steep velocity gradients
and high levels of turbulence intensity. A clear expansion of the wake
was observed at X / D = 3 (X is dened as distance downstream and D is
dened as rotor diameter). At this point the annular shear layer had
widened as the tip vortex structures became more diuse. The sharp
velocity decit generated by the tower structure was no longer visible
and the wake itself was no longer symmetric. The regions of highest
turbulence intensity were located at the edge of the rotor radius and
directly behind the nacelle and tower structures. Measurements of
turbulence intensity values in the x-z plane showed the expansion of
the shear layer, with the transition zone reached at X / R = 6.5.
4. Numerical wind turbine aerodynamics
A brief summary of the dierent modelling strategies used and how
they coped with HAWT analysis are presented in this section. This
review focuses on Navier-Stokes based solvers. Other methods such as
BEM and lifting line methods are available but each have their
limitations, particularly when modelling the turbulent three-dimen-
sional oweld is required e.g. BEM methods are highly reliant on the
aerofoil data chosen and dependant on empirical corrections to 2D
aerofoil data. Similarly, lifting line methods are 3D inviscid aerody-
namic models and therefore cannot cope with viscous eects and
separation [7]. However, despite this, a brief summary See Table 3 for a
summary of the numerical investigations carried out to date.
6
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
4.1. Numerical studies
The Shear Stress Transport (SST) model has been used extensively
in HAWT research as shown in Table 3. When modelling the wake
behind a turbine, the major challenge is that the optimal operating
condition for a HAWT always includes stall, with the upper side of the
rotor blades being dominated by large areas of separation [12]. This
challenge was witnessed in Navier-Stokes computations by Srensen
et al. [49]. Particularly at a freestream velocity of 10 m/s, numerical
results portrayed a poor agreement with experimental results obtained
from the American NREL full-scale experiment at NASA [50]. It was at
this freestream velocity that ow separation began to occur. From this
it was deemed that the inclusion of a model capable of accurately
modelling the laminar/turbulent transition might improve the quality
of the results [12].
In a study carried out by Lawson et al. [51], the SST k- model was
chosen as it was proven successful in modelling turbulent ows over
aerofoils. A HAWT was modelled using only one blade and half the
hub, taking advantage of the 180 periodicity of the two-bladed rotor.
To reduce ow recirculation within the model and to improve the
numerical stability of the model, a slip condition was applied to the
surfaces of the modelled test section. An in-depth study into the grid
resolution and the eect of the computational timestep on the CFD
solution was also carried out. It was determined that if the structures of
the tip vortices and details of the blade boundary layer and wake must
be resolved, then a ne mesh must be used. In this case a mesh size no
smaller than 3 million cells was recommended. Variation in the
predicted results by the model became minimal once the grid size
exceeded 6 million cells. All timestep studies where carried out using a
coarse grid (containing 493,378 cells). It is generally accepted to use
separate grid and timestep convergence studies to determine the eect
of spatial and temporal resolution on CFD solutions [52]. To reduce the
time for transient simulations to reach a quasi-steady state, all
simulations were initialized using the steady ow solution. It was
concluded that for a modelled turbine, where the inow conditions
were uniform in space and time then the dierence between both the
steady and unsteady model was within 2.5%. It was recommended,
however, that if the velocity input into the model was non-uniform and
contained turbulent structures, then time-accurate simulations are
required. This would also be necessary if the ow over the blades
was to become separated. In this case, the ow remained attached for
all cases considered. As mentioned above, when the ow over the blade
is separated, predictions of transition, separation and ow reattach-
ment have a signicant inuence on the accuracy of CFD solutions
[51].
A study by Benjanirat et al. [53] argued that the use of transition
models which use laminar separation as a criteria are not eective. It
was shown that the use of either Michel's or Eppler's transition models
J.M. O'Brien et al. Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124

Table 3
Summary of numerical investigations.

Part A

Author Mandas et al. [54] Hu et al. [59] Wuow et al. [60] Fletcher et al. [61] Gomez-Iradi et al. Mansour et al. [62]
[5]

Year 2006 2006 2007 2009 2009 2011

Type 3-bladed HAWT 1 blade (120) 3-bladed HAWT 1 blade (120) 2-bladed HAWT 1 blade (120)
(TNI) periodicity (Tower included) periodicity (Tower included) periodicity
(TNI) (TNI) (TNI)

Numerical model(s) used Spalart-Allmaras, RNG k- LES RANS Equations Compressible Spalart-Allmaras
k- SST Smagorinsky-Lilly (Pressure-velocity URANS equations. k- model
subgrid model density form) RNG k-
Vorticity Transport
Model (VTM)

Transient or steady Steady Steady Transient Steady Transient Steady

Meshing procedure outlined 1.5 million cells 352,080 cells 4.05 million cells Cell count not Several mesh Cell count not
specified densities used specified
locally refined Mesh refinement Local mesh Blade mesh Detailed mesh Near wall mesh
around based refinement refinement distributions resolution
the blade (not on 2D model and y+ not outlined outlined (not provided for all cases based on y+ values
detailed) detailed)
FWA not done values MRW not given FWA not done FWA not done MRW not given
FWA not done

Characteristics investigated Power Coefficient, Cp, Mean velocity, Cn, Cp, Cp,
axial interference streamlines (stall), turbulence intensity Tangential force Flow angles, streamlines (stall),
factors,
mean velocity, mean velocity (at hub height) coefficients, wind tunnel wall torque,
effects,
Cp, tower loads, mean velocity
streamline views torque
(stall)

Comments Validated against Validated against Validated against Validated against Validated against Validated against
BEM.
Capable of Simms et al. [63] field data. NREL Phase VI case NREL Phase VI case NREL Phase VI case
predicting
basic performance Coriolis and Turbulent features of RANS equations Model had difficulty k- model was
and centrifugal the wake suitable to model
velocity chars forces are important. can be reproduced velocity and pressure predicting thrust and poor across all cases
(3D stall delay) solely based fields torque
Stall not modelled on HAWT geometry (Blade loading). values in stalled Spalart-Allmaras
accurately by 2D data model
VTM model suitable conditions performed well in
to model wake low speed flow
structure RNG k- model
performed well in
high speed flow

Part B
Author Lawson et al. [51] Yu et al. [57] Wang et al. [64] Li et al. [7] Vafiadis et al. [65] Mo et al. [66]

Year 2011 2011 2012 2012 2013 2013

Type 1-blade (180) 1 blade (120) 2-bladed HAWT 2-bladed HAWT 2-bladed HAWT 2-bladed HAWT
periodicity. (HATT) periodicity (Tower included) (Tower included) (Tower included) (Tower included)
(TNI)

Numerical model(s) used k- SST k- SST k- SST URANS Equations k- SST LES
and DES k- model Smagorinsky-Lilly
subgrid model

Transient or steady Transient Steady Transient Transient Transient and Steady Transient
models used

Meshing procedure outlined Several mesh 2.9 million cells 255,000 cells 57.4 million grid 5,804,294 elements 3.6 million cells
densities used points used
(continued on next page)

7
J.M. O'Brien et al. Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124

Table 3 (continued)

Part A

Mesh refinements Mesh refinement (background mesh, Mesh refinement Meshed using Mesh based on y+
based based ANSYS Meshing values
on y+ values and on y+ values around not detailed) outlined (detailed) tool. (Not detailed) on the blade.
engineering the blade. Blade mesh based on Based on velocity Meshing procedure
parameters of wake
FWA not done FWA not done y+ values components region not given

Characteristics investigated Pressure Power generated, Mean velocity, Vortical structures, Thrust, Cp,
distribution,
rotor torque, Cp, vortices, thrust (time varying), mean velocity, power output,
blade root flap streamlines, thrust, streamlines, pressure distribution FFT analysis,
moments, in wake
tip vortex Cl 2D and 3D Cp Cn, mean velocity,
visualisation
Cp (time varying), turbulence intensity
mean velocity (horizontal profile),
vorticity

Comments Stand alone study. Validated against Validated against Validated against Validated against Validated against
Transient models NREL Phase VI case. NREL Phase VI case. NREL Phase VI case. NREL Phase VI case. NREL Phase VI case.
are
required for stalled CFD was in good Influence of tower on Both CFD models Unsteady models LES model was
agreement aerodynamic capable predicted shown
blades. Predictions until blade stalled performance is small. of modelling both thrust values with to be more accurate
variable wind speed greater than
of transition and Rotor induces cyclic and pitch. Good accuracy. (Note: previous steady-state
agreement with Mesh in the wake predictions
flow reattachment pressure drop at power and thrust looks very coarse for of two-eqn
tower. values. FWA) turbulence
influences model models
accuracy

Part C
Author Esfahanian et al. Lanzafame et al. [68] AbdelSalam et al. [69] Herraez et al. [56] Srensen et al. [70]
[67]

Year 2013 2013 2014 2014 2016

Type 2D airfoil 2-bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT 3-bladed HAWT
S809 (TNI) (TNI) (TNI) (TNI)
NREL Phase VI case

Numerical model(s) used k- SST 1D BEM k- model Spalart-Allmaras k- SST

BEM k- SST k- (actuator with laminar
turbulent transition
k- SST with disc) model En method of
Michelsen [71]
transitional SST
model

Transient or Steady Transient Steady Steady Transient and Transient

steady

Meshing procedure outlined 23,625 cells 9 million cells 2.9 million cells 11 million cells 129 cells in blade
spanwise
locally refined Mesh refinement Local mesh Local mesh direction and 256
around around refinement refinement cells in
the blade (y+ values) the rotor based on y+ based on y+ values around blades with chordwise direction.
y+ y+ values
FWA not done values and mesh grid study between 50200 below 2.
FWA not done FWA not done FWA not done

Characteristics investigated Transition location, Cl, Mean velocity, Blade pressure Integral loads,
distributions,
drag curves, Cd, dissipation rates, axial flow at the rotor span-wise loads,
lift curves, power output, turbulent kinetic sectional pressure
energy, distributions,
pressure Cp, kinematic shear wake velocities
distributions, stress,
power output velocity vector fields turbulent intensity

Comments Validated against Validated against Models compared to Validated against Good agreement was
noted
(continued on next page)

8
J.M. O'Brien et al. Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124

Table 3 (continued)

Part A

NREL Phase VI NREL Phase VI case. Crespo et al. [72] and MEXICO experiment between numerical
case. [55] and
2D CFD used with Polyhedral mesh El Kasmi et al. [73]. Spalart-Allmaras experimental results.
BEM to performed better model
simulate 3D than unstructured Wake characteristics unable to predict However, with such a
flowfield tetrahedral verified stall. low y+ value,
Hybrid models such mesh. against Magnusson No mention of which it cannot be said if
as this et al. [74] and similar results
have potential to k- SST (with Magnusson et al. [25]. y+ wall treatment is could have been
reduce transition used. obtained
computational time model) performed k- model was shown Reducing y+ values without the use of a
and better under to be near
expense stalled conditions accurate if the rotor the blade and using a transition model
was low
modelled accurately. y+ wall treatment
Actuator may
dics model over- improve the model.
predicted
turbulence in the
wake

Note: TNI is defined as Tower not Included

FWA is defined as Far Wake Analysis
MRW is defined as Mesh Refinement of Wake

coupled with CFD turbulence models (i.e. Spalart-Allmaras(SA),
Spalart-Allmaras Detached Eddy Simulation (SA-DES), k- SST)
resulted in negligible dierence in results when compared to the
models run absent of the transition models. A S809 aerofoil was used
in this study. It was noted that the relatively small leading edge radius
lead to laminar separation which tripped the boundary layer and as a
result the calculations were insensitive to either transition model. The
eective angle of attack often exceeded 7, causing leading edge
transition to turbulence. It was concluded that there was a need to
develop a transition model that does not use laminar separation bubble
as one of the transition criteria.
A study by Mandas et al. [54] coupled the Spalart-Allmaras and the
SST k- models to solve the 3-D turbulent-steady incompressible ow
behind a HAWT. A volume mesh of 1.5 million cells was used (taking
advantage of the 120 periodicity of the three-bladed turbine). In
contrast to Lawson et al. [51], Mandas et al. [54] used a structured
hexahedral grid. However, similar to Srensen et al. [49], the accuracy
of the model was shown to decrease once the freestream inlet velocity
was increased beyond 12 m/s. At this point separation had occurred on
the blade. Mandas et al. [54], recommended that grid renement and
dierent turbulence models would be needed for investigating wind
turbine performance for blades near complete stall conditions. It was
also shown that the spiral geometry of the turbine wake is maintained
for a longer distance downstream in experimental results, before it
eventually merges into a continuous vortex sheet. Mandas et al. [54]
suggested that a study into grid resolution may provide solutions for
this occurrence.
Gmez et al. [5] simulated rotor/tower interference for the upwind
conguration of a wind turbine. The simulation was carried out in two
dimensions, by modelling a plan view of the tower and a passing blade.
Movement of the blade was achieved using a sliding mesh technique.
Simulations were carried out using Star CCM+ to solve the RANS SST
k- turbulence model on an implicit unsteady basis. Results of the
simulation exhibited the displacement of the upwind stagnation point
and boundary layer separation points of the tower at a periodic
frequency of three times per revolution (for a three-bladed rotor). As
the blade passes and transient ows dissipate, the stagnation point
gradually returned to its original position at the front of the tower. This
pulsatile displacement of the stagnation point induced a dynamic
response on the pressure eld in the vicinity of the tower which would
result in periodic lateral loading of the tower. The wake of the tower is
also periodically skewed due to the periodic displacement of the
boundary layer separation points. Thus there is obviously a periodic
eect on the wake of the wind turbine corresponding to this. In a steady
state simulation this pulsating displacement could not be observed and
the stagnation point would not correspond exactly with the lowest
point on the tower due to the ow deection to the left caused by the
aerofoil.
For high freestream velocities and angles of attack, where separa-
tion is prominent, DES simulations have been shown to be the most
accurate CFD models (following a compromise between accuracy and
computational power) [53]. However when the ow is not separated (or
just lightly separated) then there is no appreciable dierence between
the Spalart-Allmaras model and the DES model. This was also seen by
Li et al. [7] when unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
and DES turbulence models where compared with experimental results
from the NREL phase VI wind turbine test. At a freestream velocity of
25 m/s where ow separation and vortex shedding became more
prominent it was seen that there was a large dierence in predicted
results between the two models, with DES being more accurate. Similar
to results of Benjanirat et al. [53], there was no major dierence in the
predicted results between the two models at lower wind speeds.
Considering the above cases and those listed in Table 3, the
majority of CFD analysis's have been validated against the NREL
Phase VI case by Hand et al. [50]. Unfortunately, the NREL Phase VI
study only investigated aerodynamic rotor loads and blade pressure
distributions. No wake analysis was conducted. Although the NREL
Phase VI case has provided a benchmark for CFD validation, Schepers
et al. [31] has noted that detailed aerodynamic data is required to
advance aerodynamic models. As noted by Schepers et al. [31],
conventional experimental studies regarding HAWTs do not provide
sucient data for the advancement of numerical models. Most only
measure the integrated, total (blade or rotor) loads. The MEXICO
experiment by Schepers et al. [55] can be considered an expansion of
the NREL Phase VI case where the MEXICO experiment focused on
detailed near eld aerodynamic measurements for the improvement of
aerodynamic models.
An aerodynamic simulation of the MEXICO rotor was carried out
by Herraez et al. [56], which investigated the ability of the Spalart-
Allmaras turbulence model to predict blade pressure distributions and
axial wind speed for said rotor under fully attached ow, design case
and post-stall conditions. A steady state analysis was carried out for the

9
 Table 4
Summation of structural modelling investigations.

Part A
J.M. O'Brien et al.

Author Bechly et al. [113] Yoo et al. [114] Laird et al. [106] Jensen et al. [89] Dobrev et al. [115] Chen et al. [98]
Year 1997 2001 2005 2006 2007 2009
Type 1 blade 1 pre-twisted Hollow 1 blade 2-bladed HAWT 3 blades simplified
modelled blade cylinder (TNI) (TNI) to rectangular cantilever
beams
NACA 4412 (TNI) and a tapered cylindrical tower
(TNI)

Material 2.5 m breglass (composite) n/a n/a 34 m composite blade n/a Glass Reinforced Plastic
CFD Panel code of n/a n/a n/a Hybrid model by A wind velocity time
Model(s) [116] Srensen et al. [117] and series was simulated by
Used Massouh et al. [118] harmony superposition
method

Structural STRAND6, Equations of motion ANSYS MSC-Patran Laminate ANSYS A dynamic FEM model
Model(s)/Solver for vibration. Obtained modular version 2001r3 was generated based on the
Used from Kane et al. [119] vibration equation of the tower
including blade-tower coupling

Elements Thin shell elements n/a Layered shell elements Shell elements, n/a n/a
Used (material), with nodes offset brick elements
brick elements
(glue and filler)

Meshing Meshed using FORTRAN n/a Meshed with respect to Mesh sensitivity Not mentioned n/a

10
Procedure Stacking of blade cell aspect ratio, study not mentioned
Outlined based on previous trial varying no. of cells
and error study and cell radius/thickness
2400 shell elements ratio
500 brick elements

Characteristics Blade deflection, Blade natural frequencies, Bending Stress, Spar web deflection, Aerodynamic flap moment Blade tip displacement,
Investigated blade natural frequencies, mode shapes, shear stress spar cap deflection, blade base shear,
skin peeling measurements displacement at tower top

Comments Validated against
experimental data
Nonlinear analysis is
needed to account for
centrifugal stiffening
Validated against
Carnegie et al. [120] and
Dokumaci et al. [121]
Pre-twisted blades can be
effected by natural
frequency loci veering
(Intersection of different modes)
Stand alone study Validated against Validated against Stand alone study
to investigate cell types experimental data NREL Phase VI case Blade-tower coupling
Layer shell elements with Nonlinear analysis is Hybrid model was has a serious impact on
offset nodes predict required for blades under shown to reduce on blade tip displacement,
torsional stiffness large deflections time and computational blade base shear and
inaccurately Blade experienced both expense tower deflection
linear and nonlinear effects
(anticlastic and Brazier effects)

Part B
Author Hoogedoorn et al. [122] Fedorov et al. [107] Bazilevs et al. [101] Park et al. [123] Kessentini et al. [124] Lin et al. [125]
Bazilevs et al. [99]

Year 2010 2010 20102011 2010 2010 2010

Type 1-blade 1 blade 1 blade (120) 1 blade Flexible tower and 1 blade
2D model 8 m section of periodicity blades (TNI)
a 23 m blade (TNI)

Material n/a 4 x UD1200 Fibreglass-epoxy n/a n/a Fibre Reinforced

(continued on next page)
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
 Table 4 (continued)

Part A

fibre angle=25 composite Plastic

J.M. O'Brien et al.

CFD XFOIL N/A Residual-based variational n/a n/a n/a

Model(s) multiscale (RBVMS) formulation
Used of the NS equations of
incompressible flow
Bazilevs et al. [101]

Structural Matlab PDE ABAQUS, Kirchhoff-Love shell Linear equations of motion An Euler-Bernoulli Combined Analytical
Model(s)/Solver toolbox ANSYS and theory and the based on works by beam approximation and Finite Element Beam
Used MSC NASTRAN Bending strip method Bae et al. [126], adapted for blade-tower model (CAFB) with an
Bae et al. [127] and interaction modelling inclination angle
Choi et al. [128] correction

Elements Not mentioned Shell elements Thin shell elements n/a n/a Beam Elements
Used (ABAQUS and ANSYS)
Shell and solid elements
(MSC NASTRAN)

Meshing Triangular mesh with
Procedure nodal positions used
Outlined Meshed based on XFOIL
mesh. Concentrated at leading
and
trailing edge where gradients are
strongest (not detailed)
Models use outer surface of Mesh based on ply layup n/a n/a Shear centres of
blade for geometric and position (plys blade profiles used
modelling were assumed to have to align elements
MSC NASTRAN - Laminates the same thickness)
modelled with shell elements
Core material and

11
adhesive bonds with solid elements

Characteristics Cl, Flapwise deflection, Pressure contours, Dimensionless natural Mode shapes, Blade deflection,
Investigated Cd, rotation about pitch axis, torque, frequencies vs natural frequencies, comparison of model
for rigid and flexible, blade displacement, tip deflection, rotational speed effect of pitch angle convergence between CAFB
models (Done for the blade in time history of blade twist Cn, on linear response time and FEM,
pure bending, isosurfaces of near wake, Cp (time varying), stiffness vs fibre orientation,
bending-torsion and mean velocity, mean velocity stiffness vs blade length
pure torsion stress contours

Comments Validated against numerical
works in the literature
A flexible blade was shown to
experience stall at higher
pitch angles than rigid
counterpart
Validated against
experimental works by
Dimitrov [130]
Pure shell element models with
elements offset to the geometry
poorly predict torsional
characteristics
(offset techniques are related to
the problem)
Shell/solid hybrid models
recommended
Validated against
NREL Phase VI case.
Influence of tower on
aerodynamics
and blade loading noted.
as warranting investigation
Model capable of predicting
torque and blade deflections
Compared against
the Guideline for the
Certication of Oshore
Wind Turbines (2005)
Stretching of blade during
operation
changed stiffness (centrifugal
stiffening) which changed natural
frequency values
Stand alone study Validated against
Pitch angle and blade Jung et al. [129]
orientation does not Hybrid model greatly
effect natural reduced computational and
frequency values time expense
However, small tower Inclination angle correction
tower vibrations lead is effective in small
to important blade fibre orientations
deflections

Part C
Author Lee et al. [93] Hsu et al. [108] Braaten et al. [92] Cai et al. [131] Ke et al. [110] Jeong et al. [132]
Year 2012 2012 2013 2013 2014 2014
Type 1 blade 3-bladed HAWT 1 blade 1 blade 3-blades HAWT 1-blade
(TNI) Tower included (TNI) (TNI) Tower included (TNI)
(continued on next page)
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
 Table 4 (continued)

Part A

Two other cases

J.M. O'Brien et al.

(rotor only)

Material Fibre Reinforced Plastic Not mentioned Not mentioned UD tape, Not mentioned Not mentioned
balsa wood,
foam,
composite plys

CFD BEM and XFoil Low-order Hybrid RANS/Vortex line k- SST Harmony superposition k- SST with
Model(s) 2D solver finite-element based method method and modified BEM Du-Selig stall model
Used ALE-VMS technique theory
Structural ABAQUS NURBS-based ANSYS Mechanical and ANSYS ANSYS ANSYS
Model(s)/Solver isogeometric analysis (Large deflection beam
Used (IGA) theory)
Governed by Kirchoff-Love
composite shell formulation
and bending strip method

Elements Not mentioned Thin composite shells Shell elements Shell elements Shell elements Not mentioned
Used (SHELL181) (shell99 for outer surface) (SHELL91 for both the
(shell91 for inner shear webs) blades and the tower)
nacelle - BEAM189 elements,
foundation - SOLID65 elements

Meshing Not mentioned Mesh refined in blade region Computed using ICEM CFD Computed using UG NX Mesh convergence study was
Procedure based on growth ratio 6800 quadrilateral shell Grid-independence analysis carried out to determine

12
Outlined elements carried out based on appropriate panel distribution
Cimbala [133] (30 spanwise and 5
chordwise mesh)

Characteristics Blade pressure distribution, Aerodynamic torque, Flap, edge and torsional Cp (2D and 3D), Influence of centrifugal force Tip wake positions,
Investigated Cl vs , (Time varying), modes, streamlines (stall), effect on natural frequencies, Cp distributions,
blade displacement, blade tip displacement, tip displacement, natural frequencies vibration modes, AoA change with velocity,
blade twist, mean velocity, induced twist on the blade, flapwise deflections, fluctuating wind speeds, radial distribution of
power output strains on blade Von Mises stress distribution, wind spectrum curves, tangential forces,
eigen buckling loading on the rotor, natural frequencies,
Cp, blade deflections,
tower displacements aeroelastic damping of
tower displacements flapwise and edgewise modes

Comments Aerodynamic loads
validated against
Chen et al. [134].
Model showed that blades
experienced twist in the
foil sections as well as
flapwise deformation
Twist behaviour of blades
effects power generation
Validated against
Jonkman et al. [100] and
Srensen et al. [49]
The presence of the tower
produces a 1012%
drop in aerodynamic torque
(influence fatigue life of
blades)
Models verified
against results from
an ADAMS model GH-Bladed and BEM
(simplified beam
representation of the
blades)
Hybrid models have
the potential to reduce
computational expense and
maintain accuracy
Aerodynamic loads verified Stand alone study
against certification software Complex blade-tower
coupling can lead to
multimode coupling
The centrifugal force effect
had a serious impact on
natural frequency values
Study neglected nonlinear
and aeroelastic effects
Aerodynamic loads verified
against NREL Phase VI
case
Wake effects may have
considerable influence on
dynamic stability of
edgewise modes

Part D
Author Motta-Mena et al. [102] Mo et al. [135] Rezaei et al. [112] MacPhee et al. [90] Hu et al. [111]
Year 2014 2015 2015 2015 2015
Type 1 blade 1 blade 1 blade 3-bladed rotor 3-bladed rotor
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Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
 Table 4 (continued)

Part A

(TNI) (TNI) (TNI) (TNI) Tower included

J.M. O'Brien et al.

Material Ply layups as Not mentioned Not mentioned Varying polyurethane Carbon fibre-reinforced
specified in mixtures blades and a concrete
Resor [136] foundation

CFD Actuator Line model Modified BEM with BEM theory as Reynolds averaged Field data
Model(s) ALM see Beddoes-Leishman (BL) outlined in turbulence model in the
Used Srensen et al. [117] dynamic stall model Hodges et al. [137] Arbitrary Langrangian Eulerian
(ALE) format

Structural Structural dynamics solver
Model(s)/Solver based on modal summation
Used techniques (Used to
evaluate structural
displacements)
ABAQUS - used to solve for the
natural frequencies and mode
shapes
Blade is divided up into
a multi-body system (MBS)
using super-elements (SE)
Nonlinear beam formulation An FSI algorithm based 3D FEM model
based on large strain theories on work by as described in
Converted into a ROM Tukovic et al. [138] Thens et al. [139]
based on the Galerkin
method

Elements Not mentioned Not mentioned Not mentioned Not mentioned Not mentioned

Used
Meshing Details of mesh refinement Not mentioned Mesh convergence study Meshing procedure Not mentioned
Procedure are given carried out based on for CFD aspect is outlined
Outlined blade tip deflections (Not for structural

13
and blade frequency model)

Characteristics Bend-twist coupling,
Investigated variation of AoA,
aerodynamic force on blade,
power generated,
blade tip displacement
In-plane deflection
(Time varying),
out-of-plane deflection
(Time varying),
AoA vs time,
edgewise bending moment,
flapwise bending moment,
Cl vs AoA,
comparative data between
steady and unsteady models
Inertial and stiffness
blade properties,
natural frequencies,
dominant DOFs,
comparison between FEM,
ROM and FAST models
blade tip deflections,
comparison between linear
and nonlinear time responses
Torque,
blade pressure distribution,
displacement and Cauchy
stress magnitudes
Acceleration signals along
both main and secondary
wind directions,
temperature fluctuations,
rotation of blades,
pitch angle of blades,
nacelle angle,
rotation speed vs wind velocity,
pitch angle vs wind velocity,
modal analysis

Comments Aerodynamic loads
validated against
Resor [136].
Model showed that bend-twist
coupling has a major
impact on blade AoA
during operation
(can lead to a reduction
in generated power)
Aerodynamic loads
validated against
Jonkman et al. [100]
Blade designs not based
on aeroelastic analysis
tend to be conservative
Dynamic stall can lead to circulatory
hysteresis characteristics and
cause more violent blade vibrations
Variance values of blade root
bending moments of the unsteady
model exceed predictions
by the steady model by
100%
Model validated
against full FEM model
created in ANSYS
and against FAST
model
Results indicate that torsional
DOFs are important
The existence of nonlinear
coupled terms leads
to large amplitudes in
blade deflections in the
flapwise and torsional
directions
Validated against
experimental data
Flexible rotor is
superior to it's rigid
counterpart interms of
power production
(generated more shaft
torque)
Passive deflection of
the blades acted as
a stall delay
Morphing blades have a 67%
greater operational range
Validated against prototype
of Areva multibrid M5000
(German offshore wind energy
test field)
Significant resonance was noted
as the fundamental
frequency of the tower matched
that of the harmonic frequency
induced
by the rotating blades
The Sommerfeld effect was also
noted with it aggravating
the resonance problem

Note: TNI is defined as Tower not Included

Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124

n/a is defined as Not available

J.M. O'Brien et al.
fully attached ow case (wind speed=10 m/s) since no signicant ow
separation or unsteady eects were expected. Both the design case
(wind speed=15 m/s) and post-stall case (wind speed=24 m/s) were
run as transient analysis's. The study highlighted that the Spalart-
Allmaras model was capable of predicting blade pressure distributions
for the design case but results were poor when compared to the post-
stall case. The model predicted no signicant underpressure in large
blade sections for the post-stall case and Herraez et al. [56] noted that
the Spalart-Allmaras model is known for performing well with attached
ows but has great diculty modelling separated ows. The inability of
low-order models to predict stalled conditions seems to generate a
trend within the read literature with Srensen et al. [49], Mandas et al.
[54] and Yu et al. [57] encountering similar diculties.
The model was compared to axial wind data for all three cases with
experimental data recorded using PIV measurement techniques.
Ripples in the experimentally recorded axial wind data for the design
case and the post-stall case provided evidence of the presence of
vortices in the region. The Spalart-Allmaras model predicted the
presence of these ripples for the post-stall satisfactorily. For the design
case, the numerical results did not predict the oscillating axial ow as
recorded by experimental data. At the design case, the stall-onset
begins, however the Spalart-Allmaras model still predicted fully
attached ow at this point.
Overall the most popular turbulence models currently being used
are the RANS and DES models with higher delity models being
preferred where the turbine blade is stalled. As noted by Sanderse et al.
[58], the standard k- and k- models usually result in too diusive
wakes, meaning the velocity decit is too small and the turbulent
intensity does not show the distinct peaks observed in the experiments.
5. Fluid-structure interaction modelling
The following section reviews the structural modelling attempts
made for HAWT structures. A list of the studies is presented in Table 4.
Additionally, a brief summary of popular aeroelastic codes used in the
industry is provided.
5.1. Aeroelastic codes
The earliest work on dynamic modelling of wind turbine blades was
carried out by Friedmann [75]. The study modelled the equation of
motion of a single turbine blade assumed as an elastic beam with a
rigid root section and a free moving tip. However, as blades have
increased in length and exibility, the capability of classical beam
theory to model the structural dynamics of turbine blades is no longer
sucient [76]. Classical beam theory assumes small blade deections
where the beam is loaded in the lateral direction. This is not the case
with wind turbine blades as they are subjected to both apwise and
edgewise blade deections. Additionally, the assumption of small blade
deections is no longer relevant as turbine blades are quite exible,
particularly regarding large scale turbine facilities. Therefore, the area
of structural modelling of wind turbine blades has moved towards the
need for non-linear beam theory based models with less assumptions
required [76]. Several aeroelastic codes have been developed over the
years in an attempt to meet these demands with many based on either
FE, modal or Multibody Dynamics (MBD) approaches.
The FE approach discretizes the structure of interest (in this case a
wind turbine blade) into smaller elements known as nite elements.
From this, the problem is resolved on a local level (at each nite
element) to resolve for engineering parameters such as stress and
displacement. The equations that govern these nite elements are
integrated into a larger system of equations to provide an analysis of
the entire structure. The method has the advantage of fewer restric-
tions regarding the type of conguration to consider such as geome-
trical and material nonlinearity [76]. This allows for a more complex
deformation of the turbine blade to be produced [77]. Unfortunately,
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Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
high degrees of freedom associated with this model leads to high
computational demands. This method is often used as minimal input
such as blade mass and stiness distribution can result in a reasonably
accurate model. As outlined in the following paragraphs, the modal and
MBD approaches require specic data and an intimate knowledge of
the blade structure in order to accurately setup the models.
The modal approach describes the dynamic properties of a struc-
ture by constructing the model with assumed mode shapes. The
accuracy of this approach is dependant on the number and accuracy
of the assumed mode shapes. For wind turbine analysis, usually the
lowest eigenvalues such as 1st and 2nd apwise and edgewise modes
are used [76]. The model provides a fast and robust modelling
technique [77]. The model is limited to a xed number of degrees of
freedom and the assumption of linearity [76]. The model is suitable for
modelling known blades where the structural properties of the blade
are known (mode shapes are easily determined). The model is
unsuitable for modelling structures where the composition of the
structure is unknown, as obtaining accurate modal data is dicult
when experimental data does not exist. Additionally, focusing on the
1st and 2nd apwise and edgewise modes does not take into account
the torsional modes of the structure. Torsional rigidity of a blade
structure is important as oscillating angle of attack values of the blade
during operation change the pressure eld around the blade. This in
turn would inuence blade deection.
The MBD approach simplies a structure into nite elements
consisting of rigid and exible bodies. The bodies are interconnected
through various kinematic constraints, which t the dierent compo-
nents into the complete conguration [77]. The model is eectively a
combination of the best attributes associated with both the FE and
model approaches. The model requires less sets of equations of motion
and non-linearity is considered [76]. However, the setup of the model
is dicult, as each sub-assembly of the model must be dened by a
suitable MBD representation. Hansen et al. [77] recommended the use
of symbolic mathematics software to help overcome this issue.
The above approaches provide the theoretical foundation for
aeroelastic codes (structural aspect) used in the area. A comprehensive
list of aeroelastic codes is provided by Ageze et al. [76] and Buhl et al.
[78]. The review by Ageze et al. [76] has shown that all aeroelastic
codes refer to the BEM model to compute aerodynamic loads.
Therefore, a brief summary of the BEM model is provided.
The BEM model computes the aerodynamics loads over a wind
turbine blade by segmenting the blade into a number of elements. 2D
aerofoil data is used to calculate the aerodynamic load acting on each
individual element. The total load experienced by the blade is the
summation of the individual loads of each segment. However, the
model is dependant on empirical corrections for 3D aerodynamic
eects [4] and the model is highly reliant on 2D aerofoil data. Simple
corrections to account for rotational eects up to stall have been
proposed by Du and Selig [79], Chaviaropoulos and Hansen [80] and
Snel et al. [81]. After stall has occurred, correction formulas by Viterna
and Corrigan [82] are used.
Used in an aeroelastic code, for every timestep the aerodynamic
loads must be calculated at each segmented position on the blade to be
used as input to the structural solver. Often XFOIL is used to compute
the aerofoil data required for the BEM solver. XFOIL is known to give
accurate aerofoil data when the blade is operating in pre-stall condi-
tions [4], but the model is often inaccurate when predicting Cl max
values for stalled conditions. This is because the viscous part of the
XFOIL solver is based on the integral boundary layer separation
equations, which are not valid at separation [4]. Despite this, the
BEM model is often used as it is computationally cheap and fast.
Considering the above approaches, it is dicult to determine when
an advanced FE model should be used over simple one-dimensional
beam models for wind turbine blade analysis. The decision to use either
a simplied beam model or a full shell model depends on a number of
factors. For instance, the computing power available as well as the
J.M. O'Brien et al.
anticipated solution times are usually deciding factors in many areas of
FEA/CFD. While academic researchers may have access to large
distributed memory machines, industry practitioners more than likely
will not have these resources. Beam models are very ecient in terms
of computing requirements, and solution times allowing for consider-
able numbers of fully dynamic models to be processed in a relatively
short time. This is particularly important for the determination of
fatigue loading on wind turbine blades and estimating the eects of
turbulence on power production. Shell models are typically 10100
times more demanding in terms of resources as well as modelling
complexity. For instance generating realistic pressure distributions
over a blade at various distances form the root is very complex and
requires a shell element model. Such models are better suited to
determining the eects of average wind speed on blade deection as
well as providing typical stress and strain distributions allowing for
critically stressed areas to be located. The other use of shell models is to
generate geometric properties which are necessary for dynamic models.
Further information regarding model denitions and implementa-
tions of both the structural theories and the BEM theory for simplied
cases can be sourced in Hansen et al. [77], Srensen et al. [83], Glauert
[84] and Hansen et al. [4].
5.2. Introduction to FE modelling
Aeroelastic modelling of a wind turbine structure is a non-trivial
task. Advancements in the area are greatly hindered by both the
complexity of the computational modelling and the availability of
facilities to conduct full scale testing. Few laboratories have the
capability to carry out full scale static testing of wind turbine blades,
with even fewer again having the resources to carry out fatigue testing
[85,86]. Currently, full scale testing is only available in the United
States of America (USA), Denmark, The Netherlands and China. The
largest test facility is available in China in which a 65 m blade can be
tested. The system was built by both the Wind Energy Utilization
Laboratory and the Wind Turbine Engineering Research Centre of the
Hebei province. It was built in the recognition that full scale testing is
required to validate Finite Element (FE) models in the wake of future
multi-megawatt sized turbine facilities [2]. As noted by Zhou et al. [85],
full-scale testing is the main method available for investigating the
performance of wind turbine blades. This is simply because small
turbine blades (of the order 10 m or less) has relatively higher fatigue
margins than the large exible blades used in the eld. The above tests
only serve to characterize the actual blade (structural integrity, fatigue
life and vibration characteristics). These investigations do not investi-
gate the eect of the tower shadow and centrifugal stiening (as a blade
rotates at a high angular velocity, the eects of inertia, centrifugal and
Coriolis forces become greater. The centrifugal forces can lead to a
higher bending stiness. This is referred to as centrifugal stiening of
the blade which can alter the modal frequencies Given the above-
mentioned reasons, the advancement of FE models has been noted by
Grith et al. [87] and Lee et al. [86] as necessary to enhance the
reliability of turbine blade design.
Unfortunately, due to the expense associated with full scale
laboratory testing and limited access to eld data, many FSI models
are purely numerical with only a few compared to case studies such as
the NREL Phase VI case study. No study so far (to the knowledge of the
authors) has been carried out whereby an aeroelastic model has been
benchmarked against eld data. Of the studies that do look at blade/
tower interaction, most only model blade displacement and its eect on
productivity. Very few look at the vibrational response of the blade with
those that do often being highly simplied. Additionally, no study (to
the knowledge of the authors) has investigated the inuence of tower
shadow on the pitch of a turbine blade or the inuence of a vibrating
blade on the near wake structure. As stated by Veers et al. [88], when
pitch changes on the blades are rapid enough, it can aect not only the
aerodynamic loads on the blade but also further excite vibratory loads
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Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
which can have a negative eect of the fatigue life of the system.
Another consideration is the FE model itself. Often many FE
models need to be calibrated as the material properties of full scale
turbine blades are not disclosed. Accurate calibration of the model is
required if accurate predictions of deformation, deection and stresses
are wanted. Features such as box spar corners and adhesive joints all
have dierent properties (physical properties may dier from manu-
facturer's specications). Additionally, geometric imperfections can
cause unexpected behaviour in the blade [89]. The calibration method
used for every FE model needs to be made transparent such that the
quality of the model may be evaluated. In doing so a comprehensive
calibration method for FE models of wind turbine blades can be
established.
Considering this, the following section will provide a review of FSI
investigations carried out on wind turbine structures. There is a trend
in the literature whereby FSI investigations carried out regarding blade
displacement and turbine productivity are conducted separately to
those investigating the vibrational response of blades under aerody-
namic loading. Therefore both these areas will be reported on
separately in the following sections.
5.3. Displacement and performance
Accurate aero-elastic modelling is essential for the continued
development of wind turbine technologies. To date, most structural
modelling attempts of wind turbine blades have been based on classical
beam theory. However, as mentioned in Section 1, increased turbine
size has further complicated both the structural and aerodynamic
characteristics of turbine blades which had led to the need for
transient, comprehensive FSI simulations [90]. Increased blade size
has resulted in turbine blades becoming more exible. Classic beam
theory assumes that all blade deections are small. However, as blade
sizes increase, large deformations are possible, therefore the use of
second-order non-linear beam theory is required. A review of the
structural modelling process of wind turbines has highlighted that the
use of 3D uid solvers coupled with second-order non-linear FE codes
is essential for furthering both aero-elastic and aeroacoustic research
[77]. A study carried out by Kretz et al. [91] concluded that all three
turbulence components of the ow are required in order to obtain
accurate blade loading of turbine blades. This further highlights the
need for the wind loading over turbine blades to be solved using 3D
solvers. As stated by Braaten et al. [92], high delity 3D aerodynamic
models are required to provide detailed distributions of the 3D
aerodynamic loads to the structural solver whereby local stresses and
strains within the blade structure can be analysed. Beam-based FSI
models are useful for measuring basic load information over a blade
but are not sucient to provide the distribution of 3D aerodynamic
loads. Additionally, beam models are unable to predict the twist
response of blades under aerodynamic loading which can lead to
inaccurately predicted pressure loads over the blade [93].
Considering the scale of modern turbine facilities, single blade
models or the modelling of the incomplete turbine structure is no
longer sucient. This is because large composite turbine blades exhibit
signicant exibility under loading conditions. Therefore, all three
blades cannot be considered identical during operation, as the loading
condition changes over one complete revolution. Absence of the tower
structure results in transient eects between the tower and turbine
blades to be ignored. Blades passing in front of the tower experience a
reduction in the pressure distribution over the blades. This combined
with the rotation of the blade can introduce a cyclic reduction of
pressure and can introduce vibration to the blade. Therefore, with the
progression of wind turbines towards large exible structures, the need
for FSI modelling of the full turbine structure is becoming more
apparent. A comprehensive review of the current status of aeroelastic
modelling is given by Rasmussen et al. [94] and Hansen et al. [77]. The
reader is also referred to Buhl et al. [78] where a comparison is made
J.M. O'Brien et al.
between several aero-elastic codes used in the USA and Europe for
wind turbine certication.
A numerical study carried out by Jensen et al. [89] investigated the
failure of a 34 m composite blade under ap-wise loading until failure.
Dierent to other studies, the current FE model also investigated the
interaction of the internal blade structures to the ap-wise loading, in
particular the load carrying box girder. The model was developed using
the commercial solver MSC-Marc version 2001. The blade was
modelled using brick and composite shell elements. The shell elements
included orthotropy for each layer based on Classic Laminate Theory
(CLT). The numerical analysis was a non-linear analysis due to the
large deections experienced by the blade. The numerical model was
calibrated against the full-scale test of a 34 m wind turbine blade. The
turbine blade was manufactured by SSP-Technology A/S and was made
out of glass-epoxy pre-preg material. Major outcomes of the experi-
mental investigation were that the blade experiences a non-linear
deformation which resulted in three distinct deformation patterns.
These patterns ranged from the root section (04 m), a transition
region (48 m) and the region of the blade where the box girder was
inset (834 m). However, for this study only the box girder region was
looked at in detail.
It was noted that the box girder experienced a change in cap height
and curvature when loaded. This was attributed to the Brazier eect
[95], rst observed by L.G. Brazier in 1927 [96]. This occurs when a
straight tube is subjected to a bending moment, the longitudinal
compression and tension which resist the bending, results in the tube
cross-section becoming oval in shape. This resulted in de-bonding of
the outer skin of the blade from the girder (to the best of the authors
knowledge, this is the only FE model that has demonstrated this
phenomenon) which had a major impact on the failure of the blade.
The FE model was capable of predicting the Brazier eect. Numerically
measured cap deections were comparable with experimental data (see
Fig. 3A) however, deections of the leading and trailing edge shear
webs were not satisfactory with loads greater than 80% of the ultimate
load (see Fig. 3B). This highlighted that more work needed to be done
regarding the modelling of internal structures in turbine blades.
It was noted that despite the errors associated with the deformation
of the box girder, the overall ap-wise blade deection showed exact
agreement with experimental data with the vibrational modes captured
accurately also. The above study caused Jensen et al. [89] to question
the internal structure of a wind turbine blade and noted that the
possible use of ribs within the blade structure could be used to counter
the Brazier eect (acknowledging the weight cost associated with this
design concept).
The importance of understanding and modelling the Brazier eect
was noted by Brndsted et al. [97], who underlined the importance of
nonlinear nite element modelling for blade analysis. Longitudinal
compressive and tensile stresses which occur during the Brazier eect
result in transverse stresses towards the neutral plane of the blade.
These stresses, referred to as crushing pressure, reduce the bending
stiness of that blade section. These are also shown to increase with the
square of the longitudinal curvature of the blade. Therefore, if blades
continue to increase in size and exibility this phenomenon becomes
more dominant.
Chen et al. [98] investigated the wind-induced response of a wind
turbine tower and investigated the blade-tower coupling eect (related
to tower shadow eect dened in Section 3.1). This investigation was
purely numerical with the mean wind velocity of the rotating blades
simulated according to wind shear eects. A dynamic FE model was
used to calculate the response of the blades and the tower. The study
investigated two cases, one involved modelling the entire rotor and
taking the blade-tower coupling eect into consideration, while the
other assumed a simplied geometry whereby the rotor and the hub
were modelled as a singular mass placed on top of the tower structure.
The modelled turbine was made of a steel tower with a tapered cross
section and three 30 m long Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) blades.
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Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
The model predicted a large increase in tower displacement
(displacement of the tower was recorded from the top of the tower
structure) in comparison to the simplied model. Tower displacement
increased by 300% when the eects of blade-tower coupling was
considered. The study showed that the blades were quite exible and
were prone to violent vibrational responses. The study highlighted the
strong coupling between the vibrational response of the blades and the
forces transferred to the tower structure and identied the importance
of modelling blade-tower coupling when designing future turbine
structures.
A FSI model of a wind turbine rotor was developed by Bazilevs et al.
[99] in a two paper series. The model was a two-blade horizontal rotor
and was veried against the NREL 5 MW oshore turbine facility
dened by Jonkman et al. [100]. The rotor was modelled using non-
uniform rational B-splines (NURBS) and the structure was governed by
the rotation-free Kircho-Love shell theory with the aid of the bending
strip method which is used to resolve dynamic phenomena within the
simulation. The composite blades were modelled as symmetric com-
posite laminates, homogenized in the through-thickness direction.
Numerical results gave a good prediction of the torque loads and tip
deections of the blades. Discrepancies between the numerical results
and the data recorded from the NREL 5 MW facility was put down to
the fact that none of the interior structural components of the blades
were accounted for. Additionally, the error between both sets of results
could be attributed to the early prediction of stall over the blades. This
was noted in the rst paper of the series where the uid ow around the
turbine was investigated [101]. Insucient mesh on the blades
combined with an unfavourable growth rate outside the boundary
layer mesh was mentioned as the root cause of early ow separation.
One major conclusion of the study was the need to address the issue of
including the tower structure. The tower structure has a signicant
inuence on both the aerodynamics and structural loading of turbine
blades and as a result, rotor/tower interaction needs to be taken into
account.
Further FSI modelling was carried out by Lee et al. [93] to
investigate the reaction of bre reinforced plastic (FRP) blades under
aerodynamic loads. This work was carried out using the FE code
ABAQUS. Contrary to the work carried out by Bazilevs et al. [99], this
study modelled the internal support structures of the blades. These
included the shear web and spar caps. The aerodynamic pressure
distributions were calculated for each aerofoil section using the open
source analytic tool Xfoil at ten blade locations. Xfoil was used to
calculate the aerodynamic properties of each aerofoil section under
various inow angles of attack. Pressure coecient distributions for
various foil sections as well as various relative inow angles of attack
were computed by Xfoil using a Reynolds number 3106 determined
mainly by the chord length and inow velocity at various sections of the
blades. The distributions of pressure coecient over each foil had to be
calculated during each stage of the uid-structure interactive process.
The input loads for ABAQUS were dened as the continual changing
pressure distribution over the blades. In addition, both the centrifugal
forces caused by blade rotation and gravitational forces were included
in the simulation. This study showed that small deviations from the
designed optimum angle of attack along the blade span can lead to
considerable losses in power. Power losses as large as 17% were
recorded. These losses were incurred because the aeroelastic charac-
teristics of the blades were not considered in the initial blade design
process.
Similar results were noted by Motta-Mena et al. [102], whereby a
wind turbine FSI model was developed using an actuator line solver
and a structural dynamics solver in a tightly-coupled implementation.
A comparison was made between both a exible and rigid turbine rotor
in order to investigate the importance of blade exibility. Results
showed that introducing a exible blade into the simulation had an
impact on the angle of attack value determined by the Actuator Line
Model (ALM) solver with bend-twist coupling (as a turbine blade bends
J.M. O'Brien et al.
Fig. 3. Comparison of cap deections (A) and web deections (B) adapted from Jensen et al. [89].
in the ow direction because of aerodynamic loading, it has a tendency
to twist also. This is know as bend-twist coupling) of the blade having
the largest impact on the angle of attack. This in turn resulted in
dierences between the force, power generated and tip displacements
recorded by both the rigid and exible blade models. A lower angle of
attack was noted at 75% blade span for the exible model in
comparison to the rigid model. This resulted in a decrease of 1.5% in
generated power.
A similar investigation was carried out by MacPhee et al. [90] where
the performance characteristics of both a rigid and morphing turbine
rotor were investigated. FSI simulations were conducted using the
nite volume software OpenFOAMand compared to experimental
data. The rigid blades were designed to be geometrically identical to the
exible blades under zero load. It was shown that the exible rotor
performed with a 67% increase in average power production over the
operational range. However, power calculations used wind tunnel area
as opposed to turbine swept area. This was due to the close proximity of
the tunnel walls to the rotor. Close proximity of the walls articially
increased the performance of the turbine as the experiment has a high
blockage ratio value. As noted in Section 2.1, the blockage ratio should
be kept in the region of 110%. The blockage ratio for the study carried
out by MacPhee et al. [90] was 86%. Theoretically, the maximum power
coecient is 16/27 (Betz limit). When the blockage ratio is low, the
turbine extracts only the kinetic energy available in the incoming ow.
Pressure far upstream and downstream of the rotor should be the same
(assuming classical actuator disc theory). However, when the blockage
ratio is high, the turbine extracts energy not only from the incoming
ow but also from the pressure head induced between the pressure far
upstream and downstream of the turbine [103]. This can result in
articially high values for performance and highlights the importance
of considering blockage ratio values when designing wind tunnel
experiments.
Additionally, the exible rotor's operational range itself increased.
Both the rigid and morphing rotors had similar cut-in speeds; however,
the morphing rotor had a larger cut-out speed. The operational range of
the exible turbine rotor was 26.8% greater than that of the rigid rotor
structure. It was shown that the increase in the operational range of the
exible rotor was due to the deection of the blades in the freestream
direction. Similar to ndings by Motta-Mena et al. [102], the aero-
dynamic loads acting on the turbine blades altered the angle of attack
of the blades. In this case, the angle of attack close to the rotor hub for
the rigid model was just under 40o which resulted in stall. However, a
slight trailing edge deection of the blade in the exible model pushed
the angle of attack to an acceptable range which increased lift and
improved both the performance and operational range of the exible
model. Additionally, the magnitude of the pressure values at the
leading edge on the suction surface of the blades was higher for the
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Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
exible model, resulting in increased lift and torque for the exible
blade design. Torque values for the exible model were 26% higher that
those recorded for the rigid model.
As shown by Lee et al. [93] and Motta-Mena et al. [102], bend-twist
coupling can have a large impact on turbine performance. However, as
turbine blades become larger, an understanding of the torsional
response of the blade becomes critical. This is because the torsional
eigenfrequency becomes smaller with increased blade size, and there-
fore, the torsional mode can couple with some of the lower bending
modes such as bend-twist. This can lead to the destruction of the blade
due to utter instability [104]. A study was carried out by Branner et al.
[104] to investigate how well dierent nite element modelling
techniques can predict the bending and torsion behaviour of a wind
turbine blade. This numerical investigation was validated against an
experimental investigation carried out by Berring et al. [105]. The
study investigates four nite element models: (A) an outer surface shell
model using shell element oset (B) a mid-thickness shell model (C) a
combined shell/solid model and (D) a modied shell/solid model with
extra UD-layers. In the last model four layers of UD1200 (uni-
directional tape) were laminated on the pressure and suction side of
the blade to create a more measurable bend-twist coupling. All models
were created using MSC.Patran. The shell elements used were 8-
noded Quad8 elements and the solid elements were the 20-noded
Hex20 elements. It was found that the outer shell model (A) was not
capable of accurately modelling torsion behaviour and bend-twist
coupling with the dierence between numerical and experimental
results as high as 32%. The mid-thickness model (B) had diculty
modelling both the apwise and edgewise bending modes. However,
both the shell/solid models (C and D) proved capable of accurately
modelling the apwise, edgewise and torsional behaviour of the turbine
blade. The use of solid elements is also supported by work carried out
by Laird et al. [106] and Fedorov et al. [107]. However, as stated by
Fedorov et al. [107] for general structural behaviour purposes, a pure
shell FE model can be used. This model also requires less computa-
tional resources than the hybrid solid/shell model approach.
A FSI model of a full turbine structure (including the tower and
nacelle) was carried out by Hsu et al. [108]. The simulation of both the
aerodynamics and the exible blades was carried out using a non-
matching interface discretization approach. The aerodynamics were
computed using a low-order nite-element based Arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian Variational Multiscale (ALE-VMS) technique.
The rotor blades were modelled as thin composite shells using
NURBS-based isogeometric analysis (IGA). This is an alternative to
FEM whereby IGA makes use of higher-order, smooth base functions
derived from the elds of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and computer
graphics. Compatible with NURBS-based CAD tools, it allows the user
to carry out design work in one go, without the need to convert data
J.M. O'Brien et al.
between CAD and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) packages.
Inclusion of the tower structure [108] was shown to greatly reduce
the aerodynamic torque over the passing blade. This is an important
feature when considering the fatigue life of turbine blades [108].
However, despite the reduction in torque, the presence of the tower
did not have a large inuence on blade tip displacement. Blade tip
displacements were compared between two cases. Case I which
modelled the entire turbine facility and Case II which only modelled
the rotor. A comparison of blade displacement for both cases showed
similar results. Finally, the FSI model used in this work captured the
unique deformation of each blade during one revolution. This resulted
in the non non-symmetric loading of the rotor. It was concluded that
eccentric loads must therefore be transferred to the hub and nacelle of
the turbine, making accurate FSI models not only essential for blade
design but also the design of the turbine structure in general.
A high delity FSI model of a GE wind turbine blade was created
by Braaten et al. [92]. The aerodynamic loads were simulated using the
nite volume software ANSYS CFX. Aerodynamic analysis was
carried out using a hybrid RANS/Vortex Line method. The RANS
analysis was applied in the blade region to suciently model the 3D
aerodynamics loads over the blade. The vortex line method was applied
to the far eld. This method allowed for the ow to be simulated to a
high degree of accuracy around the blade while reducing time and
computational costs in the far eld analysis. The structural modelling
of the blade was carried out using ANSYSMechanical using compo-
site shell nite elements. The analysis was applied to a single
Aerodynamic Twist (AT) blade. A blade with aerodynamic twist is
designed to untwist as aerodynamic loads increase. It is used as a
method to passively relieve wind loading.
The blade was modelled using a simplied isotropic shell model as a
means to develop the FSI model. The internal structures such as the
spar cap and shear web were also modelled using shell elements. The
model was compared to pre-existing modelling results from the solver
ADAMS(an Automated Dynamics Analysis of Mechanical Systems
solver) to ensure the ANSYSmodel behaved correctly. Initially the
isotropic shell model was not yielding realistic results for blade
deection and twist. However, by reducing the shell thickness of the
skin and stiener of the blade by a factor of two, the prediction of blade
displacement was improved. The composite shell model compared
much closer with ADAMSpredictions without the need to alter the
original parameters of the simulation. Fig. 4 shows a comparison of
normalised tip displacement against iterations for both the isotropic
and composite shell models (values normalised against ADAMS
results). However, the induced twist on the blades was not accurately
captured by the simplied isotropic model but this was put down to the
fact that the rst torsional mode was not accurately modelled in
comparison to the ap and edge modes [92].
From the aforementioned investigations regarding FSI modelling, it
is clear that in order to progress wind turbine technology, further work
needs to be carried out in this area. It has been shown that FSI models
are not only needed to improve the fatigue life of blades but also to
improve both blade design and power generation. Additionally, the
large variation of modelling strategies and dierent shell elements used
proves that a lot of work is yet needed to develop a comprehensive FSI
modelling strategy. With the continual advancement of (High
Performance Computer) HPC technology, future work needs to con-
centrate on the FSI modelling of the full turbine facility. Only by doing
can a fuller understanding of the dynamic phenomena associated with
HAWT designs and how this eects the structural characteristics of a
wind turbine be realised.
5.4. Blade vibrational response
Pre-twisted blades are present in several engineering sectors such
as turbomachinery, aircraft rotary wings and wind energy. As noted in
Section 5.2, the modal characteristics of a rotating structure can vary
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Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
due to centrifugal stiening. Additionally, the rotor can be subjected
to non-symmetric loads which can result in the unique deformation of
each blade. This again can have an impact on the modal frequencies of
the blades as each blade now has its own unique shape which impacts
its torsional rigidity. A study carried out by Motta-Mena et al. [102]
highlighted that as blade size increases, the frequency at which the rst
bending and torsional modes act can coincide and result in bend-twist
coupling. This can have major implications for the reliability of the
blade structure as well as its fatigue life. As noted by Braaten et al. [92]
to properly design a turbine blade, knowledge of the bending and
induced twist of the blade due to aerodynamic loading is essential.
Investigating this relationship requires the use of FSI simulations
whereby the optimum amount of pre bend and pre-twist for a turbine
blade can be determined.
A study by Staino et al. [109] modelled the variation of blade
vibrations with changing rotor speed. A multi-modal mathematical
model using a Lagrangian approach was developed which described the
dynamic response of a turbine blade and its interaction with the tower
structure. The 63 m blades were modelled considering variable mass
and stiness per unit length. The model included the eects of gravity
and centrifugal stiening on the blades due to rotation. The aim of the
model was to study the impact of electrical faults on the vibrational
response of a wind turbine facility. Electrical faults in wind turbines
can lead to changes in torque and rotor speed [109]. It was hoped that
understanding the interaction between blade loading and vibrational
response would reduce maintenance costs and possibly lead to the
development of damping devices for wind turbines. The structural
model was coupled with an aerodynamic model based on the Blade
Element Momentum (BEM) theory of Hansen [39]. All numerical
results were compared against the NREL oshore 5 MW wind turbine
case study of Jonkman et al. [100].
Results showed that an increase in rotor speed due to an electrical
fault can dramatically increase the vibrational response of a turbine
blade. This in turn can have a signicant impact on the structural
performance of the turbine, particularly if preventative monitors and
devices are not installed on the facility. A vibration controller was
modelled to highlight the need for preventive devices in turbine
structures. The uncontrolled blade experiences severe displacement
uctuations with a maximum value of 5 m (Fig. 5), which could lead to
tower strike. However, blade displacement is dramatically reduced
when the introduction of a vibrational control system. The vibrational
control system is based on active actuators inside the blade. These can
provide variable forces according to a prescribed control law in order to
inhibit the vibrational response of the blades. The controlled blade
experienced vastly reduced blade displacements with the maximum
blade response below 1 m.
A numerical study was also carried out by Ke et al. [110] whereby
an FSI model was created based on a designed 5 MW turbine facility in
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics. The structural
model was developed using ANSYS. Both the turbine tower and
blades were modelled using SHELL91 (element is dened by eight
nodes with six degrees of freedom at each node) elements. The nacelle
and its internal structures were modelled using BEAM189 (element is
based on Timoshenko beam theory, has three nodes and six degrees of
freedom per node) elements. The foundation of the structure was
modelled using SOLID65 (element is dened by eight nodes and has
three degrees of freedom per node) elements. The centrifugal force was
applied to the blades before modal analysis by applying a pre-stressing
force over the turbine blades. As mentioned in Section 5.2, centrifugal
stiening can increase the stiness of the blades. This was character-
ized by Ke et al. [110] in Fig. 6. It can be seen that with the centrifugal
force accounted for, the natural frequencies are increased in compar-
ison to the case where the centrifugal force is ignored.
The study [110] carried out power spectral density analysis of the
incoming wind speeds to characterise the frequency spectrum gener-
ated by the uctuating velocity components in the ow. Fig. 7 shows
J.M. O'Brien et al. Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124

Fig. 4. Tip displacement vs iterations for (A) isotropic and (B) composite shell models adapted from Braaten et al. [92].

the time history and the spectrum curve of uctuating wind speed at
hub height. The spectrum curve has a cut-o frequency of 1 Hz. This
study showed excitation of the 4th, 7th and 12th modes of the turbine
blades who's frequencies range from 1.5 to 4 Hz. This was attributed to
complex modal responses of wind turbine tower-blade coupled struc-
tures. The study concluded that the inclusion of the centrifugal force on
the blades was necessary since it has a direct impact on the modal
frequencies of the blade. Since the rotation of the blade causes
centrifugal stiening, the study also showed that the inclusion of
centrifugal forces on the blades leads to a reduction of the shearing
forces recorded at the blade root. This occurred as the centrifugal eect
amplied the natural frequency of vibration of the blades and therefore
reduced the dynamic responses and the wind vibration coecient of
the system. Additionally, the inclusion of the tower structure is also
important. As explained, the uctuating velocity components in the
wind are not entirely to blame for vibrations on a wind turbine blade.
The reduction of pressure over the blade as it passes through the tower
shadow can introduce cyclic loading which excites a vibrational
response.
A similar study was carried out by Hu et al. [111] where the
resonance phenomenon of a 5 MW wind turbine was investigated. This
study is quite rare considering the numerical FSI model is compared to
eld data for validation. As mentioned in Section 5.2, access to large
full scale facilities is dicult and full-scale testing itself is often not
feasible for most academic institutions. The study highlighted that
blades that pass in front of the tower experience various frequencies
related to several vibration modes. This is similar to results seen by Ke
et al. [110], where the presence of the tower excited both the 4th, 7th
and 12th modes of the turbine blades.
An interesting phenomenon that was observed [111] was the
Sommerfeld eect, which can be explained as follows; a turbine's
rotational speed can increase with increased energy supply (freestream
velocity). Eventually, the turbine will approach a fundamental fre-
quency . However, the rotational speed will remain constant even
when the energy supply is increased. During this period, the vibration
amplitude of the structure can increase. Eventually when the energy
supply exceeds a critical limit the rotor speed will increase and the
vibration amplitude of the structure will decrease. This phenomenon
can be clearly seen when comparing rotational speed to wind velocity
(Fig. 8).
Unfortunately, as pointed out by Hu et al. [111], this phenomenon
can be quite dangerous for a wind turbine facility. As stated above, only
when the system experiences an energy input above a critical limit can
the rotor speed increase and the structure can leave this resonant state.
However, the rotor's driving power decides whether the rotor can
increase speed or not. If the rotor's power is insucient, the structural
Fig. 5. Response of blade 1 tip displacement by Staino et al. [109].
vibration can consume the available input energy and the system may
not be able to advance. Thus the system can become stuck in
resonance. This can be seen in Fig. 8b, where the turbine facility was
stuck in resonance for a period of time.
A more recent study was carried out by Rezaei et al. [112]. In this
study a Reduced Order Model (ROM) for the nonlinear dynamics of a
wind turbine blade under operational loading was presented. ROM
models are often preferred over traditional commercial FE models as
they are less computationally expensive. The accuracy of the model was
veried by investigating both the static and dynamic responses of the 5-
MW NREL. The ROM model is also compared to full FE simulations
(modelled on ANSYS software using 50 elements of type Beam 188 per
blade) to investigate the reliability of the ROM model. As noted by
Rezaei et al. [112], many previous beam formulations often neglect the
torsional degrees of freedom (DOF) associated with large blades. Also,
most current beam formulations have not been accessed in terms of
accuracy and reliability, which consider a turbine blade under large
deections.
It was noted by Rezaei et al. [112] that at modes higher than 4 the
torsional eect can be observed, highlighting that the torsional mode
must be considered in turbine modelling. The deection of the blade
was also monitored to see if it introduced nonlinearity into the
simulation (the linear model was generated by linearization of long-
itudinal pre-load and exclusion of non linear terms in the model
formulation). The nonlinearity eect was particularly pronounced for
both apwise and torsional deections. Additionally, the existence of
nonlinearities in the system reduced the frequency at which the rst

19
J.M. O'Brien et al.
Fig. 6. Natural frequency distribution adapted from Ke et al. [110].
edgewise mode occurs. This lead to an overall reduction of the dynamic
system stiness, which resulted in larger amplitudes predicted for the
nonlinear system (see Fig. 9).
6. Concluding remarks
Research in the area of wind turbine aerodynamics have been
ongoing since the late 1800s, however, advanced 3D numerical work in
the area is still in its infancy with many simulations simplied by
complexity and cost. In this paper, various commercial CFD codes have
been reviewed along with FE codes in an eort to establish the
limitations of each. Additionally, a brief review of HAWT wind tunnel
experiments has been presented as these investigations are still used to
validate turbulence modelling strategies.
While a range of CFD modelling strategies have been applied to
HAWT wake analysis, no completely satisfactory solution has been
reached with inaccuracies attributed to overly simplied models and
Fig. 7. Time history of (A) uctuating wind speed and (B) spectrum curve of wind speed by Ke et al. [110].
Fig. 8. Plot of rotational speed against wind velocity by Hu et al. [111].
20
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
the decision to use transition models or not. Most of the current and
past numerical work focuses on the performance of wind turbines.
However, the author contributes this to the fact that most models are
either based on earlier experimental works which noted by Vermeer
et al. [12] focused on HAWT performance or that most numerical
models are validated against the NREL Phase VI (the NREL Phase VI
study only investigated aerodynamic rotor loads and pressure distribu-
tions over the blades. No wake analysis was conducted) measurement
campaign of Hand et al. [50]. Since the review carried out by Vermeer
et al. [12], nearby experimental studies have begun to record turbu-
lence characteristics within the near wake which, could be in response
to increased turbine size. Larger exible blades are more susceptible to
the unsteady loads originating from both freestream and wake turbu-
lence.
Cost and complexity are still noted as the main obstacles when
conducting numerical HAWT research. The majority of the numerical
investigations carried out used low-order models such as the SST k-,
k- or Spalart-Allmaras models. Very few investigations used high
delity models such as LES, DES or Reynolds Stress Transport models.
Those that used low-order models (see Table 3), only ve of them were
transient simulations (again the authors note that models run with
unsteady time conditions are particularly expensive). This clearly
highlights a void in the current research whereby transient simulations
are neglected. Validation of transient simulations is required as FSI
computations are themselves unsteady by nature.
Furthermore, high-order models are required to model the dis-
tribution of wake turbulence which is necessary for computing
unsteady loads in wind farms. Wake turbulence, especially in a wind
farm setting, contributes to the unsteady loading on wind turbine
blades. However, keeping computational costs in mind, there are newly
released models available such as a new Elliptic Blending Reynolds
Stress Model (EB-RSM) released by STAR CCM+. This model was
developed to meet industrial needs whereby it is more detailed than
two equation eddy-viscosity models but not as costly as a Reynolds
Stress Transport model. This is accomplished by use of the elliptic
J.M. O'Brien et al.
Fig. 9. Comparison of linear and nonlinear transient responses and phase plots for blade tip deections under operational loading in (A) the edgewise direction, (B) apwise direction
and (C) torsional direction by Rezaei et al. [112].
relaxation concept proposed by Durbin [140], whereby the redistribu-
tive terms in the Reynolds stress equations are modelled by an elliptic
relaxation equation. This model could provide a compromise between
cost and accuracy for future HAWT modelling attempts.
A summary of the structural models encountered during this
investigation are presented in Table 4. Again, similar to the numerical
models listed in Table 3 most of the structural investigations neglect
the tower structure and only investigate a single blade (again computa-
21
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 92 (2017) 124
tional time and expense being a major inhibitor). It is essential that the
inuence of the tower structure on a turbine blade be investigated
considering the tower shadow eect described in Section 3.1.
Additionally the need to model a full rotor is becoming more apparent
as large exible blades will go through dierent deformities at dierent
stages of the rotation cycle. This renders the use of periodic boundary
conditions in FE simulations an over simplication.
One trend noticed was that the majority of the works reviewed are
J.M. O'Brien et al.
entirely computational with results either validated against previous
numerical studies, FE codes such as ADAMSor stand alone studies
[106,98,124,110]. There is very little experimental data available to
validate FE models (the reasons for which are explained in Section 5.2).
Only one study within this literature survey has compared their FE
model to eld data. This could be an emerging trend within research in
this area as laboratory tests are very expensive (and large scale testing
is infeasible for many research institutions and industrial centres, as
discussed in Section 5.2).
Following on from the above point, there may be scope within this
area of research for the creation and testing of a large scale blade for FE
validation. The costs associated with such a project would involve
cooperation between several research institutes and the involvement of
institutes in Denmark, The Netherlands, China and the USA who would
have access to large scale testing facilities. This would be similar to the
NREL Phase VI study which provided data for CFD validation. If a
similar case could be provided for FE analysis (where the composition
of the blade structure, including all internal structures was provided i.e.
ply layup etc) this could provide a benchmark for the validation of FE
models. This would allow models to further explore the interaction
between the blade skin and internal structures which is currently
limited. The NREL Phase VI study only provides the overall structural
properties of the blades and the properties of it's various aerofoil
sections. It does not provide details on the internal structure of the
blade. To date most FE models are generated by best guess of a
turbine blade structure and aerofoil prole as this information is not
provided to the research community.
The proposed study would carry out static tests on the blade which
could be used to validate the mass and stiness distributions of a FE
blade model. However, torsional rigidity is of great importance when
considering a FE model. Incorrect torsional characteristics of a blade
can inuence the deection of the blade (due to bend-twist coupling)
and provide unrealistic changes of the blade angle of attack during
operation. Currently, there is little information regarding the structural
properties of shear webs within the read literature, which provide
torsional rigidity to the blade structure. It is proposed that a torque be
applied to the full-scale blade at dierent locations along the blade
span. The recorded twist of the blade can be used to validate the
torsional rigidity of simplied FE models. This could be accomplished
by simplifying FE models at the same locations where the torque was
applied to multiple-connected closed sections, from which the stiness
of the model could be adjusted to match the torsional rigidity of the
full-scale experiment using shear ow analysis.
Finally, the FSI modelling of the full turbine structure would give
greater insight into the loads passed from the rotor to the tower
structure, which could provide valuable information regarding founda-
tion standards and structural damping.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Irish Research Council, Project ID:
GOIPG/2013/1265.
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