m11 Haeco Complete

HKAR-66 Module 11b Theory of Flight
Aeroplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls
FLYING CONTROLS
In a conventional subsonic aircraft the pilot exercises control by using the Primary
Control Surfaces which are:
(i) The Elevators, which are located at the trailing edges of the tailplane or
horizontal stabilizer and give control in pitch.
(ii) The Ailerons, which are located at the trailing edges of the mainplanes near the
wing tips and give control in roll.
(iii) The Rudder, which is located at the trailing edge of the fin or vertical stabilizer
and gives control in yaw.
ELEVATOR AND STABILIZER

The elevators are connected to a control column in the cockpit by a control system in
such a manner that a rearward movement of the column will cause the trailing edges of
the elevator to move upwards.
In flight this would produce a downward force on the tailplane which would rotate the
aircraft around the lateral axis, and the nose of the aircraft would rise.
Even when the designer has settled the size and angle of the tailplane, the forces,
which it will experience, will be outside the control of the pilot. They cannot possibly
deal with changes of weight such as are caused by the dropping of bombs,
consumption of fuel, and changes in the disposition of passengers and cargo.
The adjustable tailplane is introduced to enable the pilot to alter the angle of setting of
the tailplane during flight, and so cause downward or upward forces upon it at will, thus
balancing the aeroplane under all conditions.
A device, which do the same job just as effectively, and is even lighter and simpler than
the adjustable tailplane, is the trimming tab.
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CANARD CONFIGURATION
There is another arrangement of pitch control where the horizontal stabilizer is at the
front of the aeroplane. It is called Canard after the duck like neck of the long forward
fuselage.
AILERONS
Ailerons are located at the trailing edges of the mainplanes usually towards the wing
tips, giving maximum leverage around the longitudinal axis. They are operated by
moving the control column in the cockpit laterally, or rotating a hand wheel or
spectacles mounted on top of the control column.
Moving the control column to the left, or rotating the spectacles anti-clockwise will raise
the left aileron and lower the right aileron. A reverse selection will lower the left aileron
and raise the right aileron.
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There is a characteristic, which must be examined in the case of ailerons and is not
apparent in the other primary controls. This is the effect of the alteration in lift on the
amount of drag present at the aileron.
DIFFERENTIAL AILERON CONTROL
The problem of aileron drag would be relieved if the movement of the down-going
aileron were reduced at the same time increasing the movement of the up-going aileron,
in a similar manner to aileron upfloat. This is known as differential aileron control and is
frequently used on manually controlled aircraft.
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FRISE AILERON
There is one more type of aileron system that deals with unequal aileron drag. This
aileron has an internal hinge and is so shaped that when moved downwards it behaves
conventionally, but when moved upwards its leading edge protrudes into the air stream
and produces a turbulent airflow with an attendant increase in drag, as in the figure.
RUDDER
In normal flight of heavy transport aircraft the rudder is rarely used except for the
correction of minor deviations off course. In a turn, the ailerons would probably be used
in conjunction with the rudder.
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COMBINED CONTROLS
In certain types of aircraft the primary flight control system is arranged so that one type
of control surface may combine its function with that of another. For example on a delta
wing aircraft such as Concorde, a control surface at each trailing edge can perform the
function of both ailerons and elevators. Such a control surface is called an elevon.
Another example of combined controls is the one applied to some light aircraft having a
'V' or 'butterfly' tall. In this case, the control surfaces operate as either a rudder or as
elevators, and for obvious reasons, they are known as ruddervators.
In some aircraft, elevators are dispensed with and they are substituted with a movable,
horizontal stabiliser. Thus when the control column is moved, the angle of attack of the
stabiliser is varied such that a negative angle produces a nose-up attitude, and a
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positive angle produces a nose-down attitude. Such a stabiliser is known as a

stabilator.
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SPOILERS, AIRBRAKES OR LIFT DUMP
Lift spoilers, air brakes or lift dump systems are all used to slow the aircrafts forward
speed. Hydraulic power, using jacks, is used to operate these systems, as a quick
response in the deployment of these devices is an essential requirement.
Lift spoilers or speed brakes are fitted to the upper surface of the mainplanes, their
purpose is to destroy the lift and to induce drag on the mainplanes, thus slowing the
aircraft. The positioning of the spoilers is designed so that the pitch trim of the aircraft is
not adversely effected by their deployment.
Speed brakes that are used to slow the aircraft in flight are also used after the aircraft
has landed to increase the retardation rate of the aircraft. They will also, of course, kill
the lift of the wings and so help to keep the aircraft on the ground.
The two uses of speed brakes we have looked at are:
(i) airborne speed brakes (flight spoilers),

(ii) ground speed brakes (ground spoilers).
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SPOILER IN ROLL CONTROL
The same spoiler panels that are used for lift reduction can also be used in flight to
assist the ailerons for roll control.
When roll is applied through the aileron wheel the spoilers will deploy on the same wing
as the up going aileron, this will assist in decreasing the lift of the down going wing. The
spoilers on the up going wing will remain down.
There could also be occasions in flight when both airbrake commands and roll
commands to the spoilers will occur together, on these occasions both inputs are fed
into a complex box of levers, bellcranks and quadrants called a spoiler mixer. The
spoiler mixer sums the inputs and gives the revised output to a component called a ratio
changer. This unit will vary the movement of the spoilers during an aileron input based
upon the amount of speed brake selected, thus adding to, or subtracting from the
aileron control input.
AIR BRAKES
Air brakes are also used to slow the aircraft down by inducting drag and in some cases
destroying lift over the wings, they are not however used for roll control.
The location of the air brake panels can vary considerably. The three usual locations
are:
Upper and Lower Mainplane Air Brakes
Tail Unit Air Brakes
Under Fuselage Air Brakes
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE
It is essential that the control forces should be of the correct magnitude. If the control
forces are "light" for normal flying, then the pilot may possibly overstress the aircraft by
misuse of the controls. On the other hand, if the control forces are too "heavy" the pilot
may be tired very soon to operate the controls.
The forces, which are necessary to move the various controls, i.e. the elevators,
ailerons or rudders, may in some cases be very large, especially in the case of large
aircraft, with large control surfaces, and/or at high speeds. This implies that the control
surface hinge moments are too large to be acceptable from the pilot's point of view. By
careful design it is possible to make use of aerodynamic forces to help to deflect the
control surface, thus reducing the restoring hinge moment and the corresponding stick
force. An aerodynamic device, which performs this function, is known as an
aerodynamic balance.
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Set Back Hinge
The hinge is set back so that the air striking the surface in front of the hinge causes a
pressure which tends to make the control move over still farther; this partially balances
the effect of the air which strikes the rear portion.
Two practical applications of the setback hinge are the horn balance and the inset
hinge balance.
Horn Balance
Inset Hinge Balance
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Sealed Nose Balance/Balance Panel
A plate projects forward from the nose of the control surface. This plate, or tongue, is
joined to the main part of the wing, tailplane or fin by a loose fold of impermeable
fabric, which constitutes a seal between the regions above and below the control, or on
the two sides of the control surface, in the case of a rudder.
Sealed Nose Balance
In some types of aircraft, aerodynamic loads are reduced by means of balance panels
that operate in conjunction with balance tabs.
Aerodynamic Balance Panel
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Servo Tab
Servo tabs are operated directly by the control column or rudder bar; the control
surface itself is not connected to the pilot's controls. When the aircraft is stationary,
movement of the control column or rudder bar moves the tabs only, the control surface
is unaffected.
The servo type of balance differs in principle since the pilot in this case only moves the
small extra surface (In the opposite direction to normal), and, owing to the leverage,
the force on the small surface helps to move the main control in the required direction.
It is, in effect, a system of gearing.
Servo System of Balance
Balance Tab
When the main control surface moves in one direction, the tab moves in the other. A
force is then experienced which helps the control surface to move. Hence, the tab
functions as an aerodynamic balance; it is called a balance tab.
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Trim Tab
If the tab link is made adjustable, the tab may be set to give an initial force to the
control surface in one direction or the other. Hence, the tab provides a bias to correct
flying faults without alteration of rigging. It is then called a trim tab.
Spring Tab
In this system, the rod from the control column is connected to one end of a spring, the
other end being fixed to the control surface; the rod is also linked to the tab itself. The
spring tab has advantages over the simple servo tab since, at low speeds, the spring
tension is greater than the stick forces required and so the spring is not affected. At
higher speeds, when the stick forces are greater than the spring tension, the spring is
compressed and the tab is brought into action.
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Anti-balance Tab
Some controls at certain aircraft attitudes or low airspeeds, tend to become sloppy and
the pilots feel is decreased, i.e. the forces opposing control movement are small
compared with the effort which can be applied.
This may be due to low aerodynamic forces, or to the control centre of pressure,
moving very close to or forward of the hinge line. The anti-balance tab is designed to
offset this and thus give the pilot increased feel.
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The method of controlling the anti-balance tab is similar to that used for the balance
tab, but in this case the connection of the control rod to the tab is below the tab hinge
point, whereas with the balance tab it is above. This ensures that the anti-balance tab
moves relative to and in the same direction as the control surface.
In this case an additional opposing force aft of the hinge line is produced to counteract
the pilots input and provide the necessary feel.
CONTROL SURFACE FLUTTER AND MASS BALANCE
Fluttering with Unbalanced Surfaces
Control surface flutter occurs to most of the hydraulic operated flight control surfaces
not mass balanced, such as elevator, aileron, etc.
There is generally a simple remedy. Suppose that the distribution of the mass of the
control surface could be altered, so that its centre of gravity lies on the hinge line.
Then the initial disturbance of the hinge line will not create any elevator deflection, and
flutter will not occur.
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The careful arrangement of the mass distribution of the elevator, in order to eliminate
the inertia-aeroelastic coupling, which produces flutter, is called mass-balancing.
Mass Balance
For economy of space, the mass added is usually lead weights or depleted uranium.
Where control surface flutter cannot be eliminated entirely, hydraulic dampers may be
fitted.
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
The use of high speed aerofoil sections helps to achieve higher speeds by reducing
the drag, but this gain is paid by the low maximum lift coefficients of these aerofoils.
Most aircraft using these aerofoils also have high wing loading, the stalling speeds are
proportionally higher. While high landing speeds, in themselves are not a
disadvantage, the length of the runway required to operate the aircraft sets a limit on
the usefulness and operational flexibility of the aircraft. Hence there is a need for a
method of increasing the lift coefficient, CL Max of the wings of the aircraft.
The chief devices used to augment the CL max are: -
(a) Slats and slots

(b) Flaps
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SLOTS AND SLATS
a. Fixed slots
Suitably shaped slots are built into the wing just behind the leading edge. Their action
is that at high angles of attack air from below the wing is guided through the slots and
discharged over the upper surfaces, tangential to the wing surface, thereby re-
energising the boundary layer to the consequent benefit of the lift coefficient.
Built-in Slot
b. Automatic slots
Such slots can be simply fixed or automatic. Automatic slots opens only at high angles
of attack. This philosophy requires to put a small auxiliary aerofoil, called slat, in front
of the main aerofoil, with a suitable gap or slot between the two.
At high angles of attack the low-pressure peak near the leading edge of the upper
surface of the wing and the lift generated by the cambered slat itself lifts the slat
upwards and forwards to the open position, thus forming the required slot between the
two surfaces.
c. Controlled slots or slats
Instead of relying on aerodynamic forces, the slat is moved backwards and forwards by
control mechanism; and so can be closed for high-speed flight and opened for low
speeds.
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FLAPS
Flaps augment lift on a wing by changing the amount of camber of the aerofoil section
in flight. Increased camber can be obtained by turning down either the leading edge or
the trailing edge flaps or both.
But at the same time, the greater camber also causes an increase in the total drag. It
can be stated that when flaps are lowered to a given angle, the lift/drag ratio is always
reduced.
After deploy trailing edge flap, there is a fixed and lower stalling angle of attack, due to
the change in aerofoil section.
The leading edge flap is now a common feature of high speed aircraft. It prevents
separation of the airflow over the wing at low airspeeds and large angle of attack.
This flap is a hinged section of the wing edge and when retracted forms a clean
aerodynamic leading edge. It is also known as a nose flap or "droop-snoot."
Used invariably with the trailing edge flaps. Both lift and drag are increased. The
effect on the lift curve is similar to the slat with two exceptions. First there is a small
camber effect, and secondly the increase in the stalling angle is not as large.
Cross Section of a Leading Edge Flap
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Lift Augmentation by Flaps
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Lift Augmentation: Flaps & Slats
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HKAR-66 Module 11b - Aeroplane Aerodynamics
The Sonic Barrier
SPEED OF SOUND
We are all familiar with the incompressible properties of "Skydrol", the hydraulic fluid. When
pressure is applied at some point in the fluid, it is transmitted instantaneously throughout the
fluid.
With air, any disturbance introduced does not instantaneously take effect throughout the fluid
medium, but its effect is propagated at a finite speed by means of waves spreading from the
disturbance origin. The waves can be considered as a succession of density changes at a
location and the faster the density changes, the shorter it takes to spread waves and the
higher the speed.
The speed at which disturbance waves travel in air is called the "speed of sound".
The speed of sound in air is not a constant value. It is directly proportional to the square root
of the absolute temperature, so that the higher the altitude, the lower is the speed of sound.
At standard sea level condition:
Speed of sound = 661 knots

= 340 m/s
= 1224 km/hr
= 760 m.p.h.
= 1100 ft/s
i.e. it takes less than 5 seconds to travel a mile.
MACH NUMBER
This is the figure obtained when the TAS of the airflow is divided by the local speed of sound
(a), which is the speed of sound dictated by the air temperature.
M = True Air Speed / Local Speed of Sound = V / a
Other important definitions arising from the basic Mach number are:
Free stream Mach number
The Mach number of the flow at a point unaffected by the presence of the aircraft.
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The Sonic Barrier
Local Mach number
When an aerofoil is placed in a subsonic airflow the speed of the flow is changed in the
usual way; the local Mach number is the speed at some specified region of flow and can be
greater or less than the free stream Mach number.
Critical Mach number (Mcrit)
This is the lowest free stream Mach number which, for a given aerofoil and angle of attack
(usually zero degrees), gives the local Mach number of 1.0 of the aerofoil.
Consider an aerofoil at zero angle of attack in a steady, subsonic airflow. The peak speed
is reached at the point of maximum thickness. If the free stream speed is then increased
steadily the aerofoil continues to accelerate the airflow until, at a certain free stream Mach
number, the speed at the point of maximum thickness just reaches M = 1.0.
The onset of compressibility is gradual and things begin to happen at speeds considerably
lower than M = 1.
The reason is that there is an increase in the speed of airflow over certain parts of the
aircraft (for instance over point of maximum camber of the aerofoil). This means that
although the aircraft itself can be travelling at well below the speed of sound, the airflow
relative to some parts of the aircraft can get to this value.
In short, there can be a local increase of velocity up to that of sound and a shock wave can
form at this point. Mcrit is the Mach No. when these occur and result in the increase of
drag, decrease of lift, movement of C.P. and buffeting.
Mcrit can be raised by slimming of the wing section (reduce thickness to chord ratio) and by
sweeping the wings back.
MACH WEDGE OR CONE
When a body moves through air at speeds well below the speed of sound, there is, as it were,
a 'message' sent ahead of the body to say that it is coming. When this message is received,
the airstream begins to divide to make way for the body, and there is very little, if any, change
in the density of the air as it flows pass the body.
The 'message' or 'warning' is really due to a wave motion in the air set up by the areas of
increased and decreased pressures around the body. These pressures are communicated in
all directions to the surrounding air by means of "waves."
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The Sonic Barrier
So if a body travels through the air at or above speed of sound, there will be no time for the
message as given by the wave to get ahead, and the air will come up against the body with a
"shock."
What happens is that at any instant the spherical waves generated previously are all swept
downstream of the source and they all lie within and touch a circular cone (a wedge for the
two-dimensional case). This cone is referred to as the Mach cone and its semi-vertex angle,
the Mach angle. Thus
sin = 1/M
Using the notion of relative wind, whenever supersonic airflow takes place over a source of
disturbance, the pressure waves generated have wavefronts all touching the Mach Cone.
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The Sonic Barrier
EXPANSION WAVE
Consider a supersonic flow with a lower bounding surface (convex) as shown. The dotted line
is one side of the Mach Cone, the envelope or the wavefront of disturbance waves.
Now imagine a succession of such corners. We see that the flow is made to conform to the
boundary by a series of straight Mach waves (sides of cones). If we make each corner very
small, we can have a curved surface in the limit. The result is that the curved surface
generates an infinite family of Mach waves to induce the turning of airflow over the curvature.
Where the surface is convex, the waves are expansive.
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The Sonic Barrier
A supersonic airstream passing through an expansion wave experiences these changes:
a. The supersonic airstream is accelerated. The velocity and Mach number behind the wave
are greater.
b. The flow direction is changed so that the airstream runs parallel to the new surface,
provided separation does not occur.
c. The static pressure behind the wave is decreased.
d. The static temperature behind the wave is decreased (and hence the local speed of sound
is decreased).
e. The density of the airstream behind the wave is decreased.
f. Since the flow changes in a rather gradual manner, there is no shock and no loss of energy
in the airstream. The expansion wave does not dissipate airstream energy.
COMPRESSION WAVE
Consider supersonic airflow with a lower bounding surface (concave) as show:
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The Sonic Barrier
This time, there is a tendency for compressive waves of a family to run together and form an
envelope. Such an envelope can never occur with expansion waves. In the region of such an
envelope we have the concentration or focusing of the effects of a large number of
compressive waves and these build up to form a compression of significant amplitude. Now it
is known that such disturbances tend to change shape until they present a front of very rapid,
almost discontinuous compression to the oncoming fluid. Such a front is called a shock wave,
and we find that in general whenever a supersonic flow is required to compress it does so at
least in part by means of a shock wave.
A supersonic airstream passing through a normal shock wave experiences these changes:
a. The airstream is slowed to subsonic. The local Mach number behind the wave is
approximately equal to the reciprocal of the Mach number ahead of the wave. For
example, if the Mach number ahead of the wave is 1.25, the Mach number of the flow
behind the wave is about 0.8 (more exactly 0.81264).
b. The airflow direction immediately behind the wave is unchanged.
c. The static pressure behind the wave is greatly increased.
d. The static temperature behind the wave is greatly increased (and hence the local speed of
sound is increased).
e. The density of the airstream behind the wave is greatly increased.
f. The available energy of the airstream (indicated by the sum of dynamic and static pressure)
is greatly reduced. The normal shock wave is very wasteful of energy.
Oblique shock waves occur for supersonic airflow into a corner. In this case, the airstream
experiences these changes:
a. The airstream is slowed, but is still supersonic.

b. The airflow direction is changed, and the direction is parallel to the new surface,
provided separation does not occur.
c-f. The same as normal shock waves.
AIRFLOW DEFINITIONS
For convenience the working range of speeds is divided into the series of bands defined
below:
Subsonic flow
This term is used when the free stream Mach numbers are such that the local Mach
numbers are less than M = 1.0 at all points. It is usual to divide subsonic flow into low and
high subsonic bands. In low subsonic flow compressibility effects are small enough to be
ignored.
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The Sonic Barrier
Transonic flow
Here the free stream Mach number is high enough to produce local Mach numbers some of
which are greater and some less than M = 1.0.
Supersonic flow
The free stream Mach number is such that at all points the local Mach numbers are greater
than M = 1.0.
Hypersonic flow
The free stream speed is greater than M = 5.0.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUBSONIC & SUPERSONIC FLOWS

Compressibility implies molecular "packing" which is the crowding of molecules into a smaller
space by compression and thereby raising the density. The reverse process takes place when
air is expanded, the molecules become less crowded and the density drops.
In low speed aerodynamics, air is assumed to behave as a perfect fluid as though it was
incompressible, with density remaining constant during flow changes. Since air is
compressible this assumption introduces small errors, but at low speeds the density changes
associated with changes in pressure and velocity are so small that they can be neglected.
However, when the speed reaches even fairly low subsonic Mach numbers the consequences
of ignoring compressibility effects, or density changes, start to become significant. The figure
shows the percentage error in the total head pressure (1/2V2) introduced by assuming that air
is incompressible.
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The Sonic Barrier
As speed is increased the pressure changes and consequently the density change increases,
and the simple assumption is no longer tenable. In supersonic flow, the pressure and density
drop is so great during acceleration that molecular expansion becomes predominant and if the
flow is to be further accelerated then it must be given room to expand, i.e. by a diverging duct.
At these speeds any attempt to converge the flow will cause it to compress and decelerate.
The important and fundamental differences between subsonic and supersonic flows are
summarized in the table below. The physical differences between basically subsonic aircraft
and supersonic aircraft are due entirely to these effects.
Duct Shape Subsonic Flow Supersonic Flow
Convergent V increases V decreases

P decreases P increases
Divergent V decreases V increase

P increases P decreases
Whenever an airflow is accelerated the pressure will decrease, the shape of the duct required
to produce acceleration reverses when the flow speed increases above or decreases below
sonic speed.
If acceleration is to be maintained then the change from a convergent to a divergent duct must
be made at the point where the flow reaches sonic velocity, which is at the throat of the duct
where the walls are parallel.
When a steady flow is accelerated the streamlines:
a. Converge at speeds less than M = 1.0

b. Remain parallel at M = 1.0
c. Diverge at speeds above M = 1.0.
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The Sonic Barrier
DEVELOPMENT OF SHOCK WAVES ON WING SECTIONS
Let us see the changes on a conventional wing section as the airflow accelerates through the
subsonic, transonic to supersonic ranges.
Typical Subsonic: M =0.75
There are regions of fairly high suction particularly on the upper surface, and these
correspond to regions of locally higher velocity and Mach number than the main stream
velocity and Mach number. With increase of main stream Mach number it reaches a value
called the critical Mach number and denoted by Mcrit, at which the local Mach number on
the wing reaches unity.
Lift Versus Mach Number at M = 0.75
Slightly Over Mcrit: M=0.81
With further increase of main stream Mach number a limited region in which the flow is
supersonic develops from the surface and grows, expanding outwards, forwards and
backwards. The local flow in passing through the supersonic region is speeded up and its
pressure is reduced, but towards the rear of that region it must slow up again and
compress back to subsonic speeds. This compression occurs very largely through the
mechanism of a shock wave at the rear of the supersonic region.
The characteristic region of high suction upstream of the shock is followed by a sudden
compression at the shock. The appearance of the shock on the upper surface does not by
itself cause any marked change in the behaviour of the lift.
Now, the local Mach number on the lower surface has just attained unity.
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The Sonic Barrier
Second Shock Wave on Lower Surface: M = 0.89
With further increase in main stream Mach number a supersonic region rapidly develops
over the lower surface and is also terminated by a shock. It is at this state that the more
serious aerodynamic effects of transonic flow become apparent.
It will be clear that the net lift on the wing at any particular main stream Mach number will
then be largely determined by the relative positions of the upper and lower surface shocks,
since the associated pressure distributions will have opposing effects.
It frequently happens that the growth of the supersonic region on the lower surface and the
accompanying rearward shock movement with increase of main stream Mach number is
very rapid, so much so that the lower surface shock moves aft of the upper surface shock
for a range of Mach numbers. At that stage the lift decreases rapidly and can even become
negative. This in itself is undesirable, but there can also be large and dangerous changes
of pitching moment with small changes of Mach number.
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The Sonic Barrier
Further we recall that a shock wave involves the irreversible dissipation of mechanical into
heat energy, and this is manifest as an increase of drag. This drag increase (wave drag)
will be directly related to the size and intensity of the shock waves on the wing, which in
turn are determined by the extent of the supersonic region ahead of the shock.
At first, for main stream Mach numbers only a little greater than the critical, Mc, this effect
on drag is small but later it increases rapidly, being roughly proportional to (M1 - Mc)4, and
it can become several times larger than the boundary layer drag.
The sequence of events is made more complicated by the effects of interaction between
the shock waves and the boundary layers. The boundary layer, in passing through the
pressure increase at the shock foot, will thicken and can separate, and in consequence the
pressure distribution and drag can be considerably modified.
It is known that separation of the boundary layer from the upper surface due to the shock
there reduces the pressure aft of the shock and therefore tends to suck the lower surface
shock back and so reduces the lift and changes the pitching moment.
Beginning Supersonic Flow: M = 0.98
A further point to note is that the suction coefficient just ahead of a shock does not increase
indefinitely with increase of main stream Mach number but attains a maximum and then
decreases. Lift reduces when the lower surface shock appears and moves rapidly
backward, since at that stage the suction on the upper surface is waning with increase of
Mach number.
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The Sonic Barrier
Eventually, however, at a main stream Mach number close to unity both shocks move back
to the trailing edge and the wing recovers some of its lift. At that stage the form of the
pressure distribution is more characteristic of supersonic than subsonic flow.
Bow Shock Waves: M = 1.4
With further increase of Mach number through unity a weak bow shock appears far ahead
of the wing and moves rapidly towards it, increasing in strength as the distance between
bow shock and wing nose diminishes. If the wing nose is round this shock remains
detached from the nose but at a small distance from it however high the main stream Mach
number, but if the wing nose is sharp then at some Mach number depending on the nose
angle and incidence the shock becomes attached in the form of two shocks springing from
the nose.
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The Sonic Barrier
Summary
It will be clear from our previous discussion that subsonic and supersonic flows differ
profoundly, particularly in the way the influence of the boundaries is propagated into the
flow. It is not surprising to find, therefore, that the problems of transonic flow are in many
respects more difficult than the problems of purely subsonic or purely supersonic flow.
Almost all aerodynamic properties, lift, drag, pitching moments and so on, are affected.
Because of these changes, transonic aircraft experience significant control problems. The
nature of these problems, and the methods currently used to tackle them are dealt with in
the next section.
SONIC BARRIER
Shock Stall
As M increases above Mcrit, the upper surface shock wave moves backwards and
strengthens. Soon it becomes strong enough to cause the flow to separate. When this
happens, the lift coefficient begins to decrease, and the drag to increase rapidly. This
phenomenon is known as the shock stall. It differs from the conventional stall in that it can
occur at low incidence, though at higher incidence it will occur at a lower Mach number.
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The Sonic Barrier
The associated increase in drag is known as wave drag.
As the upper surface shock moves backwards with an increase in M, the region of shock-
induced separation is reduced, and when the lower surface shock is established at the
trailing edge some measure of recovery of lift can occur.
The drag increase due to the oblique shocks at the trailing edge will also generally be less
(in terms of coefficients) than that due to the normal shocks; in addition, the re-attachment
of the flow can cause some reduction in drag coefficient when supersonic flow is
established, the drag coefficient continues to decrease with increasing Mach number.
Thus, the shock stall has two direct effects on the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing:
a decrease of lift and an increase of drag.
Shock Drag
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The Sonic Barrier
During the shock stall, large drag forces are produced by various mechanisms.
a. Boundary layer drag: caused by the thick turbulent boundary layers. This corresponds very
closely to the form and skin friction drag in subsonic flow.
b. Wave drag: the wave-making resistance.
c. Trim drag: resulting from the use of the tailplane in trimming the aircraft. At high speeds,
the tail generally carries a download, and this means that the wing has to provide extra lift.
Thus the drag also increases, and the necessary increase in incidence will additionally
cause Mcrit to be reduced. This effect is particularly important at high altitude, and if the tail
lift arm is short. Tail-less aircraft also suffer from high trim drag.
d. Interference drag: caused by interference between components, principally between wing
and fuselage. This is especially important at high speeds. Experiment shows that a large
part of the transonic drag increase for a complete aircraft is due to interference.
Buffeting
Buffeting refers to the short-period, high speed vibrations of the tail, or even of the whole
aircraft. Presumably in the mixed subsonic-supersonic flow over the wing the positions of
the shock waves are not well define - they can move back and forth. It has also been
observed that, when shock waves are produced on both the upper and lower surfaces of
the wing or tail, they can move in opposite phase, which apparently makes the wake
oscillate, and this oscillation is transferred to the wing or tail.
TRIM CHANGES (TUCK-UNDER)
During transonic flight, the movement of the aerodynamic centre on the wing produces trim
changes.
The aerodynamic centre (A.C.) is the point at which the resultant lift force due to incidence
effects can be considered to act. At subsonic speeds it is around the 25% chord point on a
wing section or on a rectangular wing planform.
At supersonic speeds, however, the pressure distribution round an aerofoil section is much
more symmetrical, and the A.C. is near the 50% chord point. Theoretically on biconvex and
double-wedge sectional shapes it can be at the 50% chord point, but because of boundary
layer effects it is usually nearer the 45% chord position. Thus in going from subsonic to
supersonic speeds the overall movement of the A.C. must be a rearward one. This rearward
movement occurs in the transonic speed range, and causes a large nose-down change in
pitching moment.
15
The Sonic Barrier
Thus, at shock stall, there is considerable change of longitudinal trim, usually but not always
towards nose-heaviness and sometimes first one way then the other.
The change of trim is made even worse by the loss of control.
DUTCH ROLL & OTHER OSCILLATIONS

At shock stall, there is also a likely pitching, yawing, and cross-coupled oscillation, which can
become uncontrollable. These oscillations are variously described as:
a. Dutch Roll
b. Snaking
c. Porpoising
Dutch Roll oscillation
This consists of a relatively short period oscillation, which can be either damped or
divergent, involving rolling, yawing, and sideslipping motions.
The roll at first tends to create a situation of sideslip, which increases the yaw. This
continues until the natural stability of the aircraft and the extra drag on the leading wing
comes into effect and starts to correct the yaw. The aircraft then yaws in the other direction
and consequently rolls in the other direction. This leads to an unstable state of yawing and
rolling from side to side in a corkscrew manner.
The roll/yaw ratio is an important characteristic of this oscillation. The ratio is usually large,
and the motion is referred to as the Dutch Roll oscillation.
16
The Sonic Barrier
17
The Sonic Barrier
Snaking
If the roll/yaw ratio is small, the motion can be considered as mainly yawing. Then the
oscillation is referred to as snaking.
Porpoising
There is a short-period pitching oscillation inherent with an aircraft. If the aircraft is fitted
with irreversible powered controls, elevator movements occur because of distortion in the
airframe and the control system.
Now, because the frequency of this mode is not so different from that of the elevator
motion, important coupling effects can occur and under certain conditions the damping can
become extremely weak and even negative. This divergent short period oscillation is
sometimes called porpoising" and the normal acceleration can reach dangerously high
values.
"Dutch Roll" is a common characteristic of all swept wing aircraft to follow a skid by a roll
with continued yawing and rolling from side to side in a "Corkscrew Motion."
CONTROL PROBLEMS
Subsonic aircraft cannot get to a Mach number near to or larger than their critical Mach
number without experiencing control difficulties. These control difficulties occur because of the
large decrease in lift and increase in drag caused at that speed.
Loss of control response
Loss of response leading possibly to loss of effectiveness is encountered when shock

waves form on the main surface ahead of the hinged surface. The response from the flap
type of control depends on its ability to modify the airflow over both itself and the surface
ahead of it. When a shock wave forms the wave becomes a limit beyond which pressure
waves from the deflected control surface cannot travel.
Because of the presence of the shock wave, all pressure changes set up by a deflected
control are confined to the area aft of the wave. Further, the airflow in this area can well be
stalled, and in any case the boundary layer will be much thicker, so that control movements
in the thick layer or turbulent flow are ineffective. These two factors combine to produce a
drastic reduction in the response and in some cases control ineffectiveness.
18
The Sonic Barrier
Erratic control movements (snatch)
At higher transonic Mach numbers violent erratic snatching movements can occur, most
commonly on the ailerons. These are the result either of buffeting by the turbulent flow aft
of the wave or the presence of the wave on the surface itself. In the latter case any
movement of the control will also cause the wave to move.
If the wave is moved the control surface centre of pressure (C.P.) also moves, and because
the hinge moment required to move the surface is the product of the force (acting through
C.P.) multiplied by its distance from the hinge line, the hinge moment and the stick force
will fluctuate in phase with the shock wave movement.
If the C.P. moves forward of the hinge line, transitory overbalance occurs (reversed stick
forces), and if it moves further aft the control becomes heavier. Since the wave moves
quickly with change in control angle the effect is felt by the pilot as snatching, or as flat
spots, or buffeting, depending on the exact situation over the control surface.
Aerodynamic balance
During transonic flight there is generally a deterioration in the steadiness of flow particularly
over the rear, converging, portion of the aerofoil section. Depending on the severity of the
deterioration, which can mount to total breakdown of the flow, any form of aerodynamically
balanced control is adversely affected; tab systems in particular are sensitive to this effect.
The hinge moment becomes very erratic and this together with the loss of effectiveness
due to the thickened wake rules out aerodynamic balance as an effective aid.
Increased control forces
When the shock wave eventually reaches the trailing edge of the control the hinge moment
becomes constant. However, its magnitude is now much larger in the supersonic flow,
since the hinge moment varies as V2. In addition, the supersonic pressure pattern results
in an aft movement of the control surface C.P. thus increasing the arm of the stronger
aerodynamic force. The unacceptably high manual stick forces required to overcome these
effects are the principal reason for the use of powered controls on supersonic aircraft.
Increased longitudinal stability
Because in supersonic flow the overall C.P. has moved aft, the stability of the aircraft is
increased. As the aircraft is more stable, a larger control angle is required to change its
attitude a given amount and since the amount of control deflection is limited the
manoeuvrability in the pitching plane is reduced.
19
The Sonic Barrier
SPECIAL DESIGNS AND ARTIFICIES

There are two principal ways of raising the critical Mach number, namely, slimness and
sweepback.
Slim wing sections
The following features of a wing section contribute to an increase in Mcrit, and hence help to
reduce transonic drag:
i.) Low thickness-chord ratio, which implies relatively low local flow accelerations.
Maximum thickness point well aft, at about half-chord, say. This gives a flat-topped
pressure distribution, with no high suction peak, no high velocities. There is a limit, of
course, as separation is likely if this point is too far aft.
ii.) Small leading edge radius of curvature.
This again results in the local accelerations being small, provided that the incidence is
low.
iii.) Symmetrical sections instead of cambered ones.
These give relatively low drag at high speeds; but the combination of zero camber with
a fairly sharp leading edge results in poor high incidence characteristics, since there is
a tendency to leading edge separation. A basically symmetrical section is often used,
but with some leading edge camber to improve the flow at high incidence.
Slimness applies to all parts, the wing, the body, the engine nacelles, the fin, tailplane, and
control surfaces.
The optimum wing section, in theory, for supersonic flow is a simple, infinitely thin, flat plate.
This satisfies all the above requirements more fully than any other possible wing. However, it
is obviously not a practical solution to the problem, from the structural point of view; the
doubly-symmetric double wedge section gives virtually the same lift as a flat plate, but more
wave drag.
20
The Sonic Barrier
Another useful supersonic section is the biconvex section; the upper and lower surfaces are
formed by equal circular arcs. Such a section gives rather more wave drag than a double
wedge of the same thickness-chord ratio, and approximately the same lift. Also, for the same
thickness-chord ratio, the leading edge angle is greater than that of a double wedge, so that
the shock attachment Mach number is higher. However, the biconvex aerofoil can be better
structurally, and contains more space.
All of these aerofoils are thin, sharp-nosed, and doubly-symmetric.
Sweepback
On subsonic aircraft, the sweptback angles of the wing can be 30, 40, 50 degrees or more.
21
The Sonic Barrier
Sweepback of this magnitude not only delays the shock stall, but also reduces its severity
when it does occur. The theory behind this is that it is only the component of the velocity
across the chord of the wing (V cos ) which is responsible for the pressure distribution and
so for causing the shock wave. The component V sin along the span of the wing causes
only frictional drag. This theory is borne out by the fact that when it does appear the shock
wave lies parallel to the span of the wing, and only that part of the velocity perpendicular to
the shock wave, i.e. across the chord, is reduced by the shock wave to subsonic speeds.
If the sweepback angle is greater, the smaller will be the component of the velocity, which
is affected, and so the higher will be the critical Mach Number, and the less will be the drag
at all transonic speeds of a wing of the same t/c ratio and at the same angle of attack.
Wing Planforms
For the heavily sweptback wing, the old problem, tip stalling, stays. In the crescent-
shaped wing an attempt has been made - with some success to alleviate this by gradually
reducing the sweepback from root to tip. CL max is low, and therefore the stalling speed is
high, and CL max is obtained at too large an angle to be suitable for landing but can
generally be overcome by special slots, flaps or suction devices.
The delta wing is another wing form to deal with this matter.
22
The Sonic Barrier
SHOCK WAVE AND BOUNDARY LAYER INTERACTION
The pressure increase produced by a shock wave can cause boundary-layer separation, which
in turn reacts on the formation of the shock wave. This mutual effect is known as shock-wave
and boundary layer interaction. If the boundary layer is turbulent however, it has more
resistance to flow separation. Hence a device to cause turbulent airflow, the most important
example is the vortex generator.
Vortex Generator
A vortex generator is a complementary pair of small, low aspect ratio (short span in relation
to chord) airfoils mounted at opposite angles of attack to each other and perpendicular to
the aerodynamic surface they serve. Like any airfoil, those of the generator develop lift. In
addition, like any airfoil of especially low aspect ratio, the airfoils of the generator also
develop very strong tip vortices. These tip vortices cause air to flow outward and inward in
circular paths around the ends of the airfoils. The vortices generated have the effect of
drawing high energy air from outside the boundary layer into the slower moving air close to
the skin. The strength of the vortices is proportional to the lift developed by the airfoils of
the generator.
Vortex generators serve two clearly different purposes, depending on the aerodynamic
surface upon which they are mounted. Rows of vortex generators located on the upper
surface of the wing just upstream of the ailerons delay the onset of drag divergence at high
speeds and also aid in maintaining aileron effectiveness at high speeds. In contrast, rows
of vortex generators mounted on both sides of the vertical fin just upstream of the rudder
prevent flow separation over the rudder during extreme angles of yaw.
Thickened Trailing Edge
This causes vortices which have much the same effect as those created by vortex
generators, though the effect is not felt so far forward on the wing surface.
Speed Capsules (Kuchemann Bumps)
These are streamline bodies fitted on the upper surfaces, or near the trailing edge of wings.
They too have much the same effect, though perhaps more by speeding up the airflow than
by creating vortices.
Wing Fences
These are used on heavily swept-back wings. They are vanes of similar dimension to
vortex generators, but running fore and aft across the top surface of the wing, and designed
to check any spanwise flow of air along the wing, for this in turn is likely to cause a
breakaway of the flow near the wing tips and so lead to tip stalling.
23
The Sonic Barrier
A Wing Fence
Leading Edge Saw-Tooth
Another spanwise effect which can occur on delta-shaped or other heavily swept-back
wings is the tendency of the tip vortex to move towards the apex of the wing, and so cause
a breakaway of the flow over the rear part of the centre portion of the wing. This
breakaway means that the centre of pressure on this important part of the wing moves
forward, resulting in a rather violent pitch-up of the nose. This pitch-up has been a marked
feature of the behaviour of certain types of aircraft when flying in the transonic range. This
effect can be reduced by introducing a notch, or saw tooth or dog tooth, in the leading edge
and extending forward the - outer portion of the wing.
Leading Edge Saw-Tooth
24
The Sonic Barrier
Leading Edge Droop And Leading Edge Flaps
Leading-edge droop and leading-edge flaps are becoming quite common features of high-
speed aircraft, but these are to prevent separation of the flow at the low-speed end of the
range, i.e. at large angles of attack, and so help to solve one of the main problems of
aircraft designed for transonic and supersonic speeds, that of making them fly safely
slowly. A permanent droop is called leading-edge droop or droop-snoot. When it is
adjustable it is called a leading-edge flap. Either can be combined with trailing-edge flaps
and other devices. The figure below shows a combination of leading-edge droop, double-
slotted trailing edge flaps and air brakes - all helping to the same end.
Leading Edge Droop-Snoot
TRANSONIC DRAG
Wave Drag
The wave drag due to the wing is minimized by the same factors that increase critical Mach
numbers.
The wave drag due to the fuselage follows approximately the same lines. One necessary
feature is a sharp nose; if there is a nose engine intake, the lip must be sharp. The other
most important design feature is the fineness ratio, i.e., the ratio of diameter to length,
which should be small to keep the wave drag down. However, if it is too small, the skin
friction increases rapidly. The optimum value is some 6-8%.
Trim Drag
The additional drag force resulting from the use of the tailplane in trimming the aircraft, i.e.,
maintaining the longitudinal equilibrium is called trim drag. One of the advantages of the
so-called Canard configuration is that, with the tail ahead of the wing instead of behind it, it
carries an upload for trim at high speeds. This is equivalent to providing negative trim drag.
25
The Sonic Barrier
Interference Drag
Interference drag at transonic speeds can be minimized by ensuring that the distribution
along the length of the aircraft axis of its total cross-sectional area follows a certain smooth
pattern.
With some early high-speed aircraft designs this was not the case. The area increased
rapidly in the region of the wing, and again in the vicinity of the tail, and decreased
elsewhere.
On later aircraft, the fuselage was waisted, i.e., the area reduced in the region of the wing,
and again near the tail, so that there was no hump in the area distribution, giving a
distribution like that of the following figure. There is an optimum area distribution, and the
minimization of transonic interference drag requires that the aircraft should be designed to
fit this distribution as closely as possible. This requirement is known as the transonic area
rule.
Equal Area Rule
BUFFETING BOUNDARY
Buffeting is essentially due to the instability of the shock wave pairs on the wing and on the tail.
As they move back and forth, they induce oscillating pitching moments on the aircraft. In
effect, the whole aircraft can be shaken with violence.
For a subsonic aircraft, the high-speed limit is always set by the buffeting boundary. Thus
buffeting cannot be eliminated, but the severity can be reduced by improving on the
attachment of the shock waves to wing surfaces, by using devices such as vortex generators.
26
The Sonic Barrier
For a given aircraft, there is a certain Mach number which, even at low incidence, cannot be
exceeded because of the onset of the shock stall.
This can be as high as, say, 0.9, but in any case it sets an overall limit to the speed. The
equivalent airspeed corresponding to this *Mach number value decreases as the altitude
increases, so that the possible range of operating speeds is reduced at both ends.
However, there is a further effect that makes the buffeting boundary a more stringent limit than
that suggested by a curve of constant Mach number. As the equivalent airspeed associated
with a given Mach number decreases with increase in altitude, so the required lift coefficient,
and hence the incidence, increases. This results in a reduction in the Mach number at which
buffeting occurs, and hence a further reduction in the permissible airspeed.
Buffeting Boundary
27
The Sonic Barrier
MACH TRIM
Trim changes experienced in transonic flight (tuck-under) can be corrected and trimmed out by
the use of stabilizers. However, at a certain ratio of aircraft speed to the local speed of sound,
or Mach number as it is called, compressibility effects occur which make the counteracting
nose-up pitching moment produced by trimming the horizontal stabiliser to a negative angle of
attack position, less effective as aircraft speed increases. Under manually controlled flight
conditions, this would necessitate the pilot having to make prolonged trim changes and to hold
higher forces at the control column when displacing elevators relative to a specific trimmed
condition. It is usual therefore to install what is termed a Mach trim system which automatically
senses increases of speed above the appropriate datum Mach number and, by means of servo
coupling, automatically re-adjusts the position of the horizontal stabiliser thereby maintaining
the pitch trim of the aircraft.
Another example of Mach trimming is the one adopted for 'Concorde'. During transition from
subsonic to supersonic speed, the nose-down pitching moment is counteracted by transferring
fuel from a front 'trim tank' to a rear 'trim tank' so that the centre of gravity is moved rearwards
thereby removing the couple introduced by the movement of the centre of pressure.
Fuel Trim Transfer
28
The Sonic Barrier
AUTO-STABILIZATION
Pitch dampers
The damping of the longitudinal short period oscillation can become very low at high
speeds and high altitudes. The characteristics of the longitudinal oscillation can be
improved by the incorporation of an autostabilization system (i.e. a pitch damper).
Autostabilizers operate by measuring the various response characteristics of the aircraft,
and feeding them back in such a way that the resulting automatic control surface
movements oppose the motion of the aircraft, and increase the damping of the oscillatory
modes. In the case of a pitch damper, a rate gyro is used to measure the rate of pitch q of
the aircraft, and the system is designed to move the elevator control surface in accordance
with a control law of the form
Surface deflection = K.q
where K is called the gearing of the pitch damper system. Some automatic stabilization
systems are designed so that the value of K varies automatically with the speed and height
at which the aircraft is flying.
Yaw Dampers
Since "Dutch Roll" occurs primarily from yawing of the aircraft, the rudder is the primary
correcting control.
When correcting "Dutch Roll" manually, however, the timing of rudder corrections is
difficult, and mistiming can accentuate the corkscrew. The simplest method of correction is
therefore to keep wings level using the ailerons.
In Boeing 707 airplane, the series yaw damper system provides automatic correction for
Dutch-roll oscillations. The "series" concept in the design allows the pilot to operate the
rudder pedals in a normal manner without having an opposing force from the yaw damper.
The series yaw damper system is a full time yaw damper and can be engaged during
taxiing, takeoff or landing as well as during normal flight regime. The series yaw damper
must be engaged to operate the autopilot in any mode. When the yaw damper is engaged
the yaw rate gyro senses any change in the yaw axis and the yaw damper provides the
necessary signals to the rudder power control unit and the rudder to stabilize the airplane in
the yaw axis.
29
The Sonic Barrier
CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR TRANSONIC FLIGHT
Power Operated Controls
The large hinge moments which are features of transonic and supersonic speeds and
which cannot be dealt with by manually operated controls are easily handled by power
operated controls.
Swept Hinge Lines
Sweeping back the hinge line of a control surface reduces the area of control surface
reduces the area of control surface that is influenced by shock wave formations.
Larger Control Surfaces
Control response can be improved by using surfaces having a large chord thus increasing
the area.
Control Surface Sections
If the control surface has a low t/c ratio and the trailing edge angle is small, the shock wave
formations are smaller and C.P. movement is reduced.
All-Moving (Slab) Surfaces
With this type of control surfaces the entire surface with its attendant waves is moved to
change the pressure pattern and the lift. All-moving controls can be used for movement
about any of the three axes but are most commonly applied to the pitching plane.
Tail Plane <>Use put or set, not position(v), "position" (n) is okay<>
The tailplane position relative to the downwash from the wings can markedly affect he
behaviour of the aircraft at the stall and in transonic flight. By mounting the tailplane as low
on the fuselage as possible below the downwash from the wings, better results are
generally obtained.
Varying The Direction Of Propulsive <>Use "force"(TN) or "push", not "force"(v)<>
A further method of control is to duct part of the jet thrust to points on each wing tip, the
nose and tail, and to control attitude by varying the thrust from these controllable ports.
30
The Sonic Barrier
Q - FEEL
The introduction of power-operated controls has in itself caused a new problem in that the pilot
no longer feels" the pressure resisting the movement of the controls.
So important is this matter that when power-operated controls are used, artificial "feel is
incorporated. This is made even real by grading it so that it varies not only with the movement
of the control surface but with the density of air and airspeed, i.e. the dynamic or stagnation
pressure 1/2 PV2 or q. This is called "q-feel."
FLY-BY-WIRE SYSTEMS
A fly-by-wire system, as the name very aptly suggests, is one in which wires carry electrical
signals from the pilot's controls to replace mechanical linkages entirely. In operation,
movements of the control column and rudder pedals, and the forces exerted by the pilot, are
measured by electrical pick-offs in the cockpit, and the signals produced are then amplified
and relayed to operate the hydraulic actuator units which are directly connected to the flight
control surfaces.
The first civil aircraft to employ fly-by-wire control was Concorde, but with the difference that a
mechanical control linkage was retained only as a standby.
DIGITAL AUTOPILOT SYSTEMS
Extensive auto-stabilization means can be built into digital autopilot computers. Redundant
computers operating with redundant channels provide the level of safety required.
With this state-of-the-art technology, better solutions are available to solve transonic flight
problems. But the nature of matter always remains the same: it is the ultimate connection with
shock waves that creates all the trouble.
31
Module 11.6
Instruments and Electrics
Commercial battery
installation
Cockpit familiarization
Introduction and highlights

Circuit breakers
Circuit Breaker
CB
OFF
Load
Making and breaking Thermal protection
circuit breakers
De-activation
Maintenance
Aircraft generators (IDG)
Integrated drive generator Hydromechanical generators

(IDG) fitted on a test stand used on the B777
APU generators
Interchangeable generator
fitted on APU gear box
Generator drive
400 Hz 3
120 AC V/phase
A
B
C
GEN CSD
N
Mechanical power from the engine drive
(prime mover) converted to electrical power
Aircraft electrical loads
Galley ovens
AC Hydraulic Pump
Black boxes Cargo door

Lights Control
Indication Entertainment
Landing lights
Runway turnoff lights
Airframe earth
A
OFF
B
Load
Grounding
lug
G
Shock
strut
Grounding
FWD
point
(A) Nose gear Airframe metal provides the

(B) Body gear return path of electrons.
shock strut shock strut
Avionics hardware
PCB
Clips; feeder cables

Plugs
Joints
ESDS decals and symbols
COMMERCIAL GOVERNMENT INTERNATIONAL

BOEING
TYPES OF ESDS SYMBOLS
CAUTION CAUTION CAUTION

OBSERVE PRECAUTIONS THIS ASSEMBLY OBSERVE PRECAUTIONS
FOR HANDLING CONTAINS FOR HANDLING
EELCTROSTATIC EELCTROSTATIC EELCTROSTATIC
SENSITIVE SENSITIVE SENSITIVE
DEVICES DEVICES DEVICES
TYPICAL BOEING ESDS DECALS
CAUTION
OBSERVE PRECAUTIONS STATIC STATIC
FOR HANDLING
EELCTROSTATIC SENSITIVE SENSITIVE
SENSITIVE
DEVICES
Instrument Lighting
Instrument readable and discernible by
night
Changing light conditions
Adverse weather conditions
Objectionable reflections
Vibrations imparted to the instrument
panels
Centre-contact
filament lamp
and housing Pillar and Bridge Lighting
Push fit into
assembly body
Red
filter
To
ground
Positive
supply
Light alloy bridge structure
Two or four lamps fitted
Pillar and Bridge Lighting
90 degrees sector of light

2 in deeper than mounting point
Wedge-Type Lighting Lamp
Inner
wedge A
Outer
wedge B
Dial
plate Blackened
surface
Wedge-Type Lighting
Lamp
A
B
The double wedge

Changes the incident angle
of the light rays
Distributesthe light rays
uniformly across the dial
Limits the amount of light
given off by the instrument
Ice & Rain Protection
Ice Formation
Hoar Frost
Condensation of water vapor to form white
crystal when below frost point on ground
Packed Snow
Accumulation of snow due to snow fall
Rime Ice
Formation of opaque ice pallet due to freezing
water droplet (on ground or in flight)
Glaze Ice
Firm build-up of solid ice on wing, fins when
flying into moisture at sub-zero temp.
Problem of Ice Formation
Descrease in Lift
Loss of streamline flow on leading edge
and wing top
Increase in Drag
Increase in skin friction (rime ice)
Loss of Control
Ice preventing movement of control surfaces
Affecting Instruments
Blockage of pressure and moving sensors
Ice Detector
To detect ice formation and provide warning
automatically
Several Types
Rotary Type
Ultrasonic Probe
Smith Detector
Visual Detector
Rotary Ice Detector
Stator of rotor held by spring
Kinfe edge
cutter
2 thou
clearence
Serrated
Rotar
The torque produce by ice build-
up on rotor will cause stator to
move and close a switch to
trigger warning
Ultrasonic Ice Detector
Ice formation decrease resonant frequency
and detector generates warning
Icing lights
Sensing element on for 60
vibrating at 40kHz sec and
heaters on
for 5 sec
Ultrasonic Ice Detector
Smith Ice Detector
Heaters on when ice
detected until ice removed
Detector compares
pitot vs static pressure
Icing warning
remains for 4
mins.
+ve pitot pressure

Smith Ice Detector
Visual Ice Detector
Place near windows

with heaters and lights
for night vision
Ice Protection
Various method of eliminate ice formation
By Heat Leading edges
Hot Air Engine Intake
Electrical
heater Propellers
Mechanical Pitot Static Probe
Pneumatic Boots
Windscreen
Chemical
De-icing fluid Drain Mast
Ice Protection
Electrical
heater Propellers
Pneumatic Boots
Windscreen
Chemical
Ice Protection
Electrical
heater Propellers
Pneumatic Boots
Windscreen
Chemical
Ice Protection
Electrical
heater Propellers
Pneumatic Boots
Windscreen
Chemical
Ice Protection
Electrical
heater Propellers
Pneumatic Boots
Windscreen
Chemical
Ice Protection
Electrical
heater Propellers
Pneumatic Boots
Windscreen
Chemical
Propeller Electric Heater
Electric Heater
Electric Heater Control
Freq wild power supply
Pneumatic De-icing
Hot Air
From engine bleed
Combustion heating of Ram Air
Ram Air via heat exchanger
Press feedback
Pneumatic PRSOV Leading

Edge
Over Temp S/O
(185 F)
WAI operates in-flight EAI operates
or GND Test only when Engine runs
On both wing Individual control
simultaneously
Pneumatic De-icing
Pneumatic Boots
Pneumatic Exchanger
PRSOV
Inflation causes ice to crack
15 psi
Leading Distributor
Edge Valve
Pneumatic Boots
Pneumatic Exchanger
PRSOV
Exhaust Port Close
when < 1 psi
Deflation via exhaust port
15 psi
Controlled by timer
and operate
automatically when
Leading Distributor ice detected
Edge Valve
Pneumatic Boots
Alternate inflation and deflation

cycle causing ice to crack and
break off
Inflation cycles cause by

bleed or vacuum pump
Fluid De-icing
De-icing fluid spray on flight control
surfaces to destroy ice bonding
May be self contained or apply externally
May be self contained or apply externally
Fluid de-icing system consists of fluid
tanks, pumps and control valves to direct
fluid via lead edge porous surface
Window De-icing
Window Heat Controller
Defrost and Defog System
Pitot-static probe
Flush static port No.1 and No. 2

static ports
Pitot static probe
Flush static port

Metered orifice
(very small)
Total air temperature

Airflow
Sensing
element
TAT Probe
AOA vane
Window Wiper
Rain Repellant
Valve Close
open
Fire Protection
Fire Detection
Fire Detectors
Fire Detector
Auto-resetting
Fire Detector
Non-resetting
Testing of single point detector

Loop Detector
Continuous Detector
Resistive Loop Sensor
R-Type Detection Circuit
Capacitive Sensor
T C
C-Type Sensor Circuit
Charging
Testing
Detection
C-Type Sensor Circuit
Charging
Testing
Detection
Pneumatic Sensor
Increase in pressure trigger the warning
Fire
Averaging gas expands

Core element releases hydrogen
Thermocouple
Dual Loop System
Loop Element Installation
Dont bend near clips
New washer every replacement
Wirelocked connectors
Min. bending radius 1 (9 for transport)
Photo Smoke Detector
No Light on photo cell Test lamp in series with

projector lamp and both on
Test lamp shines on photo cell

and trigger warning
Light scattered by smoke

particle and fall on photo cell
Cell R and trigger warning
Photo Smoke Detector
Photo Smoke Detecting Circuit
No smoke
Detector high R
Low volt & cant

trigger warning
Smoke
Detector low R
High volt & trigger

warning
Test Press Test Sw
Detector low R
High volt & trigger

warning
Both Lamp On
Ionization Smoke Detector
Alpha particles ionized air particles

and causes flow of current
Ionization Smoke Detector
Presence of smoke absorbs Alpha

particles and decrease ionization
current
Smoke Detection
Visual Smoke Detector
No smoke = dark
smoke = bright
Visual Smoke Detector
Extinguisher
600 psi
Steel or copper
container
33 pounds
B.C.F
Extinguisher Firing Circuit
Fire Handle
Pulling Fire Handle
Cut IDG Excitation Close PRSOV
Cut Fuel Cut Hydraulic
Squib (Cartridge)
Overboard Discharge
Testing of Cartridge
Use SAFETY
OHMMETER
Continuity Test Insulation Test

Extinguishing Circuit Check
Prior to installing plugs
Ensure no power
Misconnection of dual
connector is prevented by
different plug size
Ensure bottles are secure

Landing Gear Control
Landing Gear Position Indication
Position Switch
Circuit Breaker Push-pull
Button Main
Contacts
Latch
Mechanism
Control
Spring
Thermal
bimetallic
element
Load Supply
CB - Thermal tripping
Load Supply
CB - Manual reset
Load Supply
CB - Pulling out
Load Supply
CB - Latching in
Load Supply
Circuit Breaker
Glass and conventional cockpits
Flight instruments
(ND)
Engine instruments
(EICAS)
Over thousand System synoptics
lights and switches System control panels
Circuit breaker panels
Standby instruments:
Altitude; airspeed; artificial
horizon
6 CRTs + 300 more

lights and switches
Typical cockpit layout
Glareshield Panel
P1 P3
Pilot flight instruments Copilot flight instruments
P2
Center engine instruments
(May be EICAS)
Physical-operated instruments
Lighting
The scale
(accuracy)
Placement
The range
The Case
Limits
Warning flags
Mach/Airspeed Indicator The size
Digital display
windows
Principle
(Moving coil meters)
Moving coil instruments
Scale
Pointer
Magnet
N
Iron core to provide
uniform field S
Alum. former
Spring Moving coil
Dynamometer type Weston type

Size
No part of the instrument is obscured
by its case when observed up to 30
from the normal.
The instrument is to be read to 1% of
the indicated quantity
It is designed for observing at a
distance of 30 inches
Size
Use square cases to contain instruments
Better still, use platform scales to avoid
parallax
Smallest size should be 2 in.
Standard 3-1/4 in cases for frequently
monitored instruments.
Shorter cases to read approximate readings
A
Platform scales
4 6
2 8 Scales
10
A The main dial plate is raised

to the level of the pointer
Dial plate
Enlarged section through AA
AUTOPILOT
AND
FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM
AFDS - General
The Role of an AFCS
The Role of the AFCS is generally to :
I. Overcome a stability and control deficiency, e.g Dutch Roll mode.
II. Improve the handling or ride qualities.
III Carry out a maneuver that the pilot is unable to perform either due to
the accuracy required, or the length of time over which it is necessary
to carry out the task, or the lack of visual cues etc.
Th e response of an AFCS is much more rapid than that of the human pilot, and
prevent disturbances reaching sizeable proportions. A human pilot can detect a
change of pitch attitude of 1 in 0.3s after it occurs, and a further 0.5s delay for
making a response. An autostabiliser, however, can detect a smaller change of
0.1 and apply an input within 0.1s.
Rate Damper
Internal
Control Augmentation Condition
(ASE)
Autopilot External
Condition
Operational Autopilot
Hierarchy of AFCS
Information transfer
Cockpit Control Stability & control Aircraft

Pilot
control Surfaces characteristics reaction
Man-Machine Loop
AFCS Inner
LOOP
Outer
CLOSED LOOP HANDLING

AFDS - Computer Functions
Amplification Increases the signal level from the sensor to a high enough
level to be effective as an output. In the simplest form this
equates to gearing in a mechanical system. Also known as
gain.
Integration Integrators can be used to derive pseudo-information (i.e. rate

information can be integrated to produce attitude data). There
are problems integrating small (i.e. near zero) signals.
Differentiation Differentiation is used in a similar but opposite fashion to

integrators (i.e. attitude data can be differentiated to produce
rate information). They cannot detect small changes in rate.
Limiting Used to restrict the effect of parameter changes to certain

limits. For example, may not permit values greater than x/s
of rate to be used.
Shaping Signal shapers are used to adapt the computer output, to

produce the desired handling characteristics or flight path of
an aircraft. May be considered non-linear amplifiers.
AFDS - Computer Functions
PITCH
SERVO
AMP
ELE CTROL
PITCH HYDRAULIC
STEERING I SERVO VALVE
N LIMITER
COMMAND T NO. 2
A/P ENGAGE
ELEV
SYNC SERVO
POSITION
F/B
ELEVATOR TRIM INTEGRATOR
ELEVATOR
SURFACE
POSITION
AFDS - System Protection
Simplex
This term is usually used to define a single automatic control system and its
appropriate number of sub-channels. Although various elements of the system
may be duplicated, a single failure elsewhere will result in complete
unserviceability.
Comparators In a simple comparator system, outputs from the sensors and

actuators are monitored and compared. The comparator will
disconnect the system if the attitude change sensed is in the
wrong sense as the actuator movement. This can be made to
work even on a single lane system.
Rate Trigger Thresholds are introduced that will trip off the system
System if the rate exceeds a predetermined value. By knowing the
characteristics of an aircraft during a system runaway (these
are normally very marked and distinguishable from normal
flight), the value of the threshold switch can be set so it should
not trip the system even during flight in turbulence.
Limit
Disconnect
Sensor
Single Channel
Sensors
of Computation
Single Channel
Fail/Safe Operation
Duplex System
In a duplex system two lanes are used. A duplex system may be configured such
that the outputs from the two actuators are averaged before the demand is passed
to the control surfaces.
If a runaway occurs in one lane, with its actuator being driven hard over (rapidly
travels to the end of travel) in one direction, the other lane will sense a disturbance
and apply a corrective output to its actuator, and the resulting average actuator
displacement should be near zero. This type of system will not totally eliminate
the effects of a single-lane runaway, since a disturbance must take place before the
good lane can respond and counteract the disturbance.
However, more complex systems not only average the outputs of the actuators but
also monitor their positions. A comparator is then used to examine the actuator
position signals, and if they differ by a pre-set amount the channel is disengaged.
In this way it becomes quicker and easier to detect runaways and other system
malfunctions.
Sensors 1 Active Channel
Comparator Disconnect
Sensors 2 Monitor Channel
Dual Channel
Fail/Passive Operation
Triplex System
A triplex system is an extension of the duplex system except that each channel of
the system has three lanes instead of two. In such a system, malfunctions are
detected via a system of comparators and voting takes place to decide which lane
is at fault. Such a system is said to have single failure survivability as a complete
lane can be lost without jeopardizing the integrity of the system. This would
permit a flight or mission to be accomplished following a single failure.
Dual-Dual
This term is use by some manufacturers to define a twin fail-operational control

system having twin passive monitoring systems. It should not be considered
synonymous to a duplex system, since the control systems may or may not be
active simultaneously. In the event of a monitor detecting a failure in its
associated system, the second system with its monitor is switched in.
V
O
Sensors 1 Channel 1 T
E
R
Channel 2
Sensors 2
Channel 3 V
O
T
E
Sensors 3 Channel 4 R
Multi-channels
Fail Operational
AP / FD MODES
AFDS - General
AUTOPILOT
The autopilot controls the airplane attitude through:
Takeoff (flight director only) Climb

Cruise Descent
Approach Go-around
Autoland.
The autopilot commands go to the primary flight computers (PFCs) to operate the
flight control surfaces.
FLIGHT DIRECTOR
When the flight director switches are on, the flight director command bars show
on the primary flight displays (PFDs). The flight crew uses the flight director bars
as guides to control the attitude of the airplane.
AFDS - General
CRUISE
CLIMB A/T ARM

L R
IAS MACH HDG TRK V/S FPA ALTITUDE
IAS HDG V/S

DESCENT
A/P LNAV A/P
OFF
5 25 AUTO 1000
CLB VNAV
CON SEL BANK DOWN LOC
AUTO LIMIT
F/D ON F/D ON
A/T FLCH A/P DISENGAGE HOLD VS/FPA HOLD APP

OFF OFF
UP
MODE CONTROL PANEL
IDLE LNAV
LOC
VNAV
G/S FLIGHT DIRECTOR
COMMAND BARS
A/P
GO-AROUND
APPROACH
TAKEOFF AUTOLAND
PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY

AFDS - Modes
ROLL MODES
LNAV
The commands come from the active FMCF when there is a valid navigation data
base and an active flight plan. The CDUs can send LNAV steering commands
when there is no active FMCF.
Heading/Track Hold
In this mode, the airplane holds either heading (HDG) or track (TRK).
Heading/Track Select
In this mode, the airplane turns to the heading or track that shows in the
heading/track window.
AFDS - Modes
A/T ARM IAS MACH HDG TRK V/S FPA ALTITUDE
L R
IAS HDG
A/P LNAV A/P
OFF
5 25 AUTO 1000
CLB VNAV BANK
CON AUTO SEL DOWN LOC
F/D ON LIMIT F/D ON

OFF OFF
UP
MCP
CLIMB, CRUISE, AND DESCENT

LNAV
HEADING/TRACK HOLD
HEADING/TRACK SELECT
SPD LNAV VNAV PTH

288 17 000
A/P
PFD ROLL MODE ANNUNCIATION
AFDS - OPERATION - ROLL

AFDS - Modes
PITCH MODES
VNAV
The VNAV mode is a mix of throttle and elevator commands that control the
vertical flight path. The FMCF vertical steering commands come from the active
FMCF based on the navigation data and the active flight plan.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle

The vertical speed or flight path angle command is an elevator command. The
pilot uses this mode to change flight levels. The pilot must set the engine thrust
necessary to hold the vertical speed or flight path angle command.
FLCH
The FLCH command is a mix of thrust and elevator commands to change flight
levels. The TMCF supplies the engine thrust commands.
Altitude Hold
In this mode, the airplane holds the barometric altitude present when the pilot
pushes the altitude HOLD switch.
AFDS - Modes

L R
A/P IAS LNAV HDG V/S A/P

OFF
5 25 AUTO 1000
CLB VNAV BANK
CON AUTO SEL LIMIT DOWN LOC
F/D ON F/D ON
A/T FLCH A/P DISENGAGEHOLD VS/FPA HOLD APP

OFF OFF
UP
MCP
CRUISE
VNAV
VS/FPA
ALT
CLIMB DESCENT
VNAV 288
SPD HDG SEL ALT
17000 VNAV
VS/FPA VS/FPA
FLCH A/P FLCH
AFDS - OPERATION - PITCH

AUTOLAND
AUTOLAND
Airports around the world will have different runway ILS categories and this with the
category of the aircraft and status of the crew will decide the authority for usage based on
decision height and runway visual range.
APPROACH CATEGORIES
These standards are laid down by the ICAO and relate to the ability of the aircraft to perform
autoland function with a high degree of safety. The crew are competent in this feature, also
that the ground aids, e.g. ILS, taxiway lighting etc., are of a standard in keeping with an
automatic landing. There are two terms used in all the categories.
THE DECISION HEIGHT

The decision height is that height in feet that the pilot must not descend below unless the
required visual references have been established. The radio altimeter provides this height.
THE RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

This refers to a maximum distance along the runway where the landing lights can be seen in
the direction of landing. This information is radioed to the pilot by air traffic control and it
gives the pilot the latest information on runway visibility. The level of reliability laid down
by the UK authorities requires that the system would not cause a fatality in ten million
landings.
AUTOLAND
Decision
Height in feet
Runway Visual Range in meter
Approach Categories
AUTOLAND
CAT 1
The CAT 1 profile relates to operation down to minima of 200 feet decision height and
runway Visual range of 800 meters with a high probability of approach success.
CAT 2
This is operation down to minima below 200 feet decision height and runway visual range of
800 meters. It also relates to a decision height and runway visual range of 400 meters with
a high probability of approach success.
CAT 3A
This operation is down to and along the surface of the runway with external visual reference
during the final phase of the landing down to runway visual range minima of 200 meters.
CAT 3B
This category is for operation to and along the surface of the runway and taxiways with
visibility sufficient only for visual taxiing comparable to runway visual range valve in the
order of 50 meters.
CAT 3C
This is operation to and along the surface of the runway and taxiways without external
reference.
AUTOLAND
Hong Kong International Airport
RWY 07R, RWY07R and RWY25L have ILS CAT II equipment.
RWY 25R has CAT IIIA equipment.
TAKE - OFF 200 m RVR
LANDING DECISION HEIGHT RVR

CAT I 200 ft 550 m
CAT II 100 ft 350 m
CAT IIIA 50 ft 200 m
AUTOLAND
MINIMUM APPROACH REQUIREMENT
- Indication of mode control

- The automatic modes that are armed for use are indicated
- There are two separate ILS radio receivers
- Performance deviation warning will be displayed
- There will be audible warning of autopilot disconnect
- Attitude reference to be cross-checked and have pitch markings
- There must be a valid standby horizon
- Two serviceable radio altimeter must be fitted
- A rain repellent feature must be available on windscreens
- An ability to overshoot, and go around
AUTOLAND
AUTOLAND STATUS
If the autopilot is engaged in the approach mode below 1500 feet radio altitude,
the autoland status shows on the PFD. The autoland status is the level of
redundancy in the autoland system.
LAND 3 shows when there are no failures in any part of the autoland system.
LAND 2 shows when any part of the autoland system is one failure away from
NO AUTOLAND.
e.g. Single AFDC failure
bus isolation fails
Single backdrive actuator failure
Single radio altimeter or ILS failure
ADIRU status message.
NO AUTOLAND shows when the autoland system is not available.
e.g. Two AFDCs fail
Approach mode not active at 600 feet
Two radio altimeters or two ILS receivers fail
ADIRU failure.
OTHER MESSAGES
AUTOPILOT DISC NO LAND 3
AUTOPILOT NO AUTOLAND
NO LAND 3
NO AUTOLAND
EICAS DISPLAY
OTHER MESSAGES
AFDC C
AFDC R
AUTOPILOT
BACKDRIVE L AFDC L
AUTOPILOT
BACKDRIVE R
MODE CTRL
PANEL LANE WARNING
NO AUTOLAND R
NO LAND 3 CAUTION
A
MASTER WARNING AND
CAUTION LIGHT (2)
STATUS DISPLAY
AUTOLAND
The flight crew pushes the APP switch on the MCP to arm the Autoland modes.
Localizer & Glideslope

The LOC mode captures and holds the airplane to a localizer flight path. The G/S
mode captures and holds the airplane to a vertical descent flight path.
Flare
The flare mode controls the airplane to a smooth touchdown at a point past the
glideslope antenna. This is a computed command and is not part of the glideslope
mode.
Runway Alignment
In crosswind conditions, the runway alignment mode supplies roll and yaw control
to decrease the airplane crab angle for touchdown.
Rollout
After touchdown, the rollout mode controls the airplane to the runway center line.
Airplane deviation from the localizer center line supplies rudder and nose wheel
steering signals.
AUTOLAND
APPROACH/
AUTOLAND GO-AROUND
G/S
CAPTURE
FLARE
LOC CAPTURE
ROLLOUT GO-AROUND
RUNWAY
ALIGNMENT
AFDS - OPERATION - APPROACH/AUTOLAND INTRODUCTION

AUTOLAND
Runway Alignment
In crosswind conditions, the runway alignment mode supplies roll and yaw control
to decrease the airplane crab angle for touchdown. The runway alignment mode
also includes roll and yaw control for an engine failure in approach during
autoland.
Rollout
After touchdown, the rollout mode controls the airplane to the runway center line.
Airplane deviation from the localizer center line supplies rudder and nose wheel
steering signals.
AUTOLAND
Crosswind Runway Alignment
CROSS
WIND
CROSS
WIND
By Crab Angle By Roll Attitude

AUTOLAND
Flare
The flare mode controls the airplane to a smooth touchdown at a point past the
glideslope antenna. This is a computed command and is not part of the glideslope
mode.
Go-Around
The go-around mode controls roll and pitch after an aborted approach. Also, the
TMCF controls thrust during go-around.
AUTOLAND
60
50
RADIO
ALTITUDE
(FEET) 40
0
-30.0 -22.0 -12.4 -4.0 -1.5
DESCENT RATE (FEET PER SECOND)
FLARE HEIGHT
GLIDESLOPE BEAM GLIDESLOPE

CENTER LINE TRANSMITTER
1500'
TOUCHDOWN &
FLARE
NOSE DOWN
COMMAND
950' 450'
END OF RWY
B747 Autopilot System Controller
Roll Sensor FD Sw
Aileron
Flight Controller Roll
Computer
Disc Sw
GA Sw CCA
Monitor
Mode
&
Select
logic Unit
Panel Elevator
or
LCLU
or
FMA LRCU
PCU
Elevator Feel &
Centering Unit
Pitch
Computer ASTU STIU STCM
Pitch Sensor Elevator feel

computer
B747 Autopilot System

A320 AP/FD System
AP - System Layout
AIMS L R
IAS HDG V/S

A/P MACH LNAV TRK FDA A/P
OFF
5 25 AUTO 1000
CLB VNAV
CON AUTO SEL BANK DOWN LOC
F/D ON LIMIT F/D ON
AIRPLANE OFF
OFF
SENSORS UP
SYSTEMS MODE CONTROL PANEL

ARINC 629
BUS (3)
NAV COLLINS
SENSORS
BACKDRIVE
ACTUATOR (6)
TO/GA SW (2)
AFDC (3)
DISC SW (2) POSITION FLIGHT DECK

XDCR (16) CONTROLS
PFC (3)
ADIRU
PITOT ADM (3)
SAARU FLIGHT CONTROLS ACE (4) ELEVATOR, AILERON,

ARINC 629 BUS (3) PCU (15) AND RUDDER
B777 AFDS
AUTO-THROTTLE SYSTEM
AUTOTHROTTLE FLIGHT PROFILE
Autothrottle thrust mode annunciations relate to pitch mode annunciations on the PFD. Use
the MCP to select these modes.
Takeoff In TO, the autothrottle controls thrust to the takeoff thrust limit. The
autothrottle mode annunciation on the PFD is thrust reference (THR
REF).
Climb These are the three autothrottle mode selections in climb:

- THR REF when VNAV engages
- THR when FLCH engages
- SPD or THR REF when autothrottle mode engages.
Cruise These are the two autothrottle modes in cruise:

- SPD when VNAV engages
- SPD, VNAV is not active.
Descent These are the three autothrottle modes in descent:

- IDLE, THR, or HOLD shows for VNAV
- THR, or HOLD shows for FLCH
- SPD.
CRUISE
- VNAV (SPEED)
- SPEED DESCENT
- VNAV (IDLE)
- FLCH (THRUST)
CLIMB - SPEED
- VNAV (THRUST REF)
- FLCH (THRUST)
- SPEED
GO-AROUND
- THRUST
- THRUST REF
APPROACH
- SPEED
TAKEOFF 80 KTS TAKEOFF ROLLOUT

- HOLD - THRUST REF - BLANK FLARE RETARD
- IDLE
A/T DISCONNECT
TMCS - AUTOTHROTTLE FLIGHT PROFILE

AUTOTHROTTLE FLIGHT PROFILE
Approach SPD is normal mode in approach with glideslope active or in a

manual approach.
Go-Around A GA mode request causes the autothrottle mode to change to THR.

A second GA request causes the autothrottle mode to change to THR
REF. You push a TO/GA lever to request GA.
Flare Retard Flare retard occurs at 25 feet radio altitude during approach with a
command from the autopilot flight director system (AFDS). The
autothrottle mode changes to IDLE during a flare retard.
Autothrottle The autothrottle disconnects when there is a manual autothrottle

Disconnect disconnect or when there is thrust reverser application.This occurs
after initial touchdown during rollout.
CRUISE
- VNAV (SPEED)
- SPEED DESCENT
- VNAV (IDLE)
- FLCH (THRUST)
CLIMB - SPEED
- VNAV (THRUST REF)
- FLCH (THRUST)
- SPEED
GO-AROUND
- THRUST
- THRUST REF
APPROACH
- SPEED
TAKEOFF 80 KTS TAKEOFF ROLLOUT

- HOLD - THRUST REF - BLANK FLARE RETARD
- IDLE
A/T DISCONNECT
TMCS - AUTOTHROTTLE FLIGHT PROFILE

Automatic Throttle System
A320 A/T System
ADIRU
SAARU
PFC (3)
FLT CTRL ARINC

AFDC (3) 629 BUS (3)
ASCPC (2) MCP
CTC (2)
PSEU (2)
WEU (2) CDU (3)
EDIU (2) TO/GA
OPBC(2) SWITCH (2)
FSEU (2) A/T DISCONNECT
ASG (2) SYS ARINC SWITCH (2)
629 BUS (4)
DISPLAYS
RA XCVR (3)
SYS ARINC
629 BUS
N1/N2/N3 (4)
FUEL S/O
SWITCH (2)
ASM
MASTER
WARNING
AND
CAUTION
LIGHT
SWITCH (2)
AIMS CABINET (2)

TMCS - GENERAL DESCRIPTION
YAW DAMPER SYSTEM
Yaw Damper System - General
Dutch Roll
Dutch roll is a common oscillatory condition encountered due to low drag, high speed
aerodynamic design and turbulance which can be created by air mass instability. If
this condition is allowed to persist, it causes considerable discomfort. If the aircraft
experiences a side force causing yaw relative to the flight path, sideslip is produced.
The change in direction of relative wind causes one wing to produce more lift than
the other, thus inducing roll.
The yaw induced roll and weathercocking moment combine to induce yaw in the
opposite direction of the roll. This produces an uncoordinated turn. The change in
direction of relative wind causes one wing to produce more lift than the other,
causing the wings to level. The airplane then banks back in the other direction and
repeats the cycle with oscillating motion. The frequency of this oscillation is in the
range from 0.1 to 0.25 Hz.
The yaw damper provides damping via the upper and lower rudders to eliminate
dutch roll.
Yaw Damper System - General
FLIGHT SIDESLIPS TO RIGHT, REPEATING CYCLE

PATH
BANK STARTS TURN RIGHT

RELATIVE
WIND
WEATHERCOCKS PAST STABLE HDG, ROLLS

RIGHT
INSTANTANEOUS
HEADING
(DUE TO YAW) MOVES LEFT, ROLLS RIGHT
LEFT WING INCREASES LIFT & DRAG

CL SIDESLIPS LEFT
WEATHERCOCK
MOMENT
BANK STARTS TURN LEFT
SLIDESLIP
ANGLE
RIGHT WING INCREASES LIFT & DRAG, ROLLS
LEFT, YAWS RIGHT, WEATHERCOCKS PAST
STABLE HDG
SIDESLIP A/C MOVES RIGHT OF TRACK, TAIL MOVES

GUST SIDE RIGHT OF AXIS, SIDESLIPPING OCCURS
FORCE
DUTCH ROLL
Yaw Damper System - System Layout
The YDS uses the following inputs to determine existing conditions, rudder commands,
and system operation.
The IRU provides roll attitude, roll rate, yaw rate, lateral acceleration, and ground
speed. The ADC provides true airspeed (TAS), impact pressure (IAS) and angle of
attack (AOA).
The FMC provides the gross weight.
The hydraulic pressure switches sense normal hydraulic pressure to the upper and lower
yaw damper servos, respectively. The air/ground relay provides an analog discrete
signal indicating the airplane is airborne or on the ground.
Airplane type code is provided by program pins selectively grounded through airplane
wiring. The yaw damper channel (left or right) code is also provided by program pins
selectively grounded through airplane wiring.
The modal suppression accelerometers provide lateral acceleration data to their

corresponding yaw damper modules.
Yaw Damper System - System Layout
YAW DAMPER/PASSENGER
OXYGEN PANEL (P5)
RUDDER
(UPPER/LOWER)
POWER SUPPLY
MODULES (3) EFIS/EICAS
INTERFACE
AIR DATA MODULES (2) UNITS (3)
COMPUTERS (2)
YAW DAMPER
IRU'S (3) RUDDER POWER

RUDDER
CONTROL MODULES
PCA'S (5)
(2)
ACCELEROMETERS
(4)
CENTRAL
MAINTENANCE
COMPUTERS (2) B767 Yaw Damper System
Communications (ATA23)
HF Communication System
HF System - General
The high frequency (HF) communication system permits voice communication over
greater distances than line-of-sight radio systems.
The HF system operates in the HF aeronautical communication band between 2.000

MHz and 29.999 MHz.
Long Range Communication

The long range is achieved by used of sky waves which are refracted by the
ionosphere to such an extent that they are bent sufficiently to return to earth. The
earth reflects the signals back toward the ionized layers. Sky wave distances depend
upon frequency, time of day and airplane altitude. Skips are the areas between sky
waves reflections.
Short Range Communication

HF signals also go directly to ground stations and other airplanes.
HF System - General
IONIZED LAYER
SKY WAVE
SKIP SKIP
DIRECT GROUND
WAVE
GROUND OPS
GROUND OPS
HF System - General
HF COMMUNICATION TRANSCEIVER
The transceivers contain the receiver, transmitter, power amplifier and power
supply circuitry.
A transceiver rated at 200W p.e.p. (peak envelope power : a measure of power in

s.s.b systems) needs to dissipate 300W when operated on s.s.b. & 500W when on
a.m.
The s.s.b. mode provides for transmission & reception of upper sideband only,
though some controller have both U.S.B. & L.S.B position.
In dual installation, only one H.F. system can transmit at any one time, this is
achieved by means of an interlock circuit.
HF System - Operation Sequence
Home Mode Standby/Receive Mode
At power up or change of selected The elements stay in the

frequency, the coupler drives the tuning standby/receive mode until you push
elements toward the home position of 2 any mic switch. The system enters the
MHz. This tuning disables the PTT tune mode when you push a mic switch.
signal.
When the elements reach home, the

home mode is complete. The system
moves to the standby/receive mode.
The antenna coupler enables the PTT

signal. The coupler sends the
transceiver a fault signal if the elements
fail to get to the home position in less
than 15 seconds.
HOME MODE STANDBY/

HOME RECEIVE MIC TUNE MODE
1 COMPLETE MODE KEYED
GREATER THAN
SELECTED 15 SEC
FREQUENCY TO TUNE
CHANGED VSWR LESS THAN 1.3:1
GREATER THAN
15 SEC TO
COUPLER ARCING OR
COMPLETE HOME
TRANSCEIVER FAULT
OPERATE MODE
(RECEIVE)
TRANSCEIVER
MIC
FAULT
KEYED MIC
NOT
KEYED
COUPLER ARCING OR OPERATE MODE
FAULT TRANSCEIVER FAULT (TRANSMIT)
1 ELEMENTS DRIVE TOWARD THE HOME POSITION
HF SYSTEM - OPERATION SEQUENCE

Tune Mode Operate Mode
A PTT key latch signal from the The coupler moves into the operate
coupler keeps the transceiver in the mode when all steps of the tuning
tune mode. The transceiver sends low mode are complete.
power RF to the antenna coupler. A 1
KHz sidetone from the transceiver tells In the operate mode, the key latch
the flight crew that tuning is in signal and the 1 KHz sidetone stop.
progress.
The system is ready to receive or
The coupler moves the elements for transmit on the selected frequency.
zero phase difference between RF Push any mic switch to transmit.
voltage and current.. The tuning
elements adjust for a total impedance
of 50 ohms. The coupler maintains
the voltage standing wave ratio
(VSWR) so the RF power load is less
than or equal to 1.3:1.
HF System - System Layout
WARNING:
DO NOT TRANSMIT WITH THE HF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

WHILE THE AIRPLANE IS REFUELED OR DEFUELED. AN
EXPLOSION CAN CAUSE INJURIES TO PERSONNEL AND DAMAGE
TO THE AIRPLANE.
MAKE SURE PERSONNEL STAY A MINIMUM OF 6 FEET AWAY

FROM THE VERTICAL STABILIZER WHEN THE HF SYSTEM
TRANSMITS. RF ENERGY FROM THE HF COMMUNICATION
ANTENNA CAN CAUSE INJURIES TO PERSONNEL.
HF COMMUNICATION ANTENNA
The HF communication antenna transmits and receives RF signals in the HF

frequency range.
The antenna is a flush-mounted, slot-type antenna, approximately nine feet long.

An inverted U-shaped insulation material on the leading edge of the vertical
stabilizer surrounds the antenna driven element. The antenna insulation is
composite material.
The HF antenna is a part of the leading edge of the vertical stabilizer. An access
panel at the top of the antenna covers the connections to the antenna couplers.
For low speed aircraft a long wire antenna may be used, the aerodynamic
problems of wire antenna have led to the use of notch and probe antenna for
higher speed.
HF System - Antenna
ACCESS
PANEL
FEEDLINE CONNECTION POINTS
ANTENNA
DRIVEN
ELEMENT
INSULATION
MATERIAL
HF ANTENNA COUPLER
The HF antenna coupler matches the 50 impedance of the antenna and feed-line
with the output impedance of the transceiver at the selected frequency. This results
in a voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) of less than 1.3:1.
The antenna coupler is a sealed, pressurized unit that weighs 17 pounds. A feedline
connects each coupler to the antenna. A coaxial cable connects each coupler to its
transceiver.
Dry air or nitrogen pressurizes the antenna coupler at five to seven PSIGA.
Pressurization is through the pressure valve on the front of the coupler.
HF System - HF Antenna Coupler
ANTENNA
FEEDLINE
CONNECTOR
REAR VIEW
LEFT HF
ATE ANTENNA
CONNECTOR COUPLER
RIGHT HF
ANTENNA
CONTROL COUPLER
INTERFACE
CONNECTOR
322FL VERTICAL
COAXIAL STABILIZER FORWARD
PRESSURE BOX PANEL (REMOVED)
CABLE
VALVE CONNECTOR
The HF communication system connects with these components:
The RTPs send tuning data and mode information to the HF transceivers
The audio management unit (AMU). Microphone audio and push-to-talk (PTT)
discrete go to the transceiver through the AMU. Received audio goes from the
transceiver to the speakers and headsets through the AMU
The SELCAL decoder alerts the flight crew when the airplane receives a call.
The Digital Flight Data System receives the mic switch signals for input to the
flight data recorder.
Central maintenance System gets fault reports from the VHF system and records
this information in a fault history. This shows the maintenance crew the faulty
component or function.
SPEAKERS, HEADSETS,
MICROPHONE/PTT INPUT
MIC MIC MIC MIC MIC MIC
CALL CALL CALL CALL CALL
L C R
VHF VHF VHF FLT CAB PA
COLLINS MIC MIC MIC MIC

MIC CALL CALL CALL CALL
HF SAT SPKR
LRU FAIL INT
L R 1 2
APP
VORR L ADF
L R VB R L C R MKR
KEY INTERLOCK
CONTROL INPUT FAIL

HF ANTENNA AMU ACP
HF ANTENNA COUPLER (2) SQL/LAMP TEST
HFS-900 PHONE MIC
HF COMMUNICATION
TRANSCEIVER (2)
ACTIVE STANDBY
VHF L VHF C VHF R

HF SENS
P
DFDR CMC SELCAL DECODER
N OFF HF L AM HF R
L
RTP
VHF Communication System
VHF Communication System
The very high frequency (VHF) communication system permits voice and data
communication over line-of-sight distances.
It permits communication between airplanes or between ground stations and

airplanes.
The VHF system operates in the VHF aeronautical frequency range of 118.000
MHz to 136.975 MHz. In 25kHz spacing, some will reduced to 8.33Hz spacing.
For engine ground run, the authorized engineer shall obtain start-up clearance
from Apron control on frequency 121.775Mhz, and a listening watch shall be
maintained on the frequency throughout the engine run.
Note: Do Not Transmit on 121.5MHz (Emergency)

Do Not Transmit if refueling in progress.
Do Not Interrupt ATC aircraft communication.
Line-of-Sight
Communication
VHF System - General
The HF communication system connects with these components:
The RTPs send tuning data to the VHF communication transceiver.
The audio management unit (AMU). Microphone audio and mic switch discretes
go to the VHF transceiver through the AMU. Receiver audio goes from the VHF
communication transceiver to the speakers and headsets through the AMU.
The SELCAL decoder starts an alert when a call comes in for that airplane.
The Digital Flight Data System receives the mic switch signals for input to the
flight data recorder.
Central maintenance System gets fault reports from the VHF system and records
this information in a fault history. This shows the maintenance crew the faulty
component or function.
The ACARS supplies data communications control and services for airplane
air/ground datalink on the VHF system.
VHF System - System Layout
SPEAKERS, HEADSETS,
MICROPHONE/PTT INPUT
COLLINS
LRU L C R
VHF VHF FLT CAB PA
CONTROL
ANTENNA
MIC
AUDIO MIC CALL
MANAGEMENT HF SAT SPKR
UNIT L R 1 2
INT
VHF ANTENNA (3) VOR ADF APP
L R LR VBR L C RMKR
SELCAL AUDIO CONTROL PANEL(S)

DECODER
ACTIVE STANDBY
VHF L VHF C VHF R

VHF COMMUNICATION
HF SENS
TRANSCEIVER (3)
P HF L AM HF R
N OFF
L
RADIO TUNING PANEL (3)

DFDR CMC ACARS
VHF SYSTEM - GENERAL DESCRIPTION

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
(SATCOM) SYSTEM
SATCOM System - General
The satellite communications (SATCOM) system uses ground stations and
satellites to transmit and receive data and voice messages. SATCOM supplies
higher quality data and voice message signals for passengers and crew, over longer
distances than VHF/HF communication systems.
The satellite communications (SATCOM) system uses a satellite network, ground

stations and airplane satellite communication equipment to transmit and receive
data and voice messages.
Satellites
Satellites act as relay stations between the ground stations and the airplane.
Ground Station
The ground station connects the SATCOM system to the ground-based aircraft
communications addressing and reporting system (ACARS) and public telephone
networks.
SATCOM System - General
SATELLITE NETWORK
GROUND STATION
SATCOM System - System Layout
SATCOM System Connections
The SATCOM control and status pages on the CDU give flight crew control of the
SATCOM system. These pages also give system status data.
Microphone audio and push-to-talk discretes go to the SDU through the AMU.
Receive audio goes from the SDU to the speakers and headsets through the AMU.
The Passengers use the SATCOM system through the cabin telecommunications
unit (CTU).
The cabin crew uses the SATCOM system through the cabin passenger
management unit (CMPU) to send cabin data.
LOW
GAIN
ANTENNA
CDU (3) CLASS C

RFS LNA/DIP (TOP)
RF HPA
ATTN
COLLINS COLLINS
SDU-900 RFU-900 CLASS A HPA HPR

AMU
PORT HIGH
SDU RFU GAIN ANTENNA
PORT PORT BSU

LNA/DIP
STBD HIGH
ACARS GAIN ANTENNA
RFC
STBD STBD BSU

LNA/DIP
High Gain Antenna System
The two high gain antenna systems receive and transmit voice and data signals. A
high power relay (HPR) sends signals to only one high gain antenna system at a
time. A radio frequency combiner (RFC) gets signals from each antenna system
and sends them to the RFU.
Low Gain Antenna System
The low gain antenna system receives and transmits data signals. This system
operates only when a high gain antenna system fails or class A high power
amplifier fails. The low gain antenna system has a low gain antenna (LGA) and a
low noise amplifier/diplexer (LNA/DIP).
LOW
GAIN
ANTENNA
CDU (3) CLASS C

RFS LNA/DIP (TOP)
RF HPA
ATTN
COLLINS COLLINS
SDU-900 RFU-900 CLASS A HPA HPR

AMU
PORT HIGH
SDU RFU GAIN ANTENNA
PORT PORT BSU

LNA/DIP
STBD HIGH
ACARS GAIN ANTENNA
RFC
STBD STBD BSU

LNA/DIP
THE SELECTIVE CALLING
(SELCAL) SYSTEM
SELCAL System
CALL
The selective calling (SELCAL)
system tells the flight crew that there
is a call from a ground station on a
communication transceiver.
Because the SELCAL system

monitors all incoming signals, the
flight crew does not need to
continuously monitor the radio
channels.
GROUND
STATION
SELCAL System - System Layout
Each airplane has a different SELCAL code. A ground station transmits this code
with a signal to contact an airplane. Each transmitted code is made up of two r.f.
pulses, during each pulse the transmitted carrier is modulated with two tones, thus
there are a total of 4 tones per call. The tones are designated by letters A to S
omitting I, N & O.
When the airplane receives its SELCAL code, several flight deck indications come
on to alert the flight crew.
HF and VHF Transceivers

The communication transceivers send received audio to the SELCAL decoder.
SELCAL Decoder
A SELCAL coding switch connects to the SELCAL decoder and gives each
airplane its SELCAL code.
The SELCAL decoder monitors for audio tones. If the tones are the same as the
code, the decoder sends a signal to the audio management unit.
AURAL
WARNING
SPEAKER
LEFT WEU (2)
RIGHT
AUDIO
ENGINE R FIRE
ENG R SHUTDOWN
HF COMM AUTOPILOT
TRANSCEIVERS(S) ANTI-ICE ENG L
PTT(S)
PRIMARY
DISPLAY SYSTEM SELCAL
COMM
CABIN CALL
STATUS
AUDIO EICAS DISPLAY

LEFT MANAGEMENT
MIC
UNIT CALL
CENTER
RIGHT
AUDIO MIC
L R 1 2
INT
VHF COMM
TRANSCEIVERS(S) LR LR VBR
SELCAL SELCAL CODING AUDIO CONTROL PANEL(S)

DECODER SWITCH
SELCAL - GENERAL DESCRIPTION

SELCAL System - Operation
MIC LIGHT CALL LIGHT The audio management unit (AMU)
(GREEN) (GREEN)
sends a signal to makes a COMM
MIC
CALL
SELCAL medium message through the
L
VHF
C
VHF
R
VHF FLT CAB PA
primary display System.
MIC/INT MIC
HF SAT SPKR
The warning electronic units (WEUs)
SWITCH
INT
L R 1 2
make a chime signal and send it to the
APP
VORR L ADF
L R VB R L C RMKR aural warning speakers.
The AMU also sends a signal to the

audio control panels (ACPs). The ACPs
turn on the call light for the transceiver
ENGINE R FIRE that received the SELCAL code.
ENG R SHUTDOWN
AUTOPILOT
ANTI-ICE ENG L
To make the CALL light go off, push
the transmitter select switch. If the MIC
SELCAL light for that transmitter select switch is
COMM
CABIN CALL on, push any mic switch or that
STATUS
transmitter select switch to reset the call
EICAS DISPLAY
light.
SELCAL System - Operation
SELCAL - ACP CALL LIGHTS AND

MIC
LIGHT (GREEN)
CALL
LIGHT (GREEN)
RESET SWITCHES
TRANSMITTER
SELECT SWITCH MIC
CALL Control and Indications
L C R
VHF VHF VHF FLT CAB PA On the audio control panel, a transmitter
select switch CALL light comes on
MIC/INTERPHONE
SWITCH
MIC
HF SAT SPKR
when the SELCAL decoder gets a
INT
L R 1 2
SELCAL signal.
APP
VORR L ADF
L R VB R L C R MKR
To make the CALL light go off, push

the transmitter select switch. If the MIC
light for that transmitter select switch is
SELCAL - ACP CALL LIGHTS AND RESET SWITCHES
on, push any mic switch or that
transmitter select switch to reset the call
light.
Communication System
RTP
RADIO TUNING PANEL
Use the radio tuning panel (RTP) to select the modes of operation, and to select the
active and standby frequencies for each communication radio. Each RTP has these
features:
Active and standby frequency windows

A frequency transfer switch
An offside tuning light
Frequency selectors
Radio tuning switches
An AM switch
A radio tuning panel off switch
An HF sensitivity control.
Momentary switches have a white light in them that comes on when the function is
selected
RTP
OFFSIDE
TUNING LIGHT
(WHITE)
ACTIVE STANDBY
VHF L VHF C VHF R

HF SENS
P HF L AM HF R
N
L OFF
ACP
The audio control panel (ACP) supplies transmitter selection, receiver selection
and volume control for the radio system.
The operator transmits on only one communication system at a time. The ACP
permits the operator to listen to one or more radio systems at the same time.
Push an receiver volume control to listen to an radio channel. Rotate the receiver
volume control for volume control. The receive light above the control shows
green when a receiver volume control is on.
Push an transmitter select switch to select an radio system for transmission. The
mic light shows green to show the selected system.
Push the mic/interphone switch to connect the microphone to the transceiver and
to key the system.
The call light comes on when the SELCAL system detects a call for the system.
ACP
CALL LIGHT
L C R
VHF VHF VHF FLT CAB PA
MIC
MIC CALL
SPKR
HF SAT
L R 1 2
INT
APP
VOR ADF
L
R L
R V B R L
C R
MKR
ACP
Pitot Static System
1 2
dynamic pressure = v
2
Dynamic pressure is that which is caused by the forward motion
of the aircraft through the air. The faster the aircraft goes, the
greater the dynamic pressure.
Static pressure is sensed through one or more small holes or
static vents which are connected to the aircrafts pressure
system.
Usually the vents are fitted in the side of the fuselage, and often
there are two - one on each side - to balance out errors.
1 2
Ps + v + gh = constant
2
Once sensed, the pressures are fed to the instrument by a
pressure system.
Pitot & Static Pressure Sensing
Air Temperature Sensing
Instrument Error
All instruments are subject to errors caused by manufacturing
faults, design weaknesses and wear.
Position Error
The pressure sensors, static vents and pitot heads, can never be in
perfect positions on the airframe and so the pressures which they
sense will frequently be incorrect. Such position error at the pitot
head is usually very small and is ignored. For static vents to sense
the correct pressure they must be positioned in air which is
entirely free from disturbances caused by movement of the air
over the airframe - an all but impossible task .
Manoeuvre Error
Whenever the aircraft is not in straight - and - level flight the
senses will be inaccurate because of the aerodynamic disturbances
caused by manoeuvre.
Blockages
Any blockages (such as bugs or ice) in the pressure sensors will
cause errors. Hence the use of pitot heaters are for anti-icing
operation. Some aircraft are fitted with an alternative static
source, but its use tends to cause substantial errors.
B747 Pitot Static System
A320 Pitot Static System
Air Data Instrument
ALTIMETER
The sensing element is a

partially - evacuated, sealed
capsule (an aneroid
capsule). A leaf spring is
used to prevent the capsule
collapsing.
If static pressure decreases,
the spring will be strong
enough to expand the
capsule.
The sensitive altimeter works on exactly the same principle as the
basic instrument. However, to improve sensitivity, the single
capsule is replaced by multiple capsules in a stack.
This arrangement provides a much larger movement for a given
change of pressure and so makes feasible the use of a three - needle
indicator.
The modern servo altimeter retains the capsule stack as a
sensing element but the suitable system of levers is
replaced by a servo mechanism based on an I and E
bar system.
Servo altimeters offer
considerable advantages over
their conventional altimeters:
More accurate, and usable to

higher altitudes.
Digital indicators can be used

(though a hundreds of feet).
Pointer is normally retained
more readily to indicate small
changes.
The relationship between these three settings can perhaps be more
readily appreciated by reference to Chart of Atmospheric Pressure
Datum .
QFE
The QFE set the barometric pressure at airfield level. The
altimeter will indicate zero when the aircraft is on the ground and,
when airborne, height above the airfield .
QNH
The QNH set the mean sea level (MSL) pressure on the altimeter,
the altimeter will indicate altitude above MSL.
QNE
When the standard pressure is set on the altimeter, the altimeter will
indicate pressure altitude or flight level.
For example, in Hong Kong,
Aircraft will change from an altimeter setting of 1013.2

to local QNH setting when 50Nm from the airport & at
or below the transition altitude (9000ft).
Aircraft operating beyond a range of 50Nm and those

within 50Nm of airport but at or above the transition
level will use an altimeter setting of 1013.2hPa.
The aircraft is flying from an area where the QNH is 1010 MB to
another area where the QNH is 995 MB.
The aircraft will maintain constant vertical separation from 1010

MB datum, its actual altitude will fall and the altimeter will
overread.
One aircraft is flying at 3000 ft on the QFE of 995 mb. A second
aircraft is overflying at FL 35.
The pressure difference between QFE and QHN is 18 mb.

Equals to 18 x 27 = 486 feet ( Assume 1 mb = 27 feet )
The separation is 3500 - 3000 - 486 = 14 feet
The altimeter of an aircraft standing at an airfield indicated 360ft
when the subscale of the instrument was set to 989 mb.
If the the QNH at the time was 1005 mb and a change of pressure of
1 mb represents a hieght change of 28 ft, the elevation of the airfield
was 808 ft.
The altimeter of an aircraft at an airfield indicated 350 ft when the
QNH was 982 mb.
If the elevation of the airfield was 70 feet and a change of pressure of

1 mb represents a change of height of 28 feet, the setting on the
subscale ( Baro correction ) of the altimeter was 992 mb.
The altimeter of an aircraft at an airfield indicated 140ft when the
subscale of the instrument was set to 990 mb.
If the elevation of the airfield was 476 feet and a change of pressure
of 1 mb represents a height change of 28 feet, the QNH at the
airfield was 1002 mb.
Airspeed Indicator
Airspeed indicator are in effect

very sensitive pressure gauges
measuring the difference
between the pitot & static
pressure
Capsule movement is
proportional to airspeed; the
movement is fed through a
suitable system of linkages to a
needle that moves over a
calibrated dial from which we
can read Indicated Airspeed
(IAS).
Dynamic pressure is dependant not
only on speed but also on the density
of the air.
D= V
where is the ambient air density

and V is the true airspeed ( TAS)
D = O VI
where O is the air density at sea

level ( 1225 gm/m) and VI is the
indicated airspeed ( IAS)
Pitot Pressure Pneumatic
Airspeed IAS
Static Pressure
Indicator
Airspeed Computed
SSEC
Transducer AS
Transducer Calibrated
Non-linear Correction AS
Altitude Compressbility
EAS
Mach Compensation
Total Air Temp. Density

TAS
Static Pressure Compensation
Airspeed Definition
Instrument and position errors combined can be
measured and corrected. When these corrections are
applied to IAS, the result is known as Rectified Airspeed
(RAS) which is also called Calibrated Airspeed (CAS).
Compressibility Error
As the aircraft moves through the air, the air is brought

to rest in the pitot head and is compressed. The
compression causes the pitot pressure to increase, giving
an incorrectly high value of dynamic pressure, and so too
high an airspeed is indicated.
When RAS is corrected for compressibility error, the

result is known as Equivalent Airspeed (EAS).
Density Error
If the ambient air density is other than 1225gm/m3, there

will be a density error. The major cause of changes in air
density is changes in altitude.
At the levels used by jet aircraft, the IAS will be

considerably less than TAS.
For example, at FL 350 with an IAS of 250kt, the TAS

could be 440kt.
MACH METER
The Machmeter makes use of

this relationship by combining
an airspeed capsule (P-S) and
an altitude capsule (S) to
produce Mach Number. A
schematic is shown in
Schematic diagram of a
Machmeter .
An increase in altitude will cause the altimeter capsule to expand
and show an increased Mach Number. Similarly, an increase in
speed will cause the airspeed capsule to expand, which will also
show an increased Mach Number. At speeds below M 0.4 the
ratio and ranging arms are not in contact and no reading is
indicated.
Mach Number
.90
.885
.85
36000
Indicated Airspeed
Altitude
350
21000 400
390
350 400 450 500 550 600

True Airspeed
Altitude Vs. IAS/MACH

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
(VSI)
A capsule inside a sealed case is

fed with static pressure. Static
pressure is also fed to the inside
of the case but via a metering jet
(choke) which permits changes of
static pressure to pass only after
a calibrated delay.
The movement of the capsule
is fed through linkages to
cause the needle to move over
a calibrated dial. The faster
the climb/descent the greater
will be the movement of the
capsule and therefore the
needle. The instrument dial
usually has a logarithmic scale
to give greater clarity at low
rates of climb and descent.
The metering jet (choke) is
designed to provide a rate of
change of pressure directly
related to a given rate of climb
or descent regardless of altitude.
To overcome the problem of lag in the normal VSI, the
instantaneous (or instant lead) VSI (IVSI) incorporates an
accelerometer unit in the static feed to the capsule.
Air Temperature Measurement
Types of Thermometer
Both solids and liquids expand as their temperature increases.
The electrical resistance of substances changes with change of

temperature.
When dissimilar metals are joined, as in a thermocouple, an emf is

produced; the magnitude of the emf is dependant on temperature
difference.
Many liquids changes state from liquid to vapour as temperature

increases. If enclosed, the change of vapour pressure is related to
change of temperature.
Larger aeroplanes use electrical
type thermometers with the
sensing element mounted either
flush with the fuselage skin or in
probes.
Air Data Computer
CADC Interface
CADC Schematic
Stall Warning System
A small vane protruding from
the leading edge of the wing is
the simplest form of stall
warning transducer.
As the nose of the airplane rises,

the angle at which the wind
strikes the wing increases, as the
stagnation point moves down.
At a speed somewhere around

five knots above the stalling
speed, the vane will lift and close
a micro-switch. This turns on a
red light on the instrument panel
or activates a buzzer.
For normal flight, the air hole leading to the stall warning reed is in
an area of positive pressure and the reed does not vibrate.
But as the angle of attack increases, the area of low pressure above
the stagnation point moves over the entrance and the reed begins to
vibrate.
The stall warning system is the simple angle of attack indicator that
uses a pick-up similar to the electric stall warning vane. The vane
moves a resistor that drives the indicator.
The indicator is marked from 0 (zero degrees angle of attack) to 1
for the angle of attack that will produce a full stall.
Altitude Alert System
HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
* +900 ft
AAS Annunciator On
+300 ft *
AAS Annunciation Off
-300 ft
*
AAS Annunciator On
-900 ft
*
* 2sec Aural Warning
Altitude Alert System

HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
Altitude Alert Schematic

HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
Mach Airspeed Warning System

Gyroscopic Instruments
A gyroscope (gyro for short)
is a rotating mass which has
freedom to move in one or
more planes perpendicular
to the plane of rotation.
This freedom is provided by

mounting the spinning mass
in a system of gimbals,
which are pivoted at right
angles to each other.
RIGIDITY
The Property which resist any

force tending to change the
plane of rotation of its rotor.
This property is dependent on

three factors:
I. The mass of the rotor,
II. The speed of rotation,

Spinning
reference III. The distance at which the
axis mass acts from the center, i.e.
the radius of gyration.
PRECESSION
Axis Precesses in
this direction When a force or push is applied to the
axis of a gyro, the axis does not move
in the direction of the applied force,
Finger pushes
in this direction
but always at a point 90 away in the
direction of the rotation.
The rate of precession depends on :
I. The strength and direction of the

applied force.
Rotor is II. The moment of inertia of the rotor

spinning in this
direction
III. The angular velocity of the rotor
A gyro will retain a fixed If spin axis is moved in the
alignment in space unless vertical plane, the wander is
acted on by some external known as topple.
force. Any movement of the
gyro away from its initial
orientation is known as
wander.
PREFECT FREE GYRO
Regardless of the earths

motion, a perfect gyros axis
would maintain a fixed position
relative to space. The free or
space gyroscope thus serve no
useful purpose and must be
corrected for the drift with
respect to the earths rate,
called the apparent drift.
For wander as a result of

transporting the gyroscope
from one point on the earth to
another, called transport
wander.
Suppose gyro A at position 1
has its spin axis aligned with
True North. With the passage
of time, although the gyro will
maintain its alignment in space
the direction of True North will
change as the Earth rotates and
the observers position in space
moves through 2 and 3 to 4.
This is apparent drift, which

will be zero at the Equator
(where the meridians are
parallel ) and maximum at the
poles. The specific term for this
apparent wander is Earth Rate.
Now consider gyro B which is
at the Equator and has its spin
axis aligned East - West. As the
Earth rotates, and the gyro
maintains its alignment in space,
the gyro will appear to topple
through 90 for each quarter
revolution of the Earth -
apparent topple.
The same gyro at the pole

would not appear to topple at
all.
To summarise.
Apparent drift due to Earth Rate is zero at the

Equator and maximum at the poles.
Apparent topple is maximum at the Equator

and zero at the poles.
Transport Wander
Just as movement of the

Earth under the space
orientated orientated gyro
will cause wander, so too will
transporting the gyro over the
Earth - transport wander.
Movement with an easterly
component creates apparent
drift in the same sense as
Earth Rate; a westerly
component causes the drift to
be in the opposite sense.
Tied Gyro
A tied gyro also has freedom in three planes but is constrained in one
plane to some external reference. An example is the Directional Gyro
Indicator which has its spin axis constrained in the aircrafts yawing
plane.
Earth Gyro
An Earth gyro again has freedom in three planes but is constrained
by gravity. An example is the Attitude Indicator which has its spin
axis constrained to the Earth vertical.
Rate Gyro
A rate gyro freedom in only one plane (in addition to its plane of
rotation) and is constructed so as to measure rate of movement about
an axis which is at right angles both to the spin axis and the axis of
freedom. An example is the turn coordinator.
In light aircraft, most gyros are air driven. That is, air is sucked
out of the gyro case by a vacuum pump; replacement air rushes
into the case to fill the vacuum and in so doing drives the gyro
rotor at approximately 15,000rpm, which has buckets shaped
into its rim to catch the air.
In larger aircraft, all gyros are electrically driven by induction

motors which are designed into the rotor. The main advantages of
electrically driven gyros are
a higher speed approximately 20,000-23,000rpm can be used, giving a
greater rigidity. Constant speed whereas the air - driven rotor slows
at altitude as the air density falls.
Less prone to ingestion of dust and moisture because the gyro case is
sealed. Life and reliability are enhanced.
Greater freedom of movement: the motor is part of the rotor, so there
is no need for wiring or piping which restricts movement.
Faster erection and re - erection.
Vertical Gyro
The Vertical Gyro
The gyro is mounted with its

plane of rotation in the
horizontal (spin axis is
vertical) in two gimbals; the
rotor thus has freedom of
movement in all three planes.
The gyro remains rigid in
space and provides the datum
against which pitch and roll
attitude can be measured and
displayed.
In level flight (the aircrafts horizontal axis is perpendicular to
the spin axis. The guide pin is in the centre of the slot in the outer
gimbal; the horizon-bar is horizontal and coincident with the
aircraft symbol on the face of the dial.
Gyro Horizon Indicator
The erection system consists of tilt - switches and torque motors.
Two switches, containing mercury, are mounted in the base of the
inner gimbal; one fore - and - aft, one athwartships. If the rotor
starts to topple the mercury will cover two contacts and a current
will flow to the torque motor, causing it to rotate the gimbal. The
rear motor controls pitch by turning the outer gimbal - the
starboard motor controls roll by turning the inner gimbal.
The electric instrument has the following advantages as opposed to
an air - driven type:
Fast spin - speed giving greater rigidity and less precession.

Constant spin - speed at all heights, regardless of air density.
The case is sealed and not affected by moisture, dust or corrosion.
Runs at constant temperature which improve accuracy.
Fast erection and re - erection.
Acceleration errors are much smaller because there is no large
erection chamber or vanes to be affected by inertia. Furthermore,
cut-out devices in the levelling circuit cause it to be de-activated
when subject to large accelerations and large angles of bank.
However, in less violent conditions, some errors will persist.
HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
Remote Vertical Gyro Schematic

Directional Gyro
The Directional Gyro
Directional Gyro Indicator

(DGI) - makes use of the
rigidity of a gyro to provide a
heading reference - that is,
motion in the aircrafts yawing
plane.
A free gyro (three planes of
movement including the plane
of rotation) is mounted in two
gimbals with its spin axis in the
yawing plane. The spin axis is
constrained in this plane and is,
therefore, a tied gyro.
The method of control makes
use of the property of
precession. In normal flight the
gyro is driven by two air jets
which impinge equally on
buckets cut into the rim of
the rotor. The jets are mounted
on the outer gimbal which,
remember, is attached to the
instrument case.
When the aircraft banks the
force of the driving airflow is
divided into two components.
One, X, continues to drive the
rotor but the second Y acts on
the rim of the rotor in the
direction of the spin axis.
Because of the law of precession,
this force is moved through 90
in the direction of rotation. It
appears to act as Y, a force
which will push the gyro rotor
back into the aircraft vertical,
which is where we want it.
The gyro at A, at the Equator,
is aligned with the meridian.
Because the meridians are
parallel at the Equator, it will
maintain this alignment when
the Earths rotation moves it
to B.
On the other hand, a gyro at

the pole would appear to drift
at a rate equal to the Earths
rotation rate that is, 360 in
24 hours or 15 per hour - in
fact, the rate is 15 times the
sine of the latitude (15 sin lat)
per hour.
A nut is fitted to one side of the inner gimbal on a spindle.
On the opposite side is a counter - weight that exactly balances
the nut when the nut is mid - way along the spindle. This would
be the setting for the Equator, where no correction is required.
Now suppose that the nut is
adjusted so that it is nearer
the outer end of its spindle. A
torque is set up because of
the weight of the nut that,
because of the law of
precession, will cause the
gyro to precess (drift) in a
clockwise direction.
This is a correction for Earth
Rate in the southern
hemisphere, and the amount
by which the nut is moved
from its mid - way (Equator)
setting depends on the
latitude for which the
correction is required.
Note carefully that the
apparent drift due to Earth
Rate is reduced to zero only at
the latitude for which the nut
is set. For instance, in the
northern hemisphere, to the
North of the set latitude the
gyro will still underread and
to the South of the set latitude
the gyro will overread.
Illustrates the case for a gyro

with its latitude nut set for
30N.
Remote Directional Gyro Schematic
The Rate Gyro
The turn indicator measures

rate of change of heading -
that is, it measures
movement in the yawing
plane. It consists of a gyro
positioned with its spin axis
horizontally athwartships in
the aircraft.
Suppose the aircraft turn left. The gyros orientation in the fore-
and -aft axis is fixed, so the gyro is forced to turn with the aircraft
by the force A. by the law of precession this force is moved
through 900 in the direction of spin, hence producing a torque
which rotates the rotor clockwise. This is the primary precession.
The situation illustrated is
when no turn is taking place,
hence the needle is central. In
a turn the needle will be
displaced left or right,
indicating the direction of turn,
by an amount proportional to
the rate of turn. The
graduated marks represent
rates one, two and three,
moving outwards from the
center.
Nowadays however, it is more usual to use a ball-shaped weight in a
curved glass tube. Movement of the ball within the tube is damped
by a liquid. In straight and level flight the ball will be in the center
of the tube .
When the aircraft turns the centripetal force acting towards the
center of the turn creates a centrifugal force acting outwards.
Weight continues to act vertically. If the turn is balanced the
resultant of weight and centrifugal force will act through the
aircraft vertical and the ball will remain centered.
When the turn is not balanced the forces will no longer be
matched and the ball will appear to move left or right.
On the left illustrates the situation when the aircraft is over-
banked. The aircraft is slipping into the turn.
On the right we have the opposite case. The aircraft is under-
banked. The aircraft is skidding out the turn.
Turn Co-ordinator
Inertial Navigation System
Navigation Data Supplied by INS
An ideal form of automatic navigation operates independently of
external stations
High accuracy for en-route navigation
Long range navigation
Two or three systems usually fitted, with one connected to the
automatic flight control system
Multi-inertial sensor outputs aircraft attitude, position,
ground speed and heading
Inertial reference system (IRS) indicates a combined IRU and
computer is fitted to provide various outputs In aircraft equipped
for autoland procedures, three IRSs are fitted for redundancy
IRS consists of an inertial reference unit (IRU) and associated
inertial reference mode panel (IRMP)
Inertia is the basics of an inertial navigation system, which is
defined by the Newtons second law of motion (F=ma)
Basic inertial system consists of a group of gyro-stabilized
accelerometers
The accelerometers sense movement along three axes, i.e.,
longitudinal axis, lateral axis and vertical axis
The accelerometers are normally mounted on a common platform
which is free to move relative to the aircraft
The platform is to maintain a constant level relative to the earth
as the aircraft attitude changes
Aircraft initial position information has to be provided to system
to calculate :
Aircraft position, attitude, ground speed and heading
Guidance or steering information for auto-pilot and flight
instruments
B767 Inertial Reference System
Dual-axis navigation computation
The gyro-stabilized platform
Gyroscopic leveling of the platform
Apparent tipping of platform due to earth rotation
Platform with earth rate compensation applied
Transport error
Correcting for transport rate
The platform is
said to be
Schuler tuned
The period of
oscillation is 84.4
minutes
Mass of
pendulum
Pendulum with mass at earth's centre

Gyro torquing
Accelerometer Error
Coriolis acceleration
This error is caused by a
Coriolis deflecting force exerted by the
effect
rotation of the earth upon any
C.f object in motion.
Centrifugal force
This error is caused by the
motion of the aircraft in the
curved path from one point on
the earths surface to another.
IRS mode selectors on IRMP
IRS keyboard on IRMP
HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
Inertial Navigation System

HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
True North INS Output

GS
TK - Track Angle
WAY PT2
Time/ Dist GS - Ground Speed
DSRTK HDG - True Heading
DA
DA - Drift Angle
HDG XTK - Cross Track Distance
TKE - Track Angle Error
TK
WAY PT1
POS - Present Position
XTK DIST - Distance to go
TIME - Time to Go
POS DSRTK - Desired Track Angle
Wind direction
& Speed
Hong Kong Airport
22 18 32 N 113 54 53 E
HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
Inertial Platform
HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
Laser Gyro
HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
The RLG consists of three optical tubes arranged in a triangle to

form a continuous path. Two laser beams travel around this path
in opposite directions. If there is any rotation of the triangle, one
beam will take longer than the other to complete its journey. The
time difference, which can be measured by an optical sensor, is
proportional to rate of rotation.
A problem can arise if there is no rotational movement at all - the

laser beams suffer from beam interlock. This is overcome by
fitting a dither motor.
HKAR-66 M13 Part1
Instrument Systems
Gimbal Vs. Strapdown

Radio Navigation Systems (ATA 34)
Basic Principles of Radio
The Radio Frequency Categorization
Name Abbreviation Frequency
Very low frequency v.l.f 3-30kHz

Low frequency l.f 30-300kHz
Medium frequency m.f 300-3000kHz
High frequency h.f 3-30MHz
Very high frequency v.h.f 30-300MHz
Ultra high frequency u.h.f 300-3000MHz
Super high frequency s.h.f 3-30GHz
Extremely high frequency e.h.f 30-300GHz
Radiation of Electromagnetic Waves
c= f
where c is the speed of light (3x108 m/s)
is the wavelength in meters
f is the frequency in Hertz (cycles/s)
A radiating wire is most efficient when its length is equal to half a wavelength, in
which case it is known as a dipole. In practice many airborne radio system do not
make use of dipole antennas since their size is prohibitively large.
A close relative of the dipole is the unipole antenna which is 0.25 length conductor
mounted vertically on the metal fuselage which acts as a ground plane in which a
reflection of the unipole is seen to form a dipole.
Electromagnetic waves Propagation
Three modes of propagation are used with airborne radio instrument : space wave,
ground wave & sky wave.
In free space, all radio waves travel in straight lines at speed of light. Such a mode of
propagation is known as the space wave.
The ground wave follows the surface of the earth partly because of diffraction. The
wave H field cuts the earths surface, so causing currents to flow. The required power
for these currents must come from the wave, thus a flow of energy from wave to
earth takes place causing bending & attenuation.
Radio waves striking the ionosphere are reflected by an amount depending on the
frequency of the incident wave. Under some circumstances the wave will return to
the earth as a sky wave. The distance between the transmitter and the point of return
is known as the skip distance.
Modulation
Both amplitude modulation & frequency modulation carriers are commonly used for
airborne systems.
With AM the amplitude of the carrier represents the amplitude of the modulating
signal, while the rate of change of amplitude represents the frequency.
With FM the amplitude and frequency of the modulating signal is represented by the
frequency deviation and rate of change of frequency of the carrier respectively.
Instrument Landing System
ILS - General
The instrument landing system (ILS) provides lateral and vertical guidance to the
runway on approach. The system uses signals from a glideslope ground station and a
localizer ground station.
The glideslope station transmits signals to give the airplane a descent path to the
touchdown point on the runway.
The localizer station transmits signals to give a lateral path to keep the airplane
centered on the runway.
ILS - General
Vertical Deviation
2 Dot envelope is 1.4
150mV
90Hz AM
~ 3 Slope 150Hz AM
RUNWAY
GLIDESLOPE
ILS - General
RWY IDENT Frequency

07L IZSL 111.1Mhz
07R ISR 109.3Mhz
25L IFL 108.9Mhz
Lateral Deviation
25R ITFR 110.9Mhz 2 Dot envelope
700ft wide at thershold
Back beam 150Hz AM
RUNWAY
90Hz AM
1,000ft Nominal
100W Transmitter
LOCALIZER
ILS - Antenna
Localizer Antennas
Each antenna has two elements. The
localizer antennas receive frequencies
from 108.1 MHz to 111.95 MHz at odd
LOC tenths intervals.
ANTENNA (L)
LOC Glideslope Capture Antennas

ANTENNAS
(C, R)
Each antenna has two elements. The
glideslope antennas receive frequencies
G/S CAPTURE
ANTENNA (L) from 328.6 MHz to 335.4 MHz. The
G/S CAPTURE glideslope frequencies are paired with
FWD
ANTENNAS localizer frequencies.
(C, R)
ILS - Antenna
VOR ANTENNA
VOR Antennas
The VOR antenna is on the top of the
vertical stabilizer. The VOR antenna
receives RF signals in the frequency
range of 108 MHz to 117.95 MHz. The
antenna receives VOR and ILS
frequencies.
Glideslope Track Antennas

Each antenna is a dual element antenna.
G/S TRACK
ANTENNA The glideslope track antennas supply
(L, C) final approach and landing glideslope
signals. The track antennas are in a
G/S TRACK
ANTENNA
position to minimize the vertical distance
(L, C) between the antenna flight path and the
main landing gear.
FWD
NOSE LANDING GEAR

ILS - Antenna
Antenna Switching (Boeing Aircraft)
The localizer antenna switch change the

VOR ANTENNA LOC ANTENNA (2) inputs between the VOR antenna and the
localizer antennas in the nose radome.
APP Mode The glideslope (G/S) antenna switches
System change the receiver glideslope antenna
LOC Capture inputs between the G/S antenna in the
APP Mode
Logic nose radome and the G/S track antenna
on the aft nose gear doors.
L/G Down
G/S CAPTURE
ANTENNA (2)
G/S TRACK
ANTENNA (2)
ILS Displays
ND Display
ILS L 110.10
Select approach (APP) on the EFIS
CRS 055
HDG 090 MAG
DME 13.5 control panel to show ILS displays on
the navigation display (ND). The data
shows in both the expanded or center
mode formats.
- Reference receiver for ILS deviation

- ILS frequency or identifier
- ILS course
- Localizer deviation indication
- Localizer deviation scale (1/dot)
- Glideslope deviation pointer
CENTERED MODE - Glideslope deviation scale (0.7/dot)
ILS Displays
PFD Display
- Localizer frequency or identifier

- ILS course
110.90/123
200
DME 25.3 - Localizer deviation scale and pointer
180 6 - Glideslope deviation scale and pointer
5 000 2
160 1
- ILS deviation warnings.
3
14 4 800
2
1
120
4 600 2
6
100
1000
L 29.86 IN
135 H MAG
34-31 ILS - System Layout
The antenna inputs go through localizer and glideslope antenna switches, then to the
ILS receivers.
ILS deviations go to the Primary Display System to show ILS data on the primary
flight displays (PFDs) and navigation displays (NDs).
ILS deviations go to the autopilot flight director computers (AFDCs) for autoland
calculations. The AFDCs send ILS tune inhibits during approach mode.
The left ILS receiver sends glideslope deviation to the ground proximity warning
computer (GPWC) for mode 5 alerts.
The receivers also send station audio and identifier signals to the audio management
unit (AMU).
The receivers get discrete inputs from the air/ground relays.

34-31 ILS - System Layout
COLLINS
VOR ANTENNA G/S CAPTURE
ANTENNA (2)
LRU STATUS FMC
CONTROL FAIL
PDS
G/S, LOC
ANTENNA
SWITCH (6)
LOC ANTENNA (2)
G/S TRACK
ANTENNA (2)
TEST AFDC (3)
ILS-900
SYSTEMS AIR/GND GPWC

ARINC 629 RELAYS
AMU
FMC ILS RECEIVER (3)

L, R CDU
ILS - System Layout

34-31 ILS - Test Sequence
The receivers start their test sequence when the test command comes from the CMC
or Front Panel Test switch. This is the sequence:
Invalid data for the first three seconds
NCD for approximately two seconds
Valid data
Glideslope pointer up one dot, localizer pointer left one dot for 3 seconds
Valid data
Glideslope pointer down one dot, localizer pointer right one dot for 3 seconds
34-31 ILS - Test Sequence
ILS R 110.00
CRS 055
DME 13.5
HDG 090 MAG
COLLINS
LRU STATUS
STATUS
CONTROL FAIL
LEDS
TEST
SWITCH ND
TEST
ILS-900
ILS R 110.00
CRS 055
DME 13.5
HDG 090 MAG
ILS - RECEIVER
ND
VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) System
VOR System
The VHF omni-directional ranging (VOR) system is a navigation aid that gives
magnetic bearing data from a VOR ground station to the airplane.
The VOR ground stations transmit an omni-directional signal and directional signal.
Together the signals give magnetic radial information from 000 degrees to 359
degrees reference to magnetic north.
The VOR system receives the ground station signals and calculates bearing data. The
VOR system supplies station audio and identifier signals to the flight deck speakers
and headsets.
The VOR system operates in 108-118Mhz band with channels spaced at 50kHz, i.e.
160 channels. 120 of these channels are allocated to VOR en-route stations, which
have output power of 200W providing a service up to 200Nm. 40 terminal VOR
stations within the band 108-112Mhz have output power of 50W providing a service
up to 25Nm.
VOR - General
N
FM
Signal
AM
Signal
10440Hz
30HZ FM Signal FM
10440 - 9480Hz Signal
000
30 cycle/sec
FM FM
Signal 270 090 Signal
9960Hz 9960Hz
180
N
FM
Signal
Magnetic
Bearing
AM FM
Signal Signal
9480Hz
The radiation from a conventional VOR (CVOR) modulated as follows:
30Hz am : the variable phase signal

30Hz fm, 9960Hz sub-carrier frequency with 480Hz : the reference phase
1020Hz am : identification signal
voice am : used as a ground-to-air communication channel.
The use of CVOR leads to considerable site errors where the station is installed
in the vicinity of obstructions or where aircraft are required to fly over
mountainous terrain while using the station. The error is caused by multi-path
reception due to reflection from the obstructions. A compatible doppler VOR
(DVOR) which is relatively insensitive to terrain effects.
A To or From information is
derived by comparing the variable
phase with the reference phase
shifted by the selected course plus
180, if the angle is within 80 of
FROM being in phase then a TO indications
is given; if within 80 of being anti-
045 phase a FROM indication is given.
From FROM
To
045
TO
VOR - Displays
ND Display
When the navigation display mode selector on the EFIS control panel is in the VOR
position and the VOR/ADF switch is set to VOR, these displays show:
VOR deviation bar and scale

NAV data source
VOR frequency or identifier
Selected course
Bearing pointers
To/from pointer and indicator
VOR data.
VOR displays show in the centered mode or expanded mode.

VOR - Displays
DEVIATION SELECTED
BAR AND COURSE NAV DATA
SCALE POINTER SOURCE
VOR FREQUENCY
VOR L ELN
OR IDENTIFIER
CRS 030
TRK 330 MAG
DME10.5 VOR SELECTED
COURSE
BEARING
POINTERS
TO/FROM POINTER
AND INDICATOR
VOR DATA
VOR L FROM
VOR R
ELN AST
DME 10.5 DME 28.5
ND - CENTERED VOR MODE

BEARING
POINTERS
VOR - System Layout
RF signals from the VOR antenna go through power dividers, then to the VOR
receivers. The VOR receivers use the RF signals to calculate station bearing and to
decode the Morse code station identifier signal.
The receivers get discrete from the air/ground relays.
The receivers send VOR bearing data to the Primary Display System to show on the
navigation displays (NDs).
The VOR/MB receivers send station audio and identifier signals to the audio
management unit (AMU).
VOR - System Layout
COLLINS
SYSTEMS ARINC
629 BUS (4) LRU STATUS
CONTROL FAIL
FMC
PDS
L,R CDU
TEST
AIR/GND VOR-900
RELAYS
AMU
VOR ANTENNA POWER

DIVIDER (2) VOR/MB RECEIVER (2)
VOR - GENERAL DESCRIPTION

VOR - Test Sequence
The receivers start their test sequence that lasts approximately 15 to 20 seconds when
the test command comes from the CMC or Front Panel Test switch. This is the
sequence:
Invalid data for the first three seconds
NCD for two seconds
Test display for approximately ten seconds.

Selected course arrow points to 0 degrees on the compass.
The deviation bar is centered if 000 is the selected course during the test.
The to/from pointer and indication show a FROM indication.
VOR - Test Sequence
GS VOR R 116.10 GS VOR R 116.10 VOR R 116.10

CRS 000 GS
CRS 000 CRS 000
DME --- DME--- DME---
HDG 090 MAG HDG 090 MAG HDG 090 MAG
VORR
FROM
INVALID DATA FIRST 3s: NCD DATA FOR 2s: TEST DISPLAY FOR APPROX. 10s:
REMOVE SELECTED COURSE REMOVE DEVIATION BAR SELECTED COURSE POINTER AT 0
ARROW DEGREES (YOU MUST SELECT A
COURSE OF 000)
REMOVE DEVIATION BAR & REMOVE TO/FROM POINTER &
SCALE INDICATION
REMOVE TO/FROM SHOW SELECTED COURSE DEVIATION BAR CENTERED
POINTER & INDICATION ARROW
SHOW AMBER VOR FLAG SHOW DEVIATION SCALE TO/FROM POINTER &
INDICATION SHOWS - FROM
VOR - ND VOR TEST DISPLAYS

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
DME - General
The distance measuring equipment (DME) system supplies Slant Range (line of
sight) distance between the airplane and the ground station.
The DME system supplies station audio and identifier signals to the flight interphone
speakers and headsets
The DME interrogator scans 252 channels and calculates distance information for all
channels in the DME range. There are 200 DME channels paired with the VHF NAV
frequencies. The DME receive frequency is 63 MHz above or below the transmit
frequency.
The DME interrogator uses these L-Band frequencies:

1025 MHz to 1150 MHz (transmit)
962 MHz to 1215 MHz (receive).
These DME tuning frequencies are in the VHF band:

108.00 to 117.95 MHz paired VOR or ILS
133.30 to 135.95 MHz unpaired.
DME - General
X1 X2
INTERROGATION Y1 Y2
RANDOM PULSE
(Jittering Pulse)
+ 50 s
REPLY
X1 X2
Slant Distance
= (Reply Time - 50) x r.f pulse speed
DME GROUND Y1 Y2
STATION
DME - System Layout
The interrogators get manual tune inputs from the left or right CDU or autotune
inputs from the FMC.
The air/ground relays send discretes to the DME interrogators.
The DME interrogators sends slant range data to the Primary Display System to
show on the primary flight displays (PFDs) and navigation displays (NDs).
The DME system, air traffic control (ATC) system, and traffic alert and collision
avoidance system (TCAS) operate on the same frequency band. When either DME
interrogator, or either ATC transponder, or the TCAS computer transmits, that unit
sends out a suppression pulse. This pulse goes through a suppression splitter to the
other units to inhibit reception in the other units to prevent interference in them.
The DME interrogator receives the station audio identifiers and sends them to the
audio management unit (AMU).
DME - System Layout
COLLINS
LRU STATUS PDS
DME ANTENNA (2) CONTROL FAIL

L ATC XPNDR
AIR/GND
RELAYS R ATC XPNDR
DME-900 TEST
TCAS
COMPUTER
SUPPRESSION
SPLITTER
AMU
L, R CDU FMC DME INTERROGATOR (2)
DME SYSTEM - GENERAL DESCRIPTION

DME - Test Sequence
During a ground test or a self test, the onside PFD and ND show:
- The DME fail condition for two seconds
- The DME NCD condition for the next two seconds
- The DME normal condition to end the test.
- The DME normal condition is the distance that shows before the test starts
DME - Test Sequence
VOR R SEA VOR R SEA VOR R SEA

CRS 055 CRS055 CRS055
DME---- DME13.5
DME R
REPLACE
DME FAIL FLAG DISTANCE DME DISTANCE
WITH DASHES
VOR R
SEA VOR R VOR R
DME R SEA SEA
----
DME
13.5
DME
ND - VOR MODE ND - VOR MODE ND - VOR MODE
1 DISPLAYS SHOW A 2 DISPLAYS SHOW 3 DISPLAYS SHOW A

DME FAIL CONDITION A DME NCD CONDITION NORMAL DME CONDITION
FOR TWO SECONDS FOR TWO SECONDS
HOLD HOLD HOLD

138 138 138
110.90/123 110.90/123 110.90/123
200 DME 200 DME---- 200 DME25.3
REPLACE
DME FAIL FLAG
DISTANCE DME DISTANCE
PFD PFD WITH DASHES PFD
DME SYSTEM - TEST DISPLAYS

Marker Beacon System
Marker Beacon System - General
The marker beacon system supplies

visual and aural indications when the
airplane flies over marker beacon
transmitters.
AIRPORT INNER MIDDLE OUTER

RUNWAY 3500ft ~ 4.5 miles
MARKER BEACONS
Marker Beacon System - General
Marker Beacon Antenna
The marker beacon antenna receives

75MHz signals from marker beacon
ground stations.
Six screws hold the antenna to the

fuselage.
Marker Beacon System - Displays
When the airplane passes over a marker beacon transmitter, marker beacon data shows
on the primary flight display (PFD). If you want to listen to marker beacon audio,
select the marker beacon audio on the audio control panel (ACP).
Display Types
Outer marker - The OM letters and the circle around them are cyan.
Middle marker. The MM letters and the circle around them are amber.
Inner marker, backcourse marker, or an airways marker. The letters IM and the circle
around them are white.
Audio Outputs
Outer marker (OM) is 400 Hz, continuous dashes (- - - -)
Middle marker (MM) is 1300 Hz, alternate dots and dashes (-.-.-.-.-)
Inner marker (IM) is 3000 Hz, continuous dots (......)
Backcourse marker is 3000 Hz, continuous paired dots (.. .. .. ..)
Airways marker is 3000 Hz with the Morse code identifier for that station.
Marker Beacon System - Displays
A/P CYAN LAND 3 AMBER LAND 3 WHITE
OM MM IM
MARKER BEACON DISPLAYS (PFD)
APPROACH RECEIVER
VOLUME CONTROL
APP
VORR L ADF V B R L
C R
MKR APPROACH RECEIVER
L R
SELECTOR
AUDIO CONTROL PANEL
3000 HZ
400 HZ 1300 HZ 3000 HZ 3000 HZ (MORSE CODE)
(- - - -) (-.-.-.-.) (......) (.. .. ..)
AIRPORT
OUTER MIDDLE INNER RUNWAY BACKCOURSE AIRWAYS
MARKER BEACON AUDIO OUTPUTS

Marker Beacon System - System Layout
The marker beacon system has an antenna and a VOR/marker beacon (VOR/MB)
receiver.
The marker beacon antenna receives the 75 MHz signal and sends it to a 75 MHz
filter in the left VOR/marker beacon (VOR/MB) receiver.
The receiver sends marker beacon data to the primary flight displays (PFDs).
The receiver sends marker beacon audio to the audio management unit (AMU).
Marker Beacon System - System Layout
COLLINS
LRU STATUS
CONTROL FAIL
CMC & PDS
TEST
VOR-900
MARKER BEACON
ANTENNA
AMU
LEFT VOR/MB RECEIVER

Marker Beacon System - Test Sequence
To do a test of the left VOR/marker beacon (VOR/MB) receiver:
Push and hold the test switch on the front panel of the left VOR/marker beacon
(VOR/MB) receiver
The front panel light emitting diodes (LEDs) come on for 3 seconds to
show they are good
The LEDs go out for 2 seconds
The applicable LEDs come on to show a normal (green), or a fault (red)

condition
The LEDs stay on until you release the test switch.

Marker Beacon System - Test Sequence
ALL LIGHTS COME ON ALL LIGHTS GO OFF FOR AFTER 2 SECONDS LEDS
FOR 3 SECONDS 2 SECONDS SHOW STATUS (PASS)
COLLINS COLLINS COLLINS
LRU STATUS LRU STATUS LRU STATUS

CONTROL FAIL
CONTROL FAIL CONTROL FAIL
PUSH TEST
VOR-900
TEST
SWITCH TO TEST TEST
VOR-900 VOR-900
START TEST
LEFT VOR/MB RECEIVER (VOR/MB (VOR TUNING

RCVR FAULT) DATA FAULT)
COLLINS COLLINS
ALL MARKER LRU STATUS LRU STATUS

AUDIO TONES CONTROL FAIL CONTROL FAIL
FT COME ON
CONTINUOUSLY
IN THE FLIGHT
DECK DURING
THE TEST
TEST TEST
VOR-900 VOR-900
PFD SHOWS FT
(FUNCTIONAL TEST)
WHEN THE LEFT
VOR/MB RECEIVER
IS IN TEST
MARKER BEACON SYSTEM - TEST

Air Traffic Control (ATC) System
The air traffic control (ATC) ground stations interrogate the airborne ATC/Mode S
transponder system with a pulse-coded signal at a frequency of 1030 MHz.
The ATC/Mode S transponder replies to the interrogations in the form of coded

information at a frequency of 1090 MHz. The code pulses transmitted depend on 4
code selector switches, each of which control a group of three pulse in the reply and
may be set to one of the eight position, 0-7
Selection A4 A2 A1
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1
The ground station uses a primary surveillance radar (PSR) to get radar returns from
airplanes within the radar range. To make a communication link with the airplanes in
the radar range, the ground station uses a secondary surveillance radar (SSR) to
interrogate the ATC/Mode S transponder. The ground station transmits a side lobe
suppression signal to inhibit close ATC replies that come from a SSR side lobe
transmission.
Hong Kong Radar equipment is Located at :

Mount Parker (Primary & Secondary Radar)
Tai Mo Shan
Sha Chau
Beacon Hill (Secondary Radar only)
On the ground radar display, the ATC operator sees the radar returns, altitude, and a
four digit airplane identifier.
The ATC/Mode S transponder also replies to mode S interrogations from the traffic
alert and collision avoidance systems (TCAS) of other airplanes.
ATC - General
INTERROGATION
1030 MHz
MODE S
SECONDARY Interrogation
SURVEILLANCE & Reply for TCAS
RADAR (SSR) REPLY
ANTENNA 1090MHz
PRIMARY
SURVEILLANCE
RADAR (PSR)
ANTENNA
SIDE LOBE
SUPPRESSION (SLS)
ANTENNA
GROUND
RADAR DISPLAY
ATC RADAR RADAR ATC FACILITY

TRANSMITTER ATC GROUND STATION
RECEIVER
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL/MODE S TRANSPONDER SYSTEM

ATC General
ATC Signal The data format between the framing pulses depends on the mode
of the interrogation signals received.
Mode A signals The reply signal format includes the assigned ATC code data set
on the ATC control panel.
7600 Radio failure 7700 Emergency
Mode C signals The replay signal format includes pressure altitude data if the
altitude reporting function is on. If altitude reporting is off, the
transponder will reply with only the two framing pulses.
Mode S signals The reply signal format can include the ATC (4096) code, pressure
altitude data and other surveillance information used by the TCAS
system. A discrete 24-bit mode S address always accompany each
reply.
ATC General
Interrogation NORM ALTN
1 2 3 ATC L FL
ALT SOURCE
Mode A : A
T IDENT 4 5 6 STBY
T
C
A
C ABV
- Identification L R
7 0 CLR N
ALT RPTG OFF S
XPNDR
TA ONLY
8 s XPNDR
TRANSPONDER PANEL
BLW TA/RA
Mode C :
- Altitude
15 s
Mode S :
- Data Link
Reply F1 C1 A1 C2 A2 C4 A4 B1 D1 B2 D2 B4 D4 F2
- Data train
20.3 s
ATC System Layout
For Example :
7070 = 111 000 111 000
F1 C1 A1 C2 A2 C4 A4 B1 D1 B2 D2 B4 D4 F2
20.3 s
FALSE TARGET
Since the transponder antenna is omnidirectional the reply pulses meant for one
interrogator may also be received by another. Such unwanted returns will not be
synchronized with the transmission of the interrogator suffering the interference and
would appear as random bright dots on display. This type of interferencc, known as
fruiting.
A reply from a transponder lasts for a period of 20.3s, thus the transmitted pulse train
will occupy a distance of 3.3Nm in space. As a consequence any 2 aircraft in line with
the interrogator, and with a difference in slant range of less than 1.65Nm, will transmit
replies which overlap in space.
Reflections of the transmitted energy, either interrogation or reply, from mountains,

hills or large structures will give an indicated reply at an incorrect range. Since the
direct path is shorter than the reflected path, the receiver may be suppressed for a
limited period on receipt of a pulse.
ATC SYSTEM
The two antennas supply transmit and receive signals to the ATC/Mode S transponder
through the ATC coaxial relays.
The transponder panel sends identification and control data to the transponders and
control to the ATC coaxial relays.
The AIMS cabinets supply altitude and central maintenance computing function
(CMCF) data to the ATC/Mode S transponders.
The ATC/Mode S transponders have interface with the TCAS computer

CMC
ATC TPR/ MODE S BENDIX/KING
TPR
ALT
DATA IN
TOP ADIRU
BOT
TCAS
MAINTENANCE
ATC COAX RELAY RESERVED
ANTENNA (TOP) RESERVED
(TOP) TCAS
TEST
COMPUTER
DME/ATC/TCAS DME
SUPPRESSION INT (2)
SPLITTER
ANTENNA ATC COAX RELAY
(BOTTOM) (BOTTOM)
ATC/MODE S TRANSPONDER (2)
NORM ALTN
PROGRAM SWITCH
ATC L MODULE (2)
1 2 3 FL
ALT SOURCE
T
A C
T IDENT 4 5 6 STBY A
C ABV
ALT RPTG OFF S
L R
CLR N XPNDR
7 0
TA ONLY
XPNDR BLW TA/RA
TRANSPONDER PANEL
ATC Test Sequence
Push and hold the test switch to start the test.
all front panel light emitting diode (LED) status indicators come on for three seconds.
Then all the LEDs go off for two seconds.
Continue to hold the test switch to see the applicable LEDs come on to show the
condition of the ATC/Mode S transponder system.
TPR green if there is no LRU failure

TPR red if there is an LRU failure
ALT if the altitude input from the ADIRU fails
DATA IN if the transponder input fails
TOP if the top antenna fails
BOT if bottom antenna fails
TCAS if the interface with TCAS fails
MAINTENANCE not used
RESERVED(2) not used.
ATC Test Sequence
ATC TPR/MODE S BENDIX/KING

LED STATUS
TPR
PUSH AND HOLD ALT
INDICATORS GREEN LED STATUS
TEST SWITCH DATA IN
INDICATOR
TOP
TO START TEST BOT ATC TPR/ MODE S BENDIX/KING
TCAS
MAINTENANCE
RESERVED
TPR RED LED STATUS
ALT
RESERVED
DATA IN INDICATORS
TOP
TEST
BOT
TCAS
MAINTENANCE
ATC TPR/ MODE S BENDIX/KING
RESERVED
RESERVED TPR
ALT
TEST DATA IN
TOP
BOT
TCAS
MAINTENANCE
RESERVED
RESERVED
TEST
1 ALL LED(S) ON
FOR 3 SECONDS
2 ALL LED(S) OFF

FOR 2 SECONDS
3 THE LED(S) SHOW THE

CONDITION OF THE ATC/MODE S
TRANSPONDER SYSTEM UNTIL
YOU RELEASE THE TEST SWITCH
ATC/MODE S TRANSPONDER SYSTEM - SELF-TEST

Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance
System (TCAS)
TCAS - General
The traffic alert and collision

avoidance system (TCAS) helps the
flight crew and air traffic control
maintain safe air traffic separation.
TCAS is an airborne system. TCAS

uses an air traffic control radar
beacon system (ATCRBS)
transponder or an ATC/Mode S
transponder to track other
airplanes.
TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM - INTRODUCTION
TCAS also coordinates maneuvers
with other airplanes that have
TCAS.
TCAS - General
TCAS has a surveillance area that is 10,000 feet above and below the airplane and 30
nm range in front of the airplane. The surveillance range behind and on the sides of the
airplane is not as large as in the front of the airplane. The TCAS tracks and evaluates
the possible threat of up to 30 airplanes that are within the surveillance area.
TA AND RA:
OTHER TRAFFIC
PROTECTED AREAS BASED ON CPA
-TIME TO CPA > 40 SECONDS
(The Closest point of approach) AND
- RELATIVE ALT +/- 2700 FEET
ALTITUDE
SURVEILANCE AREA
TA
RA
10000 RANGE
FEET
30 NM
THREAT TRAFFIC (RESOLUTION ADVISORY)

PROXIMATE TRAFFIC
INTRUDER TRAFFIC (TRAFFIC ADVISORY) -TIME TO CPA < 25 SECONDS
-TIME TO CPA > 40 SECONDS
-TIME TO CPA 25-40 SECONDS - RELATIVE ALT +/- 900 FEET
TCAS - Operation
The TCAS detects, tracks, and monitors all of the airplanes that have ATCRBS or
mode S transponders. The TCAS operates with the ATC/Mode S transponders to
interrogate traffic airplanes and calculate if it is a threat. All airplanes with TCAS can
calculate coordinated commands to avoid possible collisions with traffic airplanes. The
TCAS does not track airplanes that do not have a transponder.
TCAS transmits these two types of interrogation signals:
- Whisper-shout for ATCRBS (air traffic control radar beacon system) transponders
- Mode S (squitter).
TCAS - Operation
WHISPER-SHOUT INTERROGATION
ATCRBS
TRANSPONDER
REPLY, AIRPLANE ALTITUDE
TRAFFIC AIRPLANE
TCAS WITHOUT TCAS
MODE S DATA LINK; INTERROGATION AND
TRAFFIC
AIRPLANES AIR-TO-AIR COORDINATION
ADDRESSES MODE S
ROLL CALL LIST TRANSPONDER
REPLY, AIRPLANE ALTITUDE MANEUVER
AND IDENTIFICATION
COORDINATION
MANEUVER DATA BETWEEN
COORDINATION AIRPLANES
DATA BETWEEN TCAS
AIRPLANES
MODE S DATA LINK; INTERROGATION AND
AIR-TO-AIR COORDINATION TRAFFIC
AIRPLANES
MODE S ADDRESSES
TRANSPONDER ROLL CALL LIST
REPLY, AIRPLANE ALTITUDE
AND IDENTIFICATION
AIRPLANE WITH TCAS TRAFFIC AIRPLANE
WITH TCAS
TCAS - BASIC OPERATION

TCAS - Directional Antenna
The directional antenna is a phased array antenna. Four array elements on the antenna
make up the array. Each element has a color coded connector. The TCAS computer
sends the array elements transmit interrogation signals with different phases. This
makes the interrogation signal directional.
To attach the antenna, match the color of the coaxial cable with the color coded band
on the array element connector. The TCAS computer checks the resistance of each
antenna connection at power-up. The TCAS computer reports an antenna fault when
it detects that the resistance of the connection is out of range. If you do not match the
coaxial cable to the correct element, the TCAS computer reports an antenna fault.
Four screws fasten each antenna to the airplane. The radiation side of the antenna
shows "FWD" and "DO NOT PAINT".
TCAS - Directional Antenna
CAUTION:
DO NOT PAINT THE RADIATION
SURFACE OR THE BACKPLATE
OF THE ANTENNA. PAINT DOES
ARRAY ELEMENT ARRAY ELEMENT
CONNECTOR (BLUE) CONNECTOR (RED) NOT PERMIT THE ANTENNA TO
ARRAY ELEMENT ARRAY ELEMENT
CONNECTOR (BLACK) CONNECTOR (YELLOW) RADIATE OR RECEIVE RF
SIGNALS.
FOUR SCREWS CAUTION:

CONNECT THE
ANTENNA TO PREVENT DAMAGE TO THE
ANTENNA CABLES, DO NOT
PULL ON THEM.
TCAS - Displays
EFIS Control Panel
To show the TCAS data on the ND,

MODE SELECTOR first put the mode control switch on the
TRAFFIC SWITCH EFIS control panel. Then push the
VORMAP
40 80 160
TFC (traffic) switch on the range
APP PLN
VOR L 20 320 VOR R
selector to enable the ND to show the
OFF CTR 10 TFC 640 OFF
ADF L ADF R RANGE TCAS data. When you do this, the
SELECTOR
WXR STA WPT ARPT DATA POS
TFC message and all of the TCAS
symbols shows on the ND.
EFIS CONTROL PANEL
To remove all of the TCAS messages
and symbols from the ND, push the
TFC switch again.
TCAS - Displays
Transponder Panel
The transponder panel sends control

data through the selected ATC/Mode S
transponder to the TCAS computer.
NORM ALTN
1 2 3 ATC L FL
ALT SOURCE
T
The TCAS computer sends the selected
A
T
C
IDENT 4 5 6
ABV
STBY
C
A data for display on the NDs and PFDs.
ALT RPTG OFFS
L R
XPNDR
7 0 CLR N
TA ONLY
XPNDR BLW TA/RA Push the TFC switch to show TCAS
TRANSPONDER PANEL data. If the function selector is not in
the TA ONLY or TA/RA position, the
ND shows an amber message, TCAS
FUNCTION SELECTOR NOT IN OFF & does not show TCAS data.
TA ONLY OR TA/RA
TCAS - Displays
These four types of traffic airplanes show on the NDs:
Other traffic are airplanes that have an altitude separation of

+/- 2700 feet and the time until the closest point of approach
(CPA) is more than 40 seconds
Proximate traffic are airplanes that have an altitude separation

of +/- 1200 feet and the time until the CPA is more than 40
seconds
TCAS - Displays
These four types of traffic airplanes show on the NDs:
Intruder traffic which causes a traffic advisory (TA), are

airplanes that have an altitude separation of +/- 1200 feet and
the time until the CPA is between 25 and 40 seconds the TCAS
computer makes a traffic advisory (TA) that shows on the NDs.
Threat traffic which causes a resolution advisory (RA), are

airplanes that have an altitude separation of +/- 900 feet and
the time until the CPA is less than 25 seconds.
TCAS - Displays
GS 315 TAS 312 VOR R ELN

HDG 090 TRU CRS ---
190 /15
DME 28.5
RANGE OFFSCALE TRAFFIC

(RED FOR RA OFFSCALE
AMBER FOR TA OFFSCALE)
OTHER TRAFFIC OFFSCALE
(WHITE) TRAFFIC TA OR RA TRAFFIC
5 RA 5.3 +03
PROXIMATE TRAFFIC
-14 +09
TA 12.7 -12
(RED FOR RA
(WHITE SOLID) AMBER FOR TA)
TRAFFIC ADVISORY NO-BEARING RA TRAFFIC

-08 (RED)
(SOLID AMBER CIRCLE)
+03 NO-BEARING TA TRAFFIC
(AMBER)
MESSAGES TFC
-TFC (CYAN)
- TA ONLY (CYAN)
- TCAS TEST (CYAN)
RESOLUTION ADVISORY
- TCAS FAIL (AMBER)
(SOLID RED SQUARE)
- TCAS OFF (AMBER)
ND - EXPANDED VOR MODE
NOTE: TCAS FAIL AND TCAS OFF SHOW ON TWO LINES

TCAS - System Layout
The traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) interrogates other airplanes to get
altitude, range, and bearing data. TCAS uses the replies and inputs from other onboard airplanes
systems to calculate traffic avoidance data.
TCAS interfaces with these other system components:

- Primary Display System.
- ATC/Mode S transponders
- Warning electronic units (WEUs)
- Radio altimeters
- Ground proximity warning computer (GPWC)
- Weather radar receiver-transmitters (R/Ts)
- Proximity switch electronics units (PSEUs).
TCAS - System Layout
WXR RT (2)
TOP TCAS
TOP ATC DIRECTIONAL TO
ANTENNA ANTENNA DISPLAYS
PDS
TO AURAL
BENDIX/KING
WARNING
SPEAKERS
WEU
BOTTOM ATC
ANTENNA
ATC/MODE S
TRANSPONDER (2) RADIO ALTIMETER XCVR (2)
NORM ALTN
1 2 3 ATC L FL GPWC
ALT SOURCE
A T
T C
C
IDENT 4 5 6 STBY A
ABV ALT RPTG OFFS
L R
N XPNDR
7 0 CLR
TA ONLY PSEU (2)
XPNDR BLW TA/RA
TRANSPONDER PANEL TCAS

COMPUTER
DME INTERROGATOR (2)
SUPPRESSION
SPLITTER
ATC/MODE S
BOTTOM TCAS TRANSPONDER (2)
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
TCAS -Test Sequence
When a self-test starts, TCAS test indications go to the PFDs, NDs, and the front panel of the TCAS
computer. At the end of the test, a TCAS test aural comes on.
TCAS Self-Test Indications - ND

A cyan message, TCAS TEST
TA traffic symbol 9:00 position, -200 feet with an up vertical motion arrow & 2 Nm
distance from the airplane center
Other traffic symbol 11:00 position, +1000 feet with no vertical motion arrow & 3.6 Nm
distance from the airplane center
Proximate traffic symbol 1:00 position, -1000 feet with a down vertical motion arrow and 3.6
Nm distance from the airplane center
RA traffic symbol 3:00 position, +200 feet with no vertical motion arrow and 2 Nm
distance from the airplane center.
If the test fails, the message TCAS FAIL replaces the TCAS TEST message.
TCAS Self-Test Indications - PFD

During a self-test, the PFD shows the red RA preventative down advisory and red RA preventative up
advisory cues on the attitude display.
TCAS Self-Test Aurals

When the test completes with no faults, the aural message TCAS SYSTEM TEST OK comes on. If
the BITE detects a fault during the self-test, the aural message is TCAS SYSTEM TEST FAIL.
TCAS - Test Sequence
090 TRU
VOR R ELN PREVENTATIVE UP
HDG CRS
DME28.5 ADVISORY 6
PREVENTATIVE DOWN 1
ADVISORY
1
OTHER TRAFFIC 5
PROXIMATE TRAFFIC
TEST (WHITE) 2
+10 TEST (WHITE) 6
-10
TRAFFIC ADVISORY
TEST (AMBER) PFD
+02
RESOLUTION ADVISORY
-02 TEST (RED)
TEST MESSAGES TCAS
TEST
-TCAS TEST
OR
- TCAS FAIL
ND - EXPANDED VOR
TCAS - TEST DISPLAYS

Weather Radar System (WXR)
WXR - General
WXR - General
Basic Principles
Pulse of r.f energy are generated by a transmitter and fed to a directional antenna. The
WXR system transmits radio frequency (RF) pulses in a 180 degree sector forward of
the airplane path. The r.f wave will be scattered by precipitation in its path, some of
the energy returning to the aircraft as an echo.
Frequency
The higher the frequency, the larger the backscatter cross-section per unit volume of
the target, hence the greater the echo power. However high frequency suffer more
atmosphere absorption and cannot penetrate clouds to the same extent.
Pulse Width
The Volume of the target giving rise to an echo is directly related to the pulse width
thus use of long pulse will give improved range. But the minimum range & the range
resolution will limit the usage of the long pulse.
WXR - Antenna
Flat Plate Antenna

The flat plate antenna transmits RF pulses from the WXR RT, and receives the pulses as they
reflect off precipitation formations. The flat plate antenna is an array of radiation slots. The RF
pulses radiate from each of the slots and combine to make a pencil beam 3.6 degrees high and
3.4 degrees wide. The antenna weighs 6.5 lb (3 kg) and is 23 inches wide.
Antenna Pedestal
There is a horizontal scan stepper motor to drive the antenna +/- 90 degrees of the airplane
centerline. There is also a vertical elevation scan stepper motor to drive the antenna +/- 40
degrees up or down (this includes the +/- degrees for manual tilt selection from the WXR
control panel).
There is a zero position monitor and an incremental monitor for each motor. These monitors
send antenna horizontal scan and elevation scan position feedback to the WXR RT. There are
elevation and azimuth scales that permits a visual measurement of the tilt and scan angles.
There is a horizontal scan and elevation scan disable switch on the antenna pedestal to permit
you to remove power to the scan and elevation stepper motors. Use these switches to inhibit
movement of the antenna during maintenance. The switches do not stop RF transmissions from
the WXR RT.
WXR - Purpose
SUPPORT ASSEMBLY BULKHEAD STRUCTURE

ASSEMBLY
WXR
ANTENNA MOUNT ASSEMBLY
ASSEMBLY SUPPORT MOUNT ASSEMBLY
ASSEMBLY BOLT (5)
BOLT (6)
FWD
NOSE RADOME
FWD
ANTENNA
DRIVE UNIT
FLAT PLATE ANTENNA ELEVATION AND SCAN

ANTENNA PEDESTAL DISABLE SWITCHES
WXR - Displays
The WXR support assembly and mount assembly are aligned at the factory.
NOTE:
Do not loosen the mount assembly bolts or the support assembly

bolts. The support assembly and mount assembly are aligned at the
factory. If the bolts are accidently loosened or if the base is loose or
not aligned, special alignment procedures must be done by a Boeing
specialty team. Contact Boeing Seattle A.O.G. Office, Technical
Assistance Team.
WXR - General
WXR Map Switch

When you push the WXR map switch on the EFIS control panel:
The WXR RT selected on the WXR panel starts to operate

The WXR data shows on the onside ND.
To stop the operation of the WXR RT, the WXR switches on both EFIS control panels
and the WXR selections on the CDUs must be off.
ND Mode Selector
Use the mode selector switch to select an ND mode. If the mode selector is not in a
correct mode when you push the WXR map switch, the weather display arms. When
armed, the weather display shows as soon as you change the ND selector to a correct
mode. The weather display stays armed even if you push the WXR map switch again.
ND Range Selector
The EFIS control panel has a six position range selector. With the 640 NM range
selection, the 640 NM range shows on the ND, but the WXR RT only shows weather
displays out to its maximum range of 320 NM.
WXR - Displays
MINS BARO
RADIO BARO FPV MTRS IN HPA
RST STD
ND MODE SELECTOR ND RANGE SELECTOR
VORMAP 80 160
APP PLN 40
VOR L 20 320 VOR R
OFF CTR 10 TFC 640 OFF
ADF L ADF R
WXR MAP SWITCH
WXR STA WPT ARPT DATA POS
WXR - Displays
Normal Displays
The WXR displays on the ND show the weather in front of the airplane or the terrain
below. The WXR display shows in four colors. These colors represent the strength of
the RF return signals from the weather or the terrain. These are the four colors for the
WXR displays:
Green Light weather (ppt rate : 1 - 4mm/hour)

Yellow Medium weather (ppt rate : 4 - 12mm/hour)
Red Heavy weather (ppt rate : > 12mm/hour)
Magenta Turbulence (Range : 40Nm, Speed : 5m/s)
The WXR system detects and shows turbulence only to 40 NM.

WXR - Displays
GS 305 HDG 090 TRU VOR R 116.80

CRS 055
DME13.5
WEATHER DISPLAY:
- GREEN = LIGHT WEATHER
- YELLOW = MEDIUM WEATHER
- RED = HEAVY WEATHER
- MAGENTA = TURBULENCE
20
WEATHER SYSTEM MESSAGES:

- WEATHER MODE
- ANTENNA TILT WX+T
+5
- GAIN VALUE CAL FROM
EXPANDED VOR MODE
WXR SYSTEM - NORMAL DISPLAYS

WXR - Displays
Predictive Windshear Displays
Weather radar with predictive windshear (PWS) detects windshear ahead of the airplane. PWS
uses doppler radar returns, inertial data and air data to detect windshear. If PWS detects a
windshear condition, it alerts the flight crew with visual and aural annunciations.
PWS turns on automatically during takeoff & approach

- Takeoff : when the airplane is on the ground and an engine gets to takeoff thrust
- Approach : when the airplane descends below 2300 feet radio altitude.
PWS turns off automatically when one of these conditions exists:

- Airspeed is less than 60 knots
- The airplane climbs above 2300 feet radio altitude.
If PWS is on and WXR is not selected on the EFIS CP or the CDU, all antenna sweeps search for
windshear. If WXR is selected, the antenna uses one sweep to search for windshear and the other
sweep to search for normal weather returns. PWS operation does not affect the WXR mode or
range selected by the flight crew.
WXR - Displays
GS315 TAS 312 HDG 090 TRU VOR R 116.80

190`/15 DME13.5
ATTENTION
BARS (YELLOW)
WINDSHEAR
20 WINDSHEAR
ALERT MSG
- CAUTION-YELLOW
- WARNING-RED
NORMAL WEATHER
RETURNS
1
WINDSHEAR
SYMBOL (RED AND
BLACK BARS)
1 WXR SYSTEM
MESSAGES
REMOVED.
WXR SYSTEM - PREDICTIVE WINDSHEAR
WXR - System Layout
WXR data shows on the navigation displays (NDs). The weather data from the WXR
RT goes through the AIMS cabinets then to the NDs.
The WXR antenna radiates the RF pulses and receives the RF returns. The RT gets air
data inertial reference system (ADIRS) pitch and roll data for antenna stabilization.
The central component of the WXR system is the weather radar receiver-transmitter
(RT). The system uses dual RTs with only one RT in operation at a time.
WXR - System Layout
TO NAVIGATION
DISPLAYS
SYSTEMS WES
ARINC 629
BUS (4)
CDU (3)
GPWS
MINS BARO
RADIO BAROFPV MTRS IN HPA
RST STD
VOR L
APP
VORMAP
PLN 40
80 160
320 VOR R
TCAS
20
640
OFF CTR 10 TFC OFF
ADF L ADF R
WXR ANTENNA
WXR STA WPT ARPT DATA POS RA (2)
TERR
WX RADAR BENDIX
AIR TRANSPORT AVIONICS
EFIS CP (2) ARINC 453

SYS WX RADAR
WX
TEST WX/TURB PDS LANDING GEAR
L R ADIRU CONTROL LEVER
MAP TILT MODULE
GAIN +5 +10
+15 OPAS
0
-15
AUTO MAX -5 -10
WXR RT (2) AIR/GND

WXR PANEL RELAYS
WXR - Test Sequence
The WXR self-test function does a test of the WXR system. This test gives the flight
crew a way to do a check of the WXR system.
The weather radar (WXR) system transmits some pulses to let BITE monitor for
correct operation. Do not do a test of the WXR system in a hangar. Make sure the
nose of the airplane points away from buildings and other aircraft or large metal
objects.
WARNING:
DO NOT OPERATE THE WEATHER RADAR WHILE FUEL IS ADDED OR
REMOVED FROM THE AIRPLANE. DO NOT TRANSMIT RF ENERGY WHILE
FUEL IS ADDED OR REMOVED IN AN AREA 300 FEET OR LESS FROM THE
ANTENNA. THIS CAN CAUSE AN EXPLOSION.
WARNING:
MAKE SURE NO PERSONS ARE IN THE AREA 15 FEET OR LESS FROM THE
ANTENNA WHEN IT TRANSMITS RF ENERGY. RF ENERGY CAN CAUSE
INJURIES TO PERSONS.
WXR - Test Sequence
WEATHER
TEST PATTERN
REMOVED
GS 0 VOR R ELN GS 0 VOR R ELN

HDG 090 TRU
CRS 055 HDG 090 TRU
CRS 055
DME 28.5 DME 28.5
MAGENTA
RED
YELLOW
TEST GREEN
PASS 40 40
MESSAGE WXR WXR
TEST TEST FAIL
TEST FAIL R/T
MODE
AND TILT TEST LRU OR
+5
FUNCTION
FAILURE
-ANT
FROM - CON FROM
TEST PASS DISPLAY WEATHER SYSTEM TEST FAIL DISPLAY

MESSAGES REMOVED
WXR SYSTEM - SELF-TEST

Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS - General
The global positioning system (GPS) uses navigation satellites to supply accurate
airplane position to airplane systems and to the flight crew.
Satellite Segment
The satellite segment is a group of satellites that orbit approximately 10,900 nautical
miles above the earth. Each satellite completes an orbit approximately once every 12
hours. There are 21 operational satellites and 3 spares. The satellites continuously
transmit radio signals with navigation data, range code, and the exact time.
User Segment
The user segment is the GPS sensor unit (GPSSU) on the airplane. It receives the
satellite signals. The GPSSU uses the satellite data to calculate the airplane position.
Control Segment
The control segment has control and monitor stations on earth that continuously
monitor and track the satellites. The purpose of the control segment is to:
GPS - General
The satellites transmit to

the GPSSU in the airplane SATELLITE
The satellites downlink
on the L1 (1575.42 MHz) SEGMENT satellite status data to the
and L2 (1227.6 MHz) monitor stations on
frequencies. 1783.74 MHz.
USER
SEGMENT
The 3 upload stations

send information to
the satellites on 2227.5
MHz.
CONTROL
SEGMENT
GPS - General
The master control station is in Colorado Springs, Colorado USA. The master control
station is the operational center of the GPS. The master control station controls all
operations in the control segment. The master control station has an atomic clock. This
clock is the reference for the GPS.
The 5 monitor stations track the satellites 24 hours a day. The master control station
remotely controls the monitor stations through on-line connections. The monitor
stations are Ascension island, Colorado Springs, Diego Garcia island, Hawaii,
Kawajalein island.
The monitor stations receive the same information from the satellites that the GPSSUs
in the airplane receive. The monitor stations do these functions:
Record the accuracy of the satellite clocks
Collect and relay to the control station meteorologic data such as barometric
pressure, temperature, and dew point. The master control station uses this
data to calculate the tropospheric signal delay
Continuously measure the ranges to all visible satellites. The master control
station uses this data to calculate and predict the satellites orbits.
GPS - General
GPS Accuracy
Civilian users have access to standard

positioning service (SPS). SPS has an
accuracy of 15 - 25 meters in 95% of the
position fixes.
For security reasons, the American

Department of Defense intentionally
degrades the accuracy for civilian users to
100 meters in 95% of the fixes.
Military users have access to precision

positioning service (PPS). PPS has an
accuracy of 18 meters or less in 95% of
the fixes.
GPS - Theory of Operation
Ranging
The GPS sensor units (GPSSUs) use

RANGE 1
the principle of ranging to measure
the distance between the GPSSU on
the airplane and the satellites. The
RANGE 2
GPSSU measures the time it takes for
a radio signal to go from a satellite to
the airplane. Since the GPSSU has in
RANGE 4
RANGE 3
memory the location of the satellites
in their orbits at any time and that the
RANGING
radio signal travels at the speed of
light, it can calculate the distance to
the satellite.
However, the GPSSU must know exactly at what
time the satellite sent the radio signal. The GPSSU
compares the satellite signal to a signal that the
GPS TIME
GPSSU makes at the same time as the satellite.
The difference between the two signals (time bias)
is the time the satellite signal took to get to the
GPSSU.
GPS TIME
Each satellite has atomic clocks to keep accurate
time, but it is not possible for the GPSSU to have
precisely the same time as the satellite. The
GPSSU then assumes that its internal clock is off
TIME
BIAS by some clock bias. This clock bias is an unknown
that the GPSSU must calculate.
TIME BIAS
To calculate the airplane position (latitude,
longitude, and altitude) and the clock bias, the
GPSSU must know the position of at least four
satellites.
Acquisition Mode Navigation Mode
The GPSSU looks for and locks on to The GPSSU enters the navigation mode
the satellite signals. The GPSSU must after it acquires and locks on to at least 4
find at least 4 satellites before it starts to satellites.
calculate GPS data.
When the GPSSU is in the navigation
The GPSSU takes approximately 75 mode, it computes GPS data. The
seconds to acquire the satellite signals GPSSU output goes NCD (no computed
when the FMC data is available. data) when the accuracy is not within 16
nautical miles of the actual position.
The GPSSU takes approximately 4
minutes (maximum of 10 minutes) to
acquire the satellites when the FMC data
is not available.
RANGE 2
RANGE 1
RANGE 3
AIRPLANE
ALTITUDE
RANGE 4
EARTH
RADIUS
ALTITUDE AIDED MODE

Altitude Aided Mode Aided Mode
With four satellites available, the The GPSSU enters the aided mode
GPSSU stores the difference between during short periods (less than 30
the ADIRU inertial altitude and the seconds) of bad satellite coverage.
GPS altitude.The GPSSU can estimate
the GPS altitude when only three The GPSSU receives altitude, heading,
satellites are available. and speed from the FMC. The GPSSU
uses the FMC data to go back quickly
In the altitude aided mode, the GPSSU to the navigation mode when there is
uses the airplane altitude from the good satellite coverage again. The
ADIRU and the length of the earth GPSSU output is NCD in this mode.
radius as the fourth range.
LEFT GPS LEFT GPS

ANTENNA SENSOR UNIT
ADIRU
CHR MAN
UTC
DAY 60MO/YR
DATE
50 10
TIME
ET/CHR
40 20
RUN RUN
HLD 30 HLDY
FMC MM
HD
RIGHT GPS RIGHT GPS RESET
ANTENNA SENSOR UNIT CLOCK (2)
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
ADF - General
The automatic direction finder (ADF) system is a navigation aid. The ADF receiver
uses AM signals from ground stations to calculate the bearing to the station from the
airplane longitudinal axis, and to receive standard AM radio broadcasts
The ADF receiver calculates bearing to a station that transmits in the frequency
range of 190 KHz to 1750 KHz. The receiver also receives station identifiers and
AM broadcasts.
If you select the antenna (ANT) mode, the processor sends a signal to the receiver
circuit that removes the inputs from the loop antenna elements. In the ANT mode,
the receiver circuits use inputs only from the sense antenna.
If you select the beat frequency oscillator (BFO) mode, the processor sends a BFO
mode signal to the audio processor to enable a 1020 Hz oscillator. The oscillator
permits the audio processor to identify the keyed morse code identifier.
.
ADF - General
2 000
270 090
180
Relative
Bearing
ADF - Antenna
MOUNTING SCREW W/
CONDUCTIVE
GASKET
TAB/WASHER FOR ADF Loop Antenna
RESISTANCE
MEASUREMENT The loop antenna is a directional
antenna and receives the magnetic part
of the ground station signal. it
determine the direction of the station
NAMEPLATE
TOP VIEW
ADF Sense Antenna

SENSE ANTENNA
The sense antenna is an
LOOP ANTENNAS
omnidirectional antenna and receives
ELECTRONICS ASSEMBLY the electrical part of the signal.
CAPTIVE MOUNTING
SCREWS (12)
FWD ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR
ADF - Displays
LEFT ADF RIGHT ADF ADF pointers show in all EFIS modes but
POINTERS POINTERS PLN (plan). The pointers are cyan in
(CYAN) (CYAN)
color. To display the ADF pointers, set
the ND mode selector to APP, VOR, or
GS0 HDG090 MAG VOR R ELN
CRS--- MAP. Set the VOR/ADF switch on the
DME28.5
EFIS control panel to the ADF position.
The ADF pointers move around the

compass scale. The wide pointer shows
the bearing from the right ADF receiver,
and the thin pointer shows the bearing
ADF L ADF R
from the left ADF receiver.
353 BFI
VOR/ADF
ND - EXPANDED MODE SELECTION The ADF source annunciation and
(CYAN)
frequency or identifier show in cyan at the
lower corners of the NDs. The station
VOR/ADF
FREQUENCY identifier replaces the frequency when the
OR IDENTIFIER data is valid from the ADF receiver.
(CYAN)
ADF - System Layout
The ADF antenna assembly has both the loop and sense antennas. The antenna
receives signals from the ground stations and sends them to the ADF receiver.
The ADF receiver calculates the bearing to the station and sends it to the Primary
Display System to show on the navigation displays (ND).
You can tune the ADF receivers manually from the left or right CDU. The FMC does
not auto-tune the ADF receivers. The receivers can get tune inputs directly from the
left or right CDU (alternate tune) if the tune inputs through the FMC fail.
The ADF receiver processes the station audio and sends it to the audio management
unit (AMU).
ADF - System Layout
COLLINS
PRIMARY
LRU STATUS
DISPLAY
SYSTEM
CONTROL FAIL
ADF ANTENNA (2)
AMU
TEST
ADF-900
L,R CDU
FMC ADF RECEIVER (2)
ADF - Test Sequence
The receivers start their test sequence when the test command comes from the CMC
or Front Panel Test switch. This is the sequence:
From one to three seconds, these invalid displays show on the ND:
- Remove the ADF source annunciation
- Remove ADF frequency
- Remove ADF pointers
- Show the amber ADF flag.
From three to six seconds, these NCD displays show on the ND:
- Show source annunciation
- Show frequency.
- Remove ADF pointers
- Remove the amber flag.
From six seconds to the end of test, the ND shows the test display with the ADF
pointer at 135 degrees in relation to the face of the ND until the end of test.
ADF - Test Sequence
1 TO 3 SECONDS: 3 TO 6 SECONDS: FROM 6 SECONDS TO END OF TEST:

THE RECEIVER OUTPUT THE RECEIVER OUTPUT THE RECEIVER OUTPUT GOES
GOES INVALID GOES TO NO COMPUTED VALID AND THE POINTERS GO TO
DATA (NCD).
THE TEST POSITION (APPROX.135
ALL ADF DATA GOES OUT OF
VIEW, AND THE AMBER ADF THE FLAG GOES OUT OF VIEW, FROM THE CENTER LINE)
FLAG SHOWS THE SOURCE ANNUNCIATION
AND FREQUENCY SHOW AND
THE ADF POINTERS STAY OUT
OF VIEW
Radio Altimeter (RA)
RA - General
The radio altimeter (RA) system measures the distance from the airplane to the
ground. The radio altitude shows in the flight deck. The system has a range of -20 to
2500 feet. The flight crew and other airplane systems use radio altitude during
approach and landing.
RA - General
RA Transceiver
Frequency Installation
4235 MHz to 4365 MHz Delay 80ft
f
Transmit power
500 mw nominal
-20ft.
t
to
2500ft.
RA - Antenna
RA Antenna
Four screws attach each antenna to the

bottom of the fuselage.
There is an O-ring seal in a groove around

the electrical connector. The O-ring seal
supplies moisture protection.
The radiation side of the antenna has red

markings "FWD" and "DO NOT PAINT".
Do not paint the radiation surface or the
back plate of the antenna. Paint does not
permit the antenna to radiate or receive RF
signals.
RA - Displays
The PFD shows radio altitude and radio minimums values. The flight crew uses this
data during approach and landing.
Radio Minimums Alert

Radio minimums show on the PFD. The radio minimums display has the letters
RADIO (radio minimums) and the radio minimums value.
This happens as the airplane descends through the radio minimum value:
Radio altitude display changes from white to yellow
Green letters RADIO and the radio minimum value below it change from
green to yellow.
Radio altitude, the letters RADIO, and the radio minimums value blinks
three times at a 4Hz rate.
RA - Purpose
RA DISPLAY
MINS (YELLOW) 50
RADIO BARO
RST RADIO/BARO RADIO
MINS CONTROL RADIO
50
MINIMUMS
DISPLAY
EFIS CONTROL (YELLOW)
PANEL RADIO ALTITUDE
100 (WHITE) RADIO MINIMUMS
OUT OF VIEW ALERT
RADIO ABOVE 2500)
50
RADIO MINIMUMS
(GREEN)
(OUT OF VIEW FOR
PFD RADIO MINIMUMS > 999 FEET
OR < 0 FEET)
NCD OR
RA >2500
RA DISPLAY
GOES OUT OF 75
RA FLAG VIEW
(YELLOW) RA
RADIO
MINIMUMS
DISPLAY
RA DATA INVALID RA DATA NCD RADIO MINIMUMS DATA GOES OUT
INVALID OR NCD OF VIEW
RA - System Layout
The system has three transceivers. Each transceivers has a transmit and a receive
antenna.
The transceivers get discrete inputs from the air ground relays and from the AIMS
cabinets.
Radio altitude data goes on ARINC 429 data buses to the these components:
- Primary Display System

- Autopilot flight director computers (AFDCs)
- Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) computer
- Weather radar receiver-transmitters
- Ground proximity warning computer (GPWC).
RA - System Layout
RECEIVE ANTENNA TRANSMIT ANTENNA
PDS
AFDC (3)
TCAS COMPUTER
GPWC
AIR/GROUND WXR RT (2)

RELAYS RADIO ALTIMETER
TRANSCEIVER (3)
RA - Test Sequence
To do the test, push and hold the test switch on the front of the RA xcvr to start a self
test.
All the LED status indicators come on red for a few seconds
After this period, the LRU STATUS LED comes on green, the XMIT ANT FAIL
LED and REC ANT FAIL LED go off for a few seconds.
After that, all LEDs go off for a few more seconds.
Finally, the applicable LEDs come on to show a normal (green) or fault (red)
condition.
RA - Test Sequence
COLLINS COLLINS COLLINS
TEST CONN TEST CONN TEST CONN
LRU STATUS LRU STATUS LRU STATUS
LED STATUS XMIT ANT FAIL XMIT ANT FAIL XMIT ANT FAIL
INDICATORS REC ANT FAIL REC ANT FAIL REC ANT FAIL
PUSH TEST
SWITCH TO
TEST TEST TEST
START TEST
LRA-900 LRA-900 LRA-900
1 ALL LED(S) ON 2 ALL LED(S) OFF 3 THE APPLICABLE LED(S)

FOR A FEW SECONDS COME ON TO SHOW THE
(LRU STATUS COMES STATUS OF THE RA
ON RED THEN GREEN) TRANSCEIVER
RA SYSTEM - SELF TEST

Navigation Radio Tuning
FMC Auto Tune
NA V RA DI O The FMC automatically tunes the
V OR L V OR R
1 1 6 . 8 0 M SEA
CRS
EL N A 1 1 7 . 9 0
RADI AL CRS
receivers when the ILS station is part
139
ADF L
182 172 ---
A DF R
of the active flight plan.
INIT DEP
REF
RTE ARR ALTN VNAV BRT
1304. 5B F O ------
FIX LEGS HOLD
FMC
COMM
PROG EXEC I L S - ML S
MENU NAV
RAD A B C D E <1 1 0 . 90/ 128 PA RK
D
S
PREV
PAGE
NEXT
PAGE F G H I J M
S
G
Manual Tuning
P 1 2 3 K L M N O O
PRESEL ECT
The CDUs can be used to tune the
F
Y F
G
4 5 6 P Q R S T
S
E
T
------ ------
7 8 9 U V W X Y
. 0 +/- Z SP DEL / CLR receivers. When an ILS frequency or

CDU MANUAL TUNE identifier is entered into the CDU, the
CDU frequency becomes the active
AL T N NAV RADI O frequency. It overrides the FMC auto
V OR
11 6 . 8 0M
CRS
tune input.
13 9
A DF
1 3 04 . 5 B F O
I L S - ML S
11 0 . 90 / 1 2 8
Alternate Tuning
If the FMC tuning functions fail, the
P RE SEL ECT
------ CDU sends a frequency source
selection discrete to the receiver to
ALTERNATE TUNE select the tuning source. This ground
signal from the CDU changes the
tuning input from FMC to the CDU.
28V DC
FREQ
RESISTOR ASSY SOURCE
SEL DISC
ALTN
TUNE TUNE
MANUAL
TUNE
MANUAL
L CDU OR FMCF L ILS RECEIVER
AUTO
TUNE
MANUAL
TUNE L AIMS CABINET
TUNE
C CDU
C ILS RECEIVER
MANUAL TUNE L
TUNE TUNE C
L R TUNE R
SYSTEMS
ARINC 629
BUS R AIMS CABINET
ALTN TUNE
TUNE
28V DC
FREQ
RESISTOR ASSY SOURCE
R CDU SEL DISC R ILS RECEIVER
TYPICAL TUNING CIRCUIT

Direct Current Power Supplies
Fig. 1.21 Typical Lead-acid Secondary Cell
Fig.1.22 Lead-acid Battery (Free Liquid Type)
Fig. 1.23 Lead-acid Battery (Absorbed Liquid Type)
Fig. 1.24 Nickel-cadmium Type Battery
Table 1.1
Chemical Reactions of Batteries
Battery Type State of Charge Positive Plate Negative Plate Electrolyte
PbO2 Pb H2SO4
Charged
(Lead Dioxide) (Lead) (Concentrated Sulphuric Acid)
Lead Acid
PbSO4 PbSO4 H2SO4
Discharged
(Lead Sulphate) (Lead Sulphate) (Weak Sulphuric Acid)
Ni2O2 & Ni2O3 Cd KOH

Charged
(Nickel Oxides) (Cadmium) (Potassium Hydroxide)
Nickel-Cadmium
Ni(OH)2 Cd(OH)2
Discharged -- Unaffected by State of Charge
(Nickel Hydroxide) (Cadmium Hydroxide)
Fig. 1.25 Typical Discharge Rates of Lead-acid & Nickel-cadmium Batteries
Fig. 1.26 Typical Battery Installation
Fig. 1.27 Battery Venting Arrangement
Fig. 1.28 Battery Plug Connector
Energized to give V Batt. Current indication
high current o/p to
charge battery
Ext Pwr Not In Use
Batt.
Sw. OFF
Thermal Sw. open
when O/H to select
charging current
De-energized
to OPEN
Fig. 1.33 Battery Charger Control Circuit

X
HOT Batt Bus always
powered either by
charger or battery if
charger not available

Batt.
Sw. ON
Energized to Close
De-energized to Open TRU no

Batt. Bus powered power
by HOT Batt. Bus
Batt.
Sw. ON
De-energized to Open
Energized to Close TRU

Batt. Bus powered Powered
by TRU
Alternating Current Power
Supplies
Permanent magnet for initial excitation
Stator Rotor Stator

Thermistor for Temp
compensation
Volt Regulator uses generator output to

strengthen PMG excitation and Volt builds up
Volt Regulator monitors the voltage at POR
and performs regulation by excitation control
Excitation source
Regulator
Fig. 2.18 Voltage Regulation

C
Load Governor Gen
S
Controller Trim coil
D
Less real Simulate CSD turns
load sharing under speed faster
Mutual Voltage Gen
Reactor Regulator
Less reactive Simulate Increase

load sharing under voltage excitation
Light
Light ONoff= =not
synchronized
synchronized
A C
B
Fig. 2.22 Synchronizing

Power Conversion Equipment
Fig. 3.10a Transformer Principle (1)
Fig. 3.10b Transformer Principle (2)
Fig. 3.12 Current Transformer
Fig. 3.14 Circuit Arrangement of an Auto-transformer
Fig. 3.16 Transformer-rectifier
Unit
Primary Secondary
Rectifying circuit
Fig. 3.17 Schematic Circuit of a Transformer-rectifier Unit

Motor speed ctrl
(freq. adjust)
Generator field ctrl

(Inverter volt o/p adjust)
Fig. 3.18 Rotary Inverter Operation

Fig. 3.20 Static Inverter Principle
External & Auxiliary Power
Supplies
Fig. 4.1 Ground Power Unit
Fig. 4.2 Basic External Power Supply System
Main Ground
Main +ve
Control +ve
Fig. 4.3 External Power Supply Connection

Reverse current
Fig. 4.4 Three-pin Receptacle System

Fig. 4.7 Schematic of an External Power Supply A.C. System
Fig. 4.8 External A.C. Power Receptacle
and Control Panel
Power Distribution
Fig. 5.1 Busbar System
Fig. 5.2 Split Busbar System (Primary A.C. Power Source)
Fig. 5.3 Main A.C. & D.C.
Power Distribution
System (Non-parallel)
Fig. 5.4 Control Panel
Fig. 5.5 Combinations of Parallel Operation
Circuit Controlling Device
Fig. 6.15 Attracted Armature Relay (Unsealed Type)
Fig. 6.17 Breaker
Circuit Protection Devices and
Systems
Fig. 7.1 Typical Fuses
Fig. 7.4 Schematic Diagram of Circuit Breaker Operation
Fig. 7.6 Circuit Breakers
Fig. 7.13 Overvoltage Protection (Constant Frequency System)
Fig. 7.14 Differential Current Protection
Measuring Instruments and
Warning Indication Systems
Fig. 8.1 Electrical System Control Panel
Fig. 8.4 Shunts
Fig. 8.8 Three-phase Current Transformer Unit
Terrestrial Magnetism
Terrestrial Magnetism
Magnetic Variation
The Horizontal Angle between True

north & Magnetic north at any place
S Magnetic Variation in HK is 2W
Magnetic Dip
The Angle the lines of force make with

the earths surface at given place
Magnetic Deviation
The Angular difference between

magnetic north and and compass north
Direct-Reading Compass
Magnetic System
The suspension consists of an iridium-tipped pivot secured to the center of the magnet
system & resting in a sapphire cup supported in a holder. This provides hard-wearing
properties and reduces pivot friction to a minimum.
Liquid Damping
The compass is filled with liquid to make it aperiodic. The liquid also gives compass
a certain buoyancy, thereby reducing the weight on the pivot & so diminishing the
effects of friction & wear.
Liquid type:
mineral or alcohol
Liquid requirement:
low freezing point
low viscosity
high resistance to
corrosion
freedom from
discoloration
The effect of Dip on a

Compass Magnet System
Compass are designed with a
pendulosity such that the magnet system
is within approximately 2 of the true
horizontal between latitudes 60 North
& 40 South.
Maintenance Note:
Air bubbles can occur in the standby magnetic compass because of temperature
change and/or decrease of liquid.
The Bellow inside the compass is used to compensate the temperature effect.
Maintenance limits made for liquid quantity make sure of satisfactory compass
operation.
When air bubble is larger than 3/8 inch wide and 1/8 inch high, with the glass
approximately vertical position, replace the standby magnetic compass
Remote-Reading Compass
Lines of flux will be

induced in the spider when
we pass a current through
the coil.
Curve for Permalloy is compared with Iron.

Flux Density
Point at which the

magnetization curve
starts leveling off,
indicating the
Magnetizing
Force material is completely
magnetized
Hysteresis Curve and Loop are plotted to

indicated the lagging behind of the induced
magnetism when, after reaching saturation
the magnetizing force is reduced to zero for
both + & - directions, also to determine the
ability of a material to retain magnetism.
Total flux density produced in

the legs is the sum of the
individual curves, and with
the detector at right angles to
the earths horizontal
component H then, like the
static flux linked with the
secondary coil, it will be zero.
The Valve Action

A graphical representation apply

to the previous graph including the
static flux will be as shown.
A flattening of the peaks of the flux

waves in each leg of a spoke has
been produced.
Reason being that the amplitude of

the primary coil excitation current
is so adjusted that, whenever the
datum for the magnetizing forces is
displaced, the flux detector
material is driven into saturation.
Excitation Coil
General Construction of a flux detector

element.
Compass Errors
Compass Errors
3 Types of Forces
that cause Errors
Dynamic
Mechanical Deviation
(Pendulosity effect)
Liquid Swirl Acceleration Error Hard Iron

Parallax Error Turning Error Soft Iron
Build in Error
Pivot Error
Compass Errors
Liquid Swirl Checks
During aircraft turns, liquid To determine whether or not a

in a compass (for needle compass is serviceable, needle
damping purposes) will is deflected using a ferrous
tend to move around inside object by a large amount and
the compass body in an the time taken for it to swing
attempt to follow the back after the object is removed
aircrafts movement. is carefully noted. If the time
taken exceeds the laid down
If effects of liquid swirl are tolerance, then the compass
too great, compass could be must be rejected as
deflected. unserviceable.
Compass Errors
Parallax Error
An error that occurs when the observer's eye and the point on a
scale do not lie in a line perpendicular to the scale; can be
alleviated with a mirror.
Compass Errors
Pivot Friction Error Checking
Should return to original Deflect compass needle

positions within specific away and allow it to swing
tolerance when a compass back and let it settle. Note
needle is deflected the reading
If there is a difference Deflect compass in
between 1st and 2nd, there opposite direction
is pivot friction Difference between is
pivot friction value
Compass Errors
Acceleration Error
In North Hemi- Mostly at E-W direction

sphere c.g move
backward due to reaction when aircraft accelerates,
the Dip angle CG of magnetic system lags
behind the pivot rotate
needle towards N-S
direction deceleration has

opposite effect
reaction
Compass Errors
In North Hemisphere
c.g move backward Turning Errors
due to the Dip angle
When aircraft turns, centrifugal
force (c.f) acting on the CG
c.g causes the compass card or
c.f
needle to revolve in the same
direction as the turn.
Therefore a smaller angle of

turn is indicated by the
c.f compass than has actually
taken place.
Compass Errors
Aircraft Magnetism Hard-iron Magnetism

Permanent Nature and is caused by
the magnetic field presence in the
ferrous parts of the structure.
Hard Iron Soft Iron
Soft-iron Magnetism
Component P Component X
Temporary Nature and is caused by
Component Q Component Y metallic parts of the aircraft which
are magnetically soft becoming
Component R Component Z magnetized due to induction by the
earths magnetic field.
Compass Errors
Component of Hard-Iron
Magnetism
Component P
in alignment with the aircrafts
longitudinal axis & the earths component
H
Component Q
in alignment with the aircrafts lateral
axis & the earths component H
(N)
Component R
(S)
acts in the vertical direction, it has no
effect on the compass magnet system
when in normal level flight attitude.
Compass Errors
Earth Magnetic
Flux
Compass
Indication
Component
+P
0
0 90 180 270 360
-2
-4
Deviation due to Component P

Compass Errors
Earth Magnetic
Flux
Component
+Q Compass
Indication
0
0 90 180 270 360
-2
-4
Deviation due to Component Q

Compass Errors
Deviation due to Component R
Component R acts in the vertical

direction, it has no effect on the
compass magnet system when in
normal level flight attitude.
If the aircraft flies with either its

longitudinal axis or lateral axis in
positions other than horizontal, then
component R will be out of the
vertical and will have a horizontal
component affecting the compass
magnet system.
Compass Errors
Component of Soft-Iron
Magnetism
Component X & Y
The polarities & strengths of components
change with changes in aircraft heading
Fig 8.5 because the aircraft turns relative to the
fixed direction of earths component H
Component Z
acts in the vertically through the compass
and therefore does not affect the
directional properties of the compass
magnet system.
Compass Errors
Deviation Due to Rod components

Compass Errors
90 180
Component
+aX
Compass Errors
Component +dX
90
Compass Errors
Component
+ cZ
360
180
Component +cZ
Compass Errors
aX & eY bY
Deviation Due to Rod

Components
dX
Compass Errors
4.0
2.0
0.0
0 90 180 270 360
Fig 8.6
-2.0
-4.0
+P Resultant Deviation -Q
Total effects of component +P & -Q

Compass Errors
4.0
2.0
0.0
0 90 180 270 360
Fig 8.6
-2.0
-4.0
+dX Resultant Deviation +bY
Total effects of component +dX & +bY

Compass Errors
4.0
2.0
0.0
0 90 180 270 360
Fig 8.6
-2.0
-4.0
-P Resultant Deviation +bY
Total effects of component -P & +bY

Deviation Coefficients
Deviation on (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW)

Coefficient A
4 Average of deviation on (N,
NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW)
2 This represents a constant

deviation due to the combined
effects of bY and dX of unlike
0 sign
0 90 180 270 360 Real A is caused by the induced
-2 magnetic components bY & dX
Apparent A is a deviation
-4 produced by non-magnetic causes
Misalignemnt One Cycle Error Two Cycle Error

Deviation on Deviation on
East West Coefficient B
4 0.5 x (Deviation on E
Deviation on W)
2 Deviation = B sin(heading)
This represents the resultant

0 deviation due to the presence of
hard-iron component P & soft-iron
0 90 180 270 360 component cZ.
-2
-4

Deviation on Deviation on
North South Coefficient C
4 0.5 x (Deviation on N
Deviation on S)
2 Deviation = C cos(heading)
This represents the resultant

0 deviation due to the presence of
hard-iron component Q & soft-iron
0 90 180 270 360 component fZ.
-2
-4

Deviation
NE SE SW NW Coefficient D
4 0.25 x [(Deviation on NE +
Deviation on SW) - (Deviation
on SE + Deviation on NW)]
2
Deviation = D sin(twice heading)
0 This represents the resultant

0 90 180 270 360 deviation due to the presence of
soft-iron component aX & eY.
-2
-4

Deviation
N E S W Coefficient E
4 0.25 x [(Deviation on N +
Deviation on S) - (Deviation on
E + Deviation on W)]
2
Deviation = E sin(twice heading)
0 This represents the resultant

0 90 180 270 360 deviation due to the presence of soft-
iron component bX & dY.
-2
-4

Total Deviation Equation
Total Deviation =
A Index error
+
B sin(heading) + C cos(heading) One-Cycle Error
+
D sin(2*heading) + E cos(2*heading) Two-Cycle Error
Example Coefficients
Coefficient A A
4.0
Average
Average of (0, -2.4,on
of deviation -4,(N,
-2.4,
NE,0, E,
0.4,SE,
0, S,
0.4,
SW, W,0)NW)
= -1
2.0
Coefficients
Coefficient B B
0.50.5 x (-4 0) =on-2E Deviation on W)
x (Deviation
0.0
Coefficient C C
Coefficients
0 90 180 270 360 0.50.5
x (Deviation
x (0 0) = on
0 N Deviation on S)
-2.0
Coefficient D D
Coefficients
0.25 x [(Deviation
0.25 on -NE
x [(-2.4 + 0.4) + Deviation
(-2.4 + 0.4)] = 0on SW)
- (Deviation on SE + Deviation on NW)]
-4.0
Coefficient
Coefficients
E E
0.25
0.25
x [(Deviation
x [(0 + 0) - on
(-4 N
++0)]Deviation
=1 on S) -
(Deviation on E + Deviation on W)]
Question :
Given the following information find values for each of the three
coefficients:
Magnetic Heading Compass Deviation
000 +4
045 +2
090 +4
135 +3
180 -1
225 -2
270 -2
315 0
Coefficient A A = average (4, 2, 4, 3, -1, -2, -2, 0)

A=1
Coefficient B B = [(4 -( -2)] 2
B=3
Coefficient C C = [(4 -( -1)] 2
C = 2.5
Coefficient D D = {[(2 +( -2)] - [(3 + 0]} 4
D = 0.75
Coefficient E E = {[(4 +( -1)] - [(4 + (-2)]} 4
E = 0.25
Compass Compensation
Remote Reading Compass Compensation
Method of compensating 1 Cycle Error - Coefficient B& C:
Mechanical Method
2 pairs of magnet, placed side by side such that they are neutralized
Adjuster mechanism open out the magnets, produce a flux and correct the
compass.
Electrical Method
Remote electrical compensators are fitted within the fuselage
an electrical circuit containing 2 potentiometers
produce small d.c. in corrector coils
mounted over the flux detector coils and produce small correction magnetic fields for
each coefficient
Direct Compass Compensation (P&Q)
Zeroed
No effect
Open out
Correction
effective
Direct Compass Compensation (P&Q)
Installing Correction Magnet
we do not want the correction magnet

to influence the compass needle
before a swing
Thus the paired magnets would be

lined up so that they cancel each other
effect
Micro-adjuster mechanism use to

create and opposite force to correct
the deviation
Operation of micro-adjuster
Remote Reading Compass Compensation
Compass Swing Procedure
Check Swings needed on the following occasions:
compass accuracy is doubt
after any changes involving magnetic material
after any repair to wing tips and vertical stabilizers where are in
vicinity of flux detector units
after a shock like heavy landing

This procedure has two tasks:
Use a standby compass

calibrator (Calibrator
Procedure).
Tow the airplane around

a compass rose (Tow
Around Procedure).
Each task has two parts.
The first part is to do a swing of the standby compass through four compass
points (north, east, south, west). Use this procedure for compass calibration.
The second part is to do a swing the standby compass through 12 compass

points that are approximately 30 degrees apart. Use this procedure to measure
the remaining errors and to make sure the standby compass heading is accurate.
Use this data to make the compass correction card. This card must stay with
the standby compass.
CAUTION
Do not park vehicles or airplanes less than 250 feet from the airplane
during the compass swing.
Make sure that there are no buildings less than 250 feet away.
Use tools that are not magnetic to adjust the standby magnetic compass.
It is not necessary to keep a constant radius or tangency during airplane tow

around the compass rose or swing area. Tow direction is optional. These
make no difference when you calculate the solutions.
Standby Magnetic Compass
Calibrator Procedure
Calibrator (2591553-901kit)
TOP AND BOTTOM
DIAL ASSEMBLY Standby Compass Calibrator is a
device used to calibrate an aircraft
standby compass without
physically rotating the aircraft.
MAGNET
ASSEMBLY
Magnet assembly is used to cancel
the ambient earths magnetic field.
MOUNTING
BRACKET Top and bottom dial assembly is
used to generate and artificial
magnetic field in various direction.
MAGNETIC FIELD
CANCELLATION
ADJUSTMENT SCREW
Calibrator Re-calibration
TOP AND BOTTOM
DIAL ASSEMBLY annually if it kept at a station
permanently
MAGNET
if there is doubt about its accuracy
ASSEMBLY during a swing
before being used at different

MOUNTING stations.
BRACKET
MAGNETIC FIELD
CANCELLATION
ADJUSTMENT SCREW
Calibrator Adjustment
TOP AND BOTTOM
DIAL ASSEMBLY Do this procedure to calibrate the
standby compass calibrator (SCC)
to the magnetic field at the location
MAGNET
of the compass swing area.
ASSEMBLY
Put a tripod at the center of the
compass swing area.
MOUNTING
BRACKET
Attach a master magnetic compass
to the SCC with two mounting
screws.
MAGNETIC FIELD
CANCELLATION
ADJUSTMENT SCREW
TOP AND BOTTOM
DIAL ASSEMBLY Remove the magnet assembly & the
knob assembly.
Put the SCC/master compass assembly

MAGNET on the tripod.
ASSEMBLY
NOTE:
Make sure the assembly is level.
MOUNTING
BRACKET Turn the assembly until the master
magnetic compass displays an
indication of magnetic north (N).
Install the magnet assembly.

MAGNETIC FIELD
CANCELLATION Install the knob assembly.
ADJUSTMENT SCREW
TOP AND BOTTOM
DIAL ASSEMBLY Turn the top and bottom SCC dials to
show an indication of E at the index
line. Make a record of the heading
shown on the magnetic compass.
MAGNET
ASSEMBLY Turn the top and bottom SCC dials to
show an indication of W at the index
line. Make a record of the heading
MOUNTING shown on the magnetic compass.
BRACKET
NOTE:
If Magnet assembly can cancel
out the local earths magnetic
MAGNETIC FIELD
field. The compass reading will
CANCELLATION
ADJUSTMENT SCREW
aligned with the dials selection.
TOP AND BOTTOM
DIAL ASSEMBLY Turn the magnetic field cancellation
adjustment screw on the SCC to
decrease the heading errors in each
direction (E and W) to a minimum.
MAGNET Continue to adjust the SCC dials for
ASSEMBLY each direction (E and W). Then, use
the magnetic field cancellation
adjustment (MFCA) screw until the
MOUNTING errors are at a minimum.
BRACKET
NOTE:
Continue to do this procedure until
the error in each direction is at a
MAGNETIC FIELD minimum. When the errors are at
CANCELLATION a minimum, do not move the
ADJUSTMENT SCREW MFCA screw until the compass
swing is completed.
Procedure for the four point

calibration swing
ELECTRICAL
APU
BATTERY ON
ON
OFF START Energize all of the electronic
OFF APU GEN equipment, radios, and control cabin
ON lights for the usual conditions that
OFF FAULT
occur in flight.
L BUS TIE R BUS TIE
AUTO AUTO
ISLN SECONDARY
EXT PWR
PRIMARY
EXT PWR
ISLN Align the Air Data Inertial Reference
ON ON Unit.
AVAIL AVAIL
L L MAIN L XFR R XFR R MAIN R

GEN GEN

HEADING CURRENT MAG/TRU
ANNUNCIATION
calibration swing
ANNUNCIATION HEADING
Set the ND mode selector on the left

GS 315 TAS 332 ILS L 110.10
190 /15 HDG 090 MAG CRS 055
DME 13.5
EFIS control panel on the glareshield
to APP.
Set the heading reference switch

TRAFFIC
below the captain's ND to NORM.
Make sure that the captain's ND
shows a magnetic heading.
TFC
VOR L VOR R
116.00 ELN
DME 121 DME 28.5
MOUNTING
SCREW (4)
calibration swing
Make sure that the N-S and E-W

adjustment screws on the standby
compass are at neutral.
Turn the airplane to a direction where the

captain's ND shows a magnetic heading of
0 degrees.
N-S E-W
COMPENSATION COMPENSATION
Remove and keep the lower left and upper
SCREW SCREW right mounting screws on the standby
magnetic compass.
COMPASS CORRECTION
CARD HOLDER
Use the two mounting screws to install the
SCC on the face of the standby magnetic
compass.

calibration swing
Turn the top and bottom SCC dials to

show an indication of E at the index line.
Make a record of the heading shown on
the standby magnetic compass.

show an indication of W at the index line.
STANDBY COMPASS
Turn the E-W adjustment screw on the
standby magnetic compass until the error
in the last two recorded values is at a
minimum.

calibration swing

show an indication of N at the index line.

show an indication of S at the index line.
STANDBY COMPASS
Turn the N-S adjustment screw on the
standby magnetic compass until the error
in the last two recorded values is at a
minimum.
MOUNTING
SCREW (4)
calibration swing
Continue to adjust the SCC dials for each

pair of directions (E-W, N-S). Then turn
the E-W and N-S adjustment screws until
the errors are at a minimum.
NOTE:
Continue to do this procedure until the
error in each pair of directions is at a
N-S E-W
minimum. Start with E-W and turn the E-
SCREW SCREW W adjustment screw. Then, do N-S and
turn the N-S adjustment screw. When the
COMPASS CORRECTION errors are at a minimum, do the steps that
CARD HOLDER
follow for the 12-point accuracy swing.
MOUNTING
SCREW (4)
Procedure for the twelve
point accuracy swing
Move the airplane to a location near the
center of the compass swing area.
Adjust the SCC dials to indicate these

magnetic headings: 0, 30, 60, 90, 120,
150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, and 330
degrees.
N-S E-W Make a record of the magnetic heading,

SCREW SCREW
MH, and the standby compass heading,
CH, for each 30 degree increment.
COMPASS CORRECTION
CARD HOLDER Calculate and make a record of the
deviation, D, in the steer column of the
compass correction card.
MOUNTING
SCREW (4)
point accuracy swing
NOTE:
For each of the magnetic headings, the

remaining deviation for the standby
magnetic compass must not be more than
8 degrees for FAA certification.
For CAA certification, the remaining

N-S E-W
deviation must not be more than 5
SCREW SCREW degrees.
COMPASS CORRECTION
CARD HOLDER
Standby Magnetic Compass
Tow Around Procedure
Tow the airplane to the compass swing area
Energize all of the electronic equipment,

radios, and control cabin lights for the usual
conditions that occur in flight.
Align the Air Data Inertial Reference Unit
Set the ND mode selector on the left EFIS

control panel on the glareshield to APP. Set
the heading reference switch below the
captain's ND to NORM. Make sure that the
captain's ND shows a magnetic heading.
Make sure that the N-S and E-W adjustment

screws on the standby compass are at neutral.
N
calibration swing
Turn the airplane to a direction

where the captain's ND shows a
heading (2 degrees) of magnetic
north, (MH)n.
Make a record of the magnetic

heading, (MH)n, and the standby
compass heading, (CH)n.
Calculate and make a record of the

Dn = (MH)n - (CH)n north heading deviation, Dn.
N
calibration swing

east, (MH)e.

heading, (MH)e, and the standby
compass heading, (CH)e.

De = (MH)e - (CH)e
east heading deviation, De.
N
calibration swing

south, (MH)s.

heading, (MH)s, and the standby
compass heading, (CH)s.

Ds = (MH)s - (CH)s
south heading deviation, Ds.
N
calibration swing

north-south single-cycle error
coefficient, C
Turn the N-S adjustment screw on

the standby compass (while at the
south magnetic heading) to give a
compass heading indication of
(CH)s - C.
Coefficient C = 0.5(Dn - Ds)

N
calibration swing

west, (MH)w.

heading, (MH)w, and the standby
compass heading, (CH)w.

Dw = (MH)w - (CH)w
west heading deviation, Dw.
N
calibration swing

east-west single-cycle error
coefficient, B.
Turn the E-W adjustment screw on

the standby compass (while at the
west magnetic heading) to give a
compass heading indication of
(CH)w - B.
Coefficient B = 0.5(De - Dw)

N
point correction swing
Move the airplane to a location near the
center of the compass swing area.
Turn the airplane to each of these ND

magnetic headings: 0, 30, 60, 90, 120,
150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, and 330
degrees.
Make a record of the magnetic heading,

MH, and the standby compass heading,
CH, for each 30 degree increment.

deviation, D, in the steer column of the
compass correction card
B747 Magnetic Compass
Adjustment Procedure
B747 Compass Adjustment
Index Error Removal
NOTE: To remove the index error, change the alignment of the guide rail. Do not
do this procedure if the index error coefficient (A1, A2 or AS) is 0.4 or less.
Prepare for the Alignment of the Guide Rail
- Open the MHRS 1 and MHRS 2 circuit breakers.
- Make sure that the two mounting screws through the field sensor into the mounting
bracket are tight. Remove the two mounting screws through the field sensor side
angle into the guide rail, and keep them to use again.
- Calculate the linear error (E) of the guide rail position:
E = (0.765)A inches, where A is the index error coefficient.

Align the Guide Rail
- Adjust the feeler gage to the valve of E.
- Remove the sealer from the two screws that hold the guide rail to the mounting
bracket. Loosen the two screws to finger-tight.
- Slide the guide rail away from the side of the field sensor far enough to insert the
feeler gage. Put the feeler gage at the end of the guide rail that will correct the index
error.
NOTE: Put the feeler gage at the aft end of the guide rail to correct positive error.
Put the feeler gage at the forward end of the guide rail to correct negative error.
- Slide the guide rail firmly against the field sensor with the feeler gage in place.
Tighten the two screws that hold the guide rail to the mounting bracket.
- Check the fit of the feeler gage, and then remove it.
Align the Guide Rail
- Loosen the two screws that hold the field sensor to the mounting bracket.
- Move the field sensor tightly against the guide rail. Install the two screws through
the field sensor angle into the guide rail.
- Tighten all four mounting screws.
- Do the four point compass swing again.
NOTE: Include the adjustment of the compensators if necessary.

Make sure that the index error is not more than 0.4. If the index error is
more than 0.4, do the guide rail alignment procedure again.
- Do the 12-point residual error swing again.
- Put the sealer on the two guide rail screws.

Cathay Pacific
Ground Compass Swing Record
CX Ground Compass Swing Record
Swing form for Airbus
CX Ground Compass Swing Record
Swing form for Boeing
Cathay Pacific
Air Swing Procedure
CX Air Swing Procedure
A Standby Compass airswing is arranged by Maintenance Control Support Group prior
to an aircraft scheduled flight test or when there is reason to produce an updated
Compass Deviation Card.
- The compass result form is placed onboard the aircraft and is returned to MC Support
Group when completed.
- For each set of readings obtained, the Magnetic Variation will be obtained using the
latest revision of the Jepesson Charts.
- Calculate Magnetic Heading (MH) from the INS true heading as follows:
TH +/- Mag Variation = MH
Tabulate results on the Compass Airswing Results form
- Using this calculated MH compare and record the difference between this figure and
the aircrafts remote and standby compass systems. The result is the compass error.
- Plot an error graph for each compass from 0 to 360. From the results obtained
complete and forward a new Standby Compass deviation card to Planning for fitment to
the aircraft.
CX Air Swing Procedure
Unsatisfactory Results
Compass corrections are not normally predicated upon these procedures and results.
Insufficient confidence in the results will normally culminate in a formal compass

check / correction swing.
However, MMS or his approved deputy may authorize minor adjustment when the
database is large and repeatable.
When an out of tolerance heading error is recorded, and no compass system defects are
reported, the error will be initially considered as bad data and a follow up check will
be carried out as soon as practical. If further results are satisfactory, the new data will
be considered as valid data and plotted along with the bad data on the error graph and
annotated as such. If the further results show a consistent error, this error must be
corrected.
Base Survey Techniques

Base Classifications
Class 1
- Maximum deviation over the area is 0.1
- remote reading system installed as magnetic reference system
Class 2
- Maximum deviation over the area is 0.25
- remote reading system installed as primary heading reference with a
direct reading compass used as a standby
Bases outside limits of 1 & 2

- Maximum deviation is 1
Base Location Selection
Should be level, easy access
No interference with aircraft movement
Free from Magnetic Field
150ft away from hangers and steel frame building
300ft away from electrical wires & power plants

Base Location Selection

Base surface must be able to withstand aircraft weight
Rooms for taxi and towing
No obstructions with sighting rods and tangent fixtures
Likely positions of aircraft-mounted flux valves around

the base should be noted
Surface of the base should be able to use in all weathers

Site Surveying
Initial Survey: for large error
Establishment Survey:check are made at more numerous
and more closely points
Periodic Survey: re-survey should be carried out on Class
1-every 5 years, Class 2 every 2 years.
Annual Check Survey
Area Survey: required for electrical swings
Instruments: Precision datum bearing compass & Medium
landing compass
Surveying Methods
Reciprocal Bearing
Distance Bearing
Surveying Pole
Area Survey
M11 for Cat. B1.1
Topic 11.6 Electrical Power

DC Power Supplies
Batteries Installation and Operation
AC Power Supplies
External & Auxiliary Power Supplies
Power Distribution
Circuit Controlling Devices
Circuit Protection Devices & Systems
Measuring Instruments and Warning Indications
Direct Current Power Supplies
Fig. 1.2 DC Generation
Fig. 1.5 Connection of Shunt-field Winding
Fig. 1.6 Characteristic of Self-excited Shunt-wound Generator
Fig. 1.7 Section View of a Generator
Excitation Ctrl
Fig. 1.9 Circuit Diagram of Alternator
Fig. 1.12 Control of Field Circuit Current
Limited
Current Vibrating Contact
(spring-loaded to close)
Fig. 1.13 Vibrating Contact Regulator Principle

By-pass R
Large I
Vibrating Contact

Shunt + series
= open
Shunt only
= close
Vibrating at 50 - 200 Hz

Contact open to limit field current

V
Ifield
Not compressed
Spring loaded
compression to compressed
Compressed
R
Fig. 1.14 Carbon Pile Voltage Regulation

Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator
To
consists piles of Busbar
carbon disc under
pressure and counter Trimmer
+
acted by the solenoid Resistor
Field
When Vout solenoid Coil
force compression Gen
Voltage
froce and pile R coil
Ifield and Vout
decrease back to its Carbon pile
normal level
Low voltage
V
Field current flows
No breakdown
Fig. 1.16 Solid-state Voltage Regulator

High voltage
V
No field current flows
Breakdown

VR to change regulated
voltage level
Free wheeling diode
Excitation
Control
Batt. for initial

excitation
Equalizing current flows to
increase V2 and decrease V1
More V drop on R1, more -ve
Resistance of Interpoles
Loading Gen 1 > Gen 2

Fig. 1.18 Principle of Load-sharing
Length R
Ifield V1
Length R
Ifield V2
Loading
balanced
Equalizing coils no equalizing
Contactors closed = current flows
parallel operations
Equalizing relays closed
Fig. 1.19 Load-sharing (Carbon Pile Regulators)

D = Voltage coil E = Eq. Coil A = Volt Regulator
B = Current Limiter C = Reverse Cutout
Fig. 1.20 Load Sharing (Vibrating Contact Regulators)
Control
current flows
to close relay
Main current flows to busbar

to keep contact closed
Reverse
current flows
opposes the
control
holding force
Relay opens to isolate Generator

Batteries Installation and Operation
Aircraft Battery
Primary vs Secondary Cells
Primary cell (dry cell) cannot be recharged
Secondary cell can be recharged
Secondary cell has more stable output voltage

and higher output current
Two types of secondary cells

Cell vs Battery
Battery consists of cells
Cells can be connected in

series or parallel
Series vs Parallel
Series connections of cells increase voltage
No change on capacity
Positive
Three 2V 1Ahr terminal
cells connected in
series
Negative
terminal 2V typical
6V 1Ahr Battery
Series vs Parallel
Parallel connections of cells increase capacity
No change on voltage
Positive
Three 2V 1Ahr terminal
cells connected in
parallel
Negative
terminal 2V typical
2V 3Ahr Battery
Max. I also increased by
3 times
Battery Capacity
Battery Capacity is measured in AHr
1A for 36Hrs 36A for 1Hr
36 AHr
Ampere - hour
rating
Aircraft battery
Specifications
Ampere hours
Lead acid battery

Battery Capacity
Battery Capacity is directly proportional
to the chemical quantity of the cell
Increase plate area,

increase capacity
Alloy of lead and

antimony Grids
Porous Plastic
Seperators
-ve plates enclose more

active +ve plates -ve +ve
Lead Acid Cell
Charged
discharged
Initial Servicing
Battery charging
Constant Voltage
Constant Current
Pulse Charging
Commercial battery
installation
Positive
terminal
Negative
terminal 2V typical
Battery discharging
OCV
13.2
12
CCV with
moderate load
Full Medium Discharge
6 lead acid cells in series

Charging Volt vs Temp
For a 24V Battery
Temp (F) charging voltage

65 28.2 - 29.8
80 27.8 - 29.4
105 27.4 - 29.0
125 27.0 - 28.6
145 26.8 - 28.4
RD change
Less concentrate more concentrate

sulphuric acid sulphuric acid
RD = 1.150 RD = 1.260
charging
discharged charged
RD of electrolyte
Using hydrometer
RD Correction
RD is reference to
15C 0.001 (1 pt.)
for every 2.5
T RD and F
correction should
be made
+0.003 (3 pts.) for

every 4 C above
reference
-0.003 (3 pts.) for

every 4 C below
reference
Battery Vent
During charging lead acid

battery releases H2 and O2
Should allowed to vent to

outside via vents
The design of vent is to prevent

accidental spillage of electrolyte
Battery ventilating system
Battery
Airplane skin
Air intake
Air output
Battery ventilating system
Battery
Felt pad
in sump jar Airplane skin
Air intake
Air output
Battery Installation
Vent is connected to the

ambient via acid trap
Initial Charging
Unscrew the vents & adjust electrolyte level
using distilled water
Charged at 7% rate (3A)
Check voltage and RD at

1/2 hr intervals
Disconnect battery and

allows it to cool when V and
RD remain constants for 3
consecutive readings
Thermal Runaway
charged
discharged charging Heat Gen Heat
Dissipation
Thermal Runaway
When Heat Gen > Heat Dissipate
Temp
At equilibrium, Temp is kept
When Temp Heat dissipate constant (usually below 40
C)
Until Heat Gen = Heat Dissipate
Heat Gen
Heat
Temp Dissipation
Temp
Temp
Thermal Runaway
When Heat Gen >>Heat Dissipate
Temp
Temp keeps on increasing
When Temp Heat dissipate (runaway) until ...
Heat Gen
Temp
Heat Gen
Temp Heat
Temp Dissipation
Temp
Temp
Thermal Runaway
Why battery becomes too HOT

Poor ventilation
Prolong start of APU
Low electrolyte level
Imbalance cells
Constant Voltage Charging

Thermal Runaway
How to prevent
Good Battery Maintenance
Good ventilation & cooling
Use thermostat for protection
Constant Current Charging

Sulphation of Lead Acid Battery
When lead acid cell is over

discharged
Plated may be heavily sulphated
Sulphate may be hardened and

process cant be reversed
Resulted in loss of capacity
Known as Sulphation
Battery Routine Servicing
Inspection
Re-charge
Freshening Charge
Inspection
Examine general conditions
Remove old terminal grease and

corrosion with dilute solution of
ammonia
Wash with clear water and dry

thoroughly
Re-grease the terminal to

prevent corrosion
Add only distill water

Re-charge
Check and adjust electrolyte
Charge at normal rate (7%)
Observe the conditions laid down

under INITIAL CHARGE
Dont forget the Record

Freshening Charge
Given to stored batteries every

2-4 weeks
Compensate for normal

leakage
Insulation Check
Placed the battery on a metal

plate
Connect a 250V megger

across the plate and the
battery terminals
Reading > 1M
Leakage Check
Remove the vent caps
Hold the tester firmly over

each vent in turn
Pressurize each cell to 2

psi
Observe for detectable

leakage after 15 sec
Capacity Test
To be carried out every 3 mths
Serviceability check
Pass if > 48 mins.
Connect the battery to a
discharge board
(80%)
Discharge the battery at its

Ahr rate
Adjust the current at regular

interval by R (note the Volt)
Disconnect the battery

when V < 21.6V
Precaution
Mixing of electrolyte
Wear rubber gloves
Add acid to water
Never water to Acid
Acid Spillage
Wash with cold water
Neutralized with 5% bicarbonate soda
Soak with saw dust and proper disposal

Precaution
Acid Spillage on Aircraft
Wash with cold water
Neutralized with 5%
bicarbonate soda
Check with litmus paper
Repair any damage
Repaint anti-corrosion paint

Precaution
No metallic parts allows

No rings, watches etc.
Inside Battery Room
No nake lights
Lead acid and NiCd should be completely

separated
Good ventilate, temperate control

NiCd Cell
Charged Dis-charged
+ve plate Nikel +ve plate Nikel
Hydroxide Ni(OH)3 Hydroxide Ni(OH)2
-ve plate -ve plate Cadmium

Cadmium Cd Hydroxide Cd(OH)2
Electrolyte Electrolyte
Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Hydroxide
RD 1.24 -1.30 RD 1.24 -1.30
Terminal Voltage = 1.2 V Terminal Voltage = 1.2 V

State of Charge
Electrolyte RD remains constant during

charging
Terminal Voltage also shows no

significant rise
Electrolyte level will rise

during charging as Cd does
not absorbs KOH
The only means is to carry out

capacity test
Electrolyte level adjustment with distill

water after charging
Cell-balancing
Discharge the battery and short
circuit any cell < 1V
Voltage Recovery
Short-circuit the cell with a 1
resistor for 16 hours
Transportation
In discharged state with shorting
link at terminals
Table 1.1
Chemical Reactions of Batteries
Battery Type State of Charge Positive Plate Negative Plate Electrolyte
PbO2 Pb H2SO4
Charged
(Lead Dioxide) (Lead) (Concentrated Sulphuric Acid)
Lead Acid
PbSO4 PbSO4 H2SO4
Discharged
(Lead Sulphate) (Lead Sulphate) (Weak Sulphuric Acid)
Ni2O2 & Ni2O3 Cd KOH

Charged
(Nickel Oxides) (Cadmium) (Potassium Hydroxide)
Nickel-Cadmium
Ni(OH)2 Cd(OH)2
Discharged -- Unaffected by State of Charge
(Nickel Hydroxide) (Cadmium Hydroxide)
Fig. 1.26 Typical Battery Installation
Fig. 1.28 Battery Plug Connector
Fig.1.22 Lead-acid Battery (Free Liquid Type)
Fig. 1.27 Battery Venting Arrangement
Gen powered Current flows
Batt Sw. On from busbar to
charge the
battery and
power batt. bus
Fig. 1.29 Typical Battery System Circuit

Reverse flows of
currents towards
Normal Closed main busbar
causing reverse
C/B tripped to
isolate battery
from main busbar
Fig. 1.29 Typical Battery System Circuit

Batteries
connected in
parallel to
busbar
Fig. 1.30 Parallel/Series Connection of Batteries

Batteries
connected in
series to
supply high
voltage for
engine starter
Fig. 1.30 Parallel/Series Connection of Batteries

Fig. 1.31 Battery Charging from External Power
Any one TRU
powered
Emerg. off
Batt. Selected
Temp sensing
prevent O/H
Fig. 1.32 In-situ Battery Charging System

Both TRU not
powered
Batt. Selected
Fig. 1.32 In-situ Battery Charging System

Energized to give V Batt. Current indication
high current o/p to
charge battery
Ext Pwr Not In Use
Batt.
Sw. OFF
Thermal Sw. open
when O/H to select
charging current
De-energized
to OPEN

X
HOT Batt Bus always
powered either by
charger or battery if
charger not available

Batt.
Sw. ON
Energized to Close
De-energized to Open TRU no

Batt. Bus powered power
by HOT Batt. Bus
Batt.
Sw. ON
De-energized to Open
Energized to Close TRU

Batt. Bus powered Powered
by TRU
Pwr by either Ext Pwr
or Gen 1
Via Gnd Serv Bus
Or from Gen 2
via Main bus
X
no.2 if no.2 has
been selected as
Altn Pwr
APU Cut charger power to

APUnot Starting
Starting
prevent charger overload
Fig. 1.34 Battery Charger A.C. Input
Alternating Current Power
Supplies
Fig. 2.7 Frequency-wild Generator
Fig. 2.9 Basic Arrangement of a CSD Unit
Hydraulic motor
output turns to oppose
the input
Fig. 2.10 Underdrive Phase

Hydraulic motor
output turns to assist
the input
Fig. 2.11 Overdrive Phase

Fig. 2.12 CSD/Generator Installation
Thread engaged and
clutch released when
turning speed is
sufficient
Solenoid momentarily
energized to retract pin
Pawl released and
move up by spring
force
Reset by pulling handle against

spring force with engine S/D
Fig. 2.13 CSD/Generator Disconnect Mechanism

Fig. 2.14 Constant Frequency Generator
Fig. 2.15 Integrated Drive Generator
Under heavy loading and speed of Gen is slow ...
Compounding transformers boost the excitation
Initial excitation
V from Batt
V builds up and
regulator o/p takes
over
Fig. 2.16 Frequency-wild Generator Excitation

Permanent magnet for initial excitation
Stator Rotor Stator

Thermistor for Temp
compensation
Volt Regulator uses generator output to

strengthen PMG excitation and Volt builds up
Volt Regulator monitors the voltage at POR
and performs regulation by excitation control
Excitation source
Regulator
Fig. 2.18 Voltage Regulation

X = Y, no error output
to adjust excitation
+
Gas filled tubes or zener
diodes used as the reference
X
Fig. 2.19 Constant-frequency System Voltage Regulation

X > Y, error output to
trim down excitation
+

X < Y, error output to
trim up excitation
+

Average loop current 5
Branch 5 5 5
Current
To governor
trim coil o/s simulation
CSD speed down u/s simulation CSD speed up
Average loop current 5
5 5 5
Branch
Current
Mutual Reactor detects reactive loading current and alternate excitation field
To short load sharing loop of when Breakers open
BTB Aux Contacts GCB Aux Contacts

C
Load Governor Gen
S
Controller Trim coil
D
Less real Simulate CSD turns
load sharing under speed faster
Mutual Voltage Gen
Reactor Regulator
Less reactive Simulate Increase

load sharing under voltage excitation
Light
Light ONoff= =not
synchronized
synchronized
A C
B
Fig. 2.22 Synchronizing

Fig. 3.7 Single-phase Rectification
Fig. 3.8 Three-phase Half-wave Rectification
Fig. 3.9 Operation of a Full-wave
Bridge Rectifier
Fig. 3.10a Transformer Principle (1)
Fig. 3.10b Transformer Principle (2)
Fig. 3.12 Current Transformer
Fig. 3.14 Circuit Arrangement of an Auto-transformer
Fig. 3.15 Tappings of a Typical Three-phase Auto-transformer
Fig. 3.16 Transformer-rectifier
Unit
Primary Secondary
Rectifying circuit
Fig. 3.17 Schematic Circuit of a Transformer-rectifier Unit

Motor speed ctrl
(freq. adjust)
Generator field ctrl

(Inverter volt o/p adjust)
Fig. 3.18 Rotary Inverter Operation

Fig. 3.19 Rotary Inverter (Carbon-pile Regulation)
Fig. 3.20 Static Inverter Principle
External & Auxiliary Power
Supplies
Fig. 4.1 Ground Power Unit
Fig. 4.2 Basic External Power Supply System
Main Ground
Main +ve
Control +ve
Fig. 4.3 External Power Supply Connection

Reverse current
Fig. 4.4 Three-pin Receptacle System

Fig. 4.5 Schematic of an External Power Supply Multiple D.C. Busbar System
Fig. 4.6 Separate External D.C. Supply for A.P.U. Starting
Fig. 4.7 Schematic of an External Power Supply A.C. System
Fig. 4.8 External A.C. Power Receptacle
and Control Panel
Fig. 4.9 Auxiliary Power Unit
Fig. 4.10 A.P.U. Installation
Intentionally Blank
Power Distribution
Fig. 5.1 Busbar System
Fig. 5.2 Split Busbar System (Primary A.C. Power Source)
Fig. 5.3 Main A.C. & D.C.
Power Distribution
System (Non-parallel)
Fig. 5.4 Control Panel
Fig. 5.5 Combinations of Parallel Operation
Fig. 5.17 Generator Feeder Lines
Intentionally Blank
Circuit Controlling Device
Fig. 6.1 Switch Contact Arrangement
Fig. 6.2 Toggle Switch
Fig. 6.3 Ganging & Locking
of Switches
Fig. 6.4 Push Switches
Fig. 6.5 Push-in Solenoid Switch
Fig. 6.6 Rocker-button Switch
Fig. 6.7 Micro-switches
Fig. 6.8 Time Switch Unit
Fig. 6.9 Mercury Switches
Fig. 6.10 Typical Pressure Switch Unit
Fig. 6.11 Fire Detector Switch
Fig. 6.12 Proximity Switch
Fig. 6.13 Attracted Core Heavy-duty Relay
Fig. 6.14 Attracted Armature Light-duty Relay (Sealed Type)
Fig. 6.15 Attracted Armature Relay (Unsealed Type)
Fig. 6.16 Principle of a Polarized Armature Relay
Fig. 6.17 Breaker
Circuit Protection Devices and
Systems
Fig. 7.3 Application of a Limiting Resistor
Fig. 7.4 Schematic Diagram of Circuit Breaker Operation
Fig. 7.5 Characteristic Curves of a
Typical Circuit Breaker
Tripping Times
Fig. 7.6 Circuit Breakers
Fig. 7.7 Reverse Current Cut-out Operation
Fig. 7.8 Switched Reverse Current Relay
Fig. 7.9 Reverse Current Circuit Breaker
Fig. 7.10 Reverse Current Circuit Breaker Operation
Fig. 7.11 Overvoltage Protection D.C. Generating System
Fig. 7.12 Overvoltage Protection A.C. Generating System (Frequency-wild)
Fig. 7.13 Overvoltage Protection (Constant Frequency System)
Fig. 7.14 Differential Current Protection
Fig. 7.15 Merz-Price Protection System
Measuring Instruments and
Warning Indication Systems
Fig. 8.1 Electrical System Control Panel
Fig. 8.2 Basic Form of Moving Coil Indicator
Fig. 8.3 Magnet System of a Typical Long-scale Moving Coil Instrument
Fig. 8.6 Application of a Potential
Transformer
Fig. 8.7 Measurement of D.C. Loads in a Rectified A.C. system
Fig. 8.8 Three-phase Current Transformer Unit
Fig. 8.9 Circuit Arrangements of a Frequency Meter
Fig. 8.10 Circuit Arrangements of a Watt/VAR Meter
HKAR-66 Cat. B1.1
Topic 11.14 Lighting System

Aircraft Lighting
Flight Deck Instrumentation

Cabin Illumination
Passenger Information Sign
Navigation Lights
Flashing Lights
Landing and Taxing
Logo & Inspection
Instrument Lighting
Instrument readable and discernible by
night
Changing light conditions
Adverse weather conditions
Objectionable reflections
Centre-contact
filament lamp
and housing Pillar and Bridge Lighting
Push fit into
assembly body
Red
filter
To
ground
Positive
supply
Light alloy bridge structure
Two or four lamps fitted
Pillar and Bridge Lighting
90 degrees sector of light

Wedge-Type Lighting Lamp
Inner
wedge A
Outer
wedge B
Dial
plate Blackened
surface
Wedge-Type Lighting
Lamp
A
B
The double wedge

Changes the incident angle
of the light rays
Distributesthe light rays
uniformly across the dial
Limits the amount of light
given off by the instrument
Trans-illuminated Panel
HYD DEM PRESS

Dome and Flood Lights
Overhead of Flight crews For illumination on a

wide area of panels
For illumination on a small area
Fluorescent light
Both have individual

brightness control
Storm and Standby Mode
STORM SW to ON For illumination of

standby instrument
All Dome, Flood and Panel
Lights will be fully bright Powered by Standby Bus
Cabin Lights
Passenger Info Sign
Passenger Info Sign
Fasten Seat Belt Return to Seat No Smoking

Flap not up In Lavatory when When FSB ON
Gear down Fasten Seat Belt ON Decompression
Manual ON Manual ON
Master Call Lights
Blue Amber Pink
Passenger Call Lavatory Call Crew Call

External Lights
External Lights
Navigation Lights
Non-flashing
Navigation Lights
Beacon Lights
Flashing at 90 / min.
40 - 45 rpm
Rotating Beacon
Beacon Installation
Strobe Light
White flashing No finger print

Power Supply with 450V o/p
Landing and Taxying Lights
High power 600W
High Temp
No finger Print
Landing Lights
Low o/p if gear up
Hi o/p with gear down

Retractable Landing Lamp
Wing Illumination Lights
Compartment Lights
Emergency Lights
Emergency Lts Pwr Pack
Review Questions - Lighting
How to make the cockpit lights fully bright?
Which passenger information signs will be controlled
by the flap position ?
You are going to check the lamp bulbs for cabin night
illumination. How?
You are requested to check the illumination of the
passenger information signs. How to make it ON?
Where can we find the transformer for the wing
inspection light ?
Review Questions - Lighting
There is a loss of normal power supply to the airplane.
What illuminations do we still have ?
How to test the emergency lighting system?
Which external lights cannot be on in-flight?
How to control the bright / dim of landing lights ?
The output to a strobe light is _______ V.
List the precautions when working on a landing light.
A set of emergency lights are off. What will be
possible failure ?
HKAR66 Module 11b Aeroplane Systems
Pneumatic & Vacuum
INTRODUCTION
With gas turbine engines a great deal of air is produced to provide propulsion,
manufacturers were quick to notice that some of this air could be used to provide to notice
that some of this air could be used to provide air required for systems powered by
pneumatic pressure.
As the pressure of the air produced by the engine varies with the number of compression
stages it has passed through, air can be tapped off at different stages thus varying the
pressure available for pneumatic system operation.
BLEED AIR SYSTEMS

Bleed air is used for pneumatic systems that require a high volume flow. The pressure of
the bleed air will obviously vary depending on the revolutions per minute (rpm) of the
supplying engine, any system that is pressure conscious therefore requires the air to be
regulated prior to use. Some systems using unregulated air are:
1. Wing and tail thermal anti-ice,

2. Cargo compartment heating,
3. Engine nose cowl thermal anti-ice,
4. Air driven hydraulic pumps,
5. Air conditioning packs,
6. Pressurization of hydraulic reservoirs,
7. Pneumatic engine starters.
Bleed air for use in these systems normally comes from the aircraft's engines, but It can
be supplied from an auxiliary power unit (APU) or a pneumatic ground cart plugged in to
the pneumatic manifold when required. Typical quantities for a medium sized passenger
aircraft are shown in figure.
AIR CONDITIONING
AND PRESSURISATION
160 LB PER MINUTE
ENGINE STARTING
110 LB PER MINUTE
PNEUMATIC
SYSTEM
THERMAL ANTI-ICE
120 LB PER MINUTE
Pneumatic System Requirements
1
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Bleed air systems are usually split into two sections:
1. Engine bleed air,

2. Turbo compressor.
Engine Bleed Air (Two Stage Type)
The engine bleed air system consists of the power source (the engine) and control
devices for temperature and pressure regulation during system operation.
Because of the great variation of air output available from a gas turbine engine between
idle and maximum rpm there is a need to maintain a reasonable supply of air during low
rpm operation as well as for restricting excessive pressure when the engine is at
maximum rpm. Two pressure stages are therefore tapped to maintain a reasonable
pressure band at all engine rpms.
Figure shows a typical engine bleed air system, note that the air is ducted from two stages
of the compressor, a low pressure (LP) stage and a higher pressure (HP) stage. The two
sources are combined together in the system at the high pressure shut off valve, the valve
is pressure sensitive and pneumatically operated.
Typical Engine Bleed Air System (Two Stage Type)
2
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Operation
When the LP air is of insufficient pressure for use in the pneumatic system to maintain the
prescribed flow requirements, the valve will open and allow HP air to enter the bleed air
ducting, so increasing the engine's output of bleed air.
As the output of air depends on engine speed, we can see that the high pressure shut off
valve (HPSOV) will be open at low speeds. As the engine speed increases, LP air
pressure will also increase and close the valve, so in all normal stages of flight bleed air
will come from the LP stages.
LP air is within a pressure band that is acceptable to all its user systems. Non-return
valves (NRV) are installed in the LP stage ducts to prevent HP air entering the LP stages
of the engine when the HPSOV is open.
Turbo Compressor
Another method of obtaining air for the pneumatic ducting is to use a turbo-compressor.
The turbo-compressor consists of a turbine and compressor on a common shaft; a small
quantity of HP air drives the turbine.
Turbo-Compressor Installation
3
Pneumatic & Vacuum
The compressor inlet duct is connected to an air scoop, and its outlet duct is connected to
the pneumatic manifold via a surge valve to damp out fluctuations of air pressure. The
unit is controlled by a shut off valve whose switch is crew operated.
The turbo-compressor is a supplemental supplier of bleed air, the LP stage is connected

to the ducting also. When insufficient air is available through the LP stages the crew will
open the shut off valve starting the turbo-compressor, a pressure regulator valve is
incorporated to ensure a constant output. On large multi-engined aircraft, only some of
the engines will have a turbo-compressor, the unit is normally mounted with all its controls
in the engine bay.
Turbo-Compressor Installation (Eng 2,3, And 4 Only)
BLEED AIR CONTROL
The crew must be able to select bleed air when required, so a bleed ON/OFF valve is
incorporated. This valve is usually called an engine bleed valve and is electrically
controlled by a switch on the crew's panel.
The engine bleed valve is used to allow the bleed air to enter the pneumatic manifold, so
the bleed valve is the separation point between our two systems.
4
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Most multi-engined aircraft also keep the supplying engines or sides separate, and each
system supplies its own user services. The systems are kept independent by using an
isolation valve, which is an electrical valve controlled by the crew. The isolation valve is
normally kept closed, but if an engine supply is lost it can be opened to allow one supply
to feed the other side's services.
Bleed Air Pneumatic Manifold- Typical Layout
SAFETY DEVICES
Safety devices are fitted into bleed air systems to prevent a possible overheat or
overpressure, which could cause severe damage and possible rupture of the ducting.
Overpressure
Overpressure is usually caused by a malfunction of the HPSOV, that is the HPSOV stays
open at high speed. In most systems a relief valve is fitted to the engine bleed air ducting,
which will relieve excessive pressure into the engine cowlings. Should overpressure of
the system remain, a sensor will bleed HPSOV opening pressure forcing the valve to
close.
5
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Overheat
Overtemperature of the bleed air is prevented by an electrical temperature switch

installed downstream of the engine bleed valve, the switch will close the bleed valve if the
temperature of the air reaches a predetermined level.
These conditions will be indicated to the pilots by warning lights. If an overheat

occurrence took place, the bleed valve switch would be placed to OFF, and the isolation
valve opened to restore the lost systems.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS DURING MAINTENANCE

Many adjustments and checks on the bleed air system require the system to be
pressurised using the engine as a power source. The following precautions should be
taken when carrying out any checks of the bleed air system:
1. Bleed air is HOT do not touch pipes and ducts.

2. Always replace seals (normally metal crush seals) when replacing joints.
3. Tighten clamps to the torque figure given in the Maintenance Manual.
4. Don't lever against ducts as dents will cause local hot spots.
5. If the duct is supported by links ensure they are adjusted so as not to strain the duct.
BLEED AIR PARAMETER CONTROL

Bleed air must be fed into the pneumatic ducting within a range of temperatures, which
will not harm the ducting or the services, which use the air. In some pneumatic bleed air
systems the range of pressures of air fed from the HP and LP stages (unregulated air) is
satisfactory for direct operation of the aircraft systems that are fed by it. However, other
aircraft require the air to be regulated to a set pressure when it enters the pneumatic
ducting.
To ensure that the air entering the system is of a suitable quality, various devices are
used to monitor and correct any out of limit parameter. We can divide parameter control
into three basic sections, they are:
1. Temperature control,
2. Pressure control,
3. Bleed air monitoring and control.
6
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Temperature Control
The air leaves the compressor stages at very high temperatures, this air is much too hot
to be allowed into the pneumatic manifold. Prior to allowing the air to leave the engine
bleed system it has to be cooled, and a gas turbine engine with a by-pass duct or fan has
an ample supply of cold air to use as the cooling medium. You should already know that
temperature and pressure are directly related, therefore, the HP stage air is going to be
hotter than the LP stages.
In most gas turbines LP air temperature is well below duct overheat temperature,
therefore manufacturers concentrate on cooling the HP air. HP air is ported through a
cross matrix heat exchanger while fan air or ram air in some aircraft is ported across it. To
give the temperature regulation the heat exchanger cool air flow is regulated by a
thermostatically controlled valve which will allow or prevent cool air to extract the heat
from the bleed air. Various methods of temperature control valve (TCV) operation are
used, the main types are:
i) Electrical temperature regulation,

ii) Pneumatic operated valves,
iii) Bi-metallic operated valves.
Probably the simplest type to explain is the bi-metallic type shown in figure.
Bi-Metallic Heat Exchanger Outflow Valve
7
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Bi-Metallic Operated Temperature Control Valve
The bi-metallic spring when cooler than the minimum temperature required
(approximately 360oF) coils up, and in this position the 'petals' of the valve cover up the
flow aperture, so no cooling flow can pass through the heat exchanger.
When the temperature of the bleed air rises the bi-metallic strip tries to straighten out and
the petals will begin to open allowing the cooling air to flow from the heat exchanger and
cool the bleed air.
The bi-metallic sensing element senses the temperature of the cooling flow, which has
absorbed the heat from the bleed air, and will modulate to maintain the required
temperature.
Electrical Temperature Regulation
Figure illustrates a typical temperature regulation system used on a by-pass fan type
engine.
The temperature of the air is monitored by an electrical sensor after it has passed through
the heat exchanger, if the temperature rises the sensor will signal a cooling air modulation
valve to open and allow more fan air across the heat exchanger.
If the bleed air is too cool the modulation valve will close slightly thus reducing the airflow
so allowing the temperature of the bleed air to increase.
In practice once an aircraft is in the cruise condition the valve will remain set as no
parameter will change.
After the cooling flow has passed the heat exchanger matrix it will be dumped overboard.
8
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Electrical Bleed Air Temperature Control

(High Bypass Fan Engine)
Pneumatic Regulation
The bleed air thermostat shown in the figure is mounted in the pneumatic manifold. The
pressure line controls the opening side of the high pressure shut off valve which in turn
controls the HP bleed.
If the temperature in the duct exceeds the required temperature the outer housing
extends (expands) allowing the inner housing to move down, which will then lift the ball
valve off its seat.
This action will bleed pressure from the open line of the HPSOV to modulate it towards
closed. With less hot air flow the heat exchanger will lower the temperature more
efficiently.
9
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Pneumatic Bleed Air Thermostat
Pressure Control
In many bleed air systems the pressure is regulated only by the operation of the high
pressure shut off valve. The range of pressure using the HPSOV system can vary from
10 psig at idle HP stage open, to 65 psig HP stage closed at take off power, these figures
obviously depend also on the air density.
If the systems fed by the bleed air are not pressure conscious then no other regulation of
the pressure is required. However, many large passenger aircraft use bleed air for many
systems that are sensitive to pressure variations so regulation of bleed air supply is
required.
The pressure regulation valve is a pneumatically operated valve, which will give a
predetermined output pressure from the engine bleed air system (approximately 40 psi).
To save weight it is often combined with the engine bleed valve so it can combine the two
jobs, it is then known as the pressure regulating and shut off valve (PRSOV).
10
Pneumatic & Vacuum
MONITORING AND CONTROL
Figure shows a typical bleed air control panel which contains all the items necessary for
the crew to control and monitor the bleed air systems during all phases of flight. The panel
shown consists of the following:
1. Bleed air switches

These switches energise the bleed air valves on the No. 1 and No. 2 engines, and the
auxiliary power unit (APU). They are the ON/OFF switches that separate the engine or
APU bleed air systems from the pneumatic manifold.
2. Air conditioning pack switches

These allow bleed air into the left and right air conditioning packs to be used for cabin
conditioning and pressurisation.
3. Isolation valve switch

To enable the left and right bleed air systems to be separated (valve closed) or joined
together (valve open) should an engine bleed system malfunction or fail.
4. Warning lights to inform the crew of malfunctions:

i) Pack trip off-pack overheat
ii) Bleed trip off-bleed air overheat
iii) Overheat-for duct leak with overheat test button for filament check.
5. Pressure gauge
With dual needles, one for the left pneumatic manifold and one for the right. The
needles are marked R and L.
The panel is laid out in the same way as the system components in the aircraft, lines on
the panel represent the pneumatic ducting, this method makes the system easy to
understand.
The engine bleed systems are represented by the bleed switches, and the packs by the
relevant pack switches.
In normal operation the isolation valve remains closed and the left engine feeds the left
pack and thermal anti-ice system on the left side of the aircraft, and of course the same
thing applies on the right hand side.
The pressure transmitter for each needle is on its own side of the isolation valve, when the
valve is closed each needle will record the independent pressures produced by the
engine bleed air systems.
11
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Typical Bleed Air Control Panel
DUCTING LEAK DETECTION AND ALTERNATE SUPPLY
Bleed air pneumatic ducts are the pipelines that carry the bleed air from the compressor
of the engine to the various services that require the air for their operation. Due to the
heat of the bleed air any leakage from the ducts will cause an extreme temperature rise in
the area of the leak with the possibility of fire. Leak detection systems are therefore,
incorporated to warn the crew of the impending danger.
Whilst the aircraft is on the ground some pneumatic services may be required, so auxiliary
power units and ground pneumatic carts are available to supply these needs without
resorting to running the aircraft's engines.
12
Pneumatic & Vacuum
PNEUMATIC DUCTS
The ducting used in the bleed air system is made up of many sections for ease and
cheapness of replacement. It is constructed of thin wall material clamped together with
joints that allow for the expansion of the ducting during use.
Duct Material
Engine bleed air system ducts are manufactured from stainless steel to withstand the high
temperatures.
Pneumatic manifold ducts are manufactured from titanium, they are able to withstand
higher temperatures than the ducts used for engine bleed systems, their major advantage
is their lightness.
The duct sections are supported throughout their length by clamps or tie rods, which are
attached to the ducting and to the aircraft structure as shown in figure.
Duct Support Methods
On duct installation the joints are assembled when cold, when in operation the bleed air
ducting will get extremely hot, up to 350 F. Expansion devices must be incorporated into
the joints otherwise buckling will occur.
13
Pneumatic & Vacuum
This expansion can be allowed for by one of several methods, in some cases the duct
sections are manufactured slightly short in length in order to compensate for thermal
expansion. When the ducts are assembled on installation the ducts will be slightly
pre-stressed by the clamps.
Duct Joint Attachment
Another expansion joint is the flexible ball type joint shown in the figure. This joint is
designed to allow for slight flexing as well as expansion, a flange on one end of the joined
pipe and a bearing nut on the other are screwed up together to make the joint. Shims are
used to ensure adequate clearance for expansion and flexing, a crush type metal seal is
used to prevent leaks in the ducts.
Flexible Ball Joint
14
Pneumatic & Vacuum
The cable attachment type of duct fitting shown in figure is used where large temperature
changes exist, for example from cold soak at high altitude to pneumatic system use. This
type of duct has bosses attached to each end of the duct.
There are three short cables, approximately 6 inches long, spaced 120 degrees apart
around the ducts. The cables have swaged balls attached at one end of the cable and a
cable fitting with a screw thread on the other end. A seal is fitted around the duct prior to
connecting the cables between the duct ends, an expansion gap is left between the seal
ends and the bosses (approximately 1/16" cold).
Cross Section through Cable Type Duct Joint
Duct Maintenance and Repairs
Thin wall ducts are subject to damage as a result of:
i) Improper removal or installation,

ii) Mishandling, incorrect torque loading,
iii) Abnormal operating conditions - extremes of pressure or temperature.
15
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Certain damage to ducts can be repaired after inspection, extensive damage however will
involve the complete replacement of the damaged section. Before you begin to inspect or
repair ducting the limits and procedures outlined in the Maintenance Manual must be
followed, as a general rule the following conditions apply:
i) Smooth dents are normally allowable if they do not substantially restrict the airflow,
ii) Shallow scratches and gouges, if not more than 10% of the duct wall thickness are
permitted, as long as the bottom of the scratch is smooth,
iii) Any defect within approximately 1/4 of an inch of a fusion weld is not permissible.
There are certain 'rules' to be obeyed when fitting pneumatic ducting, these will be
itemised in the Maintenance Manual but they will include the following:
i) Ensure that torque loading figures are carefully observed.

ii) Always replace the seals on re-assembly.
iii) If shims are used, the required expansion gap should be measured every time the
joint is assembled.
iv) To ensure the clamp has seated, tap the ends of the ducts lightly with a non
metallic mallet to ensure concentricity of the duct flanges in the clamp.
v) Duct retaining rods must not load the duct or put any bending stress on the clamps.
vi) If control cables run near the ducting ensure there is adequate clearance at all
positions of the cable. Recommended position is shown in figure.
Clamp Bolt Position
16
Pneumatic & Vacuum
Point to Note
At normal temperatures fire resistant hydraulic fluid (i.e., Skydrol) is compatible with
titanium, above 270 F, however, the fluid becomes acidic and attacks titanium, causing it
to corrode and become brittle.
If this condition has occurred, the contamination which is evident by a bright glossy brown
film or a dull black residue, must be treated in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions.
Procedure after Duct Replacement
After duct replacement a leak check must be carried out in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions, do not check for leaks with your bare hands.
Use strips of rag or wool attached to a stick, if the ducts are covered by insulation muffs
these are to be removed to pin point the leak.
Slight diffused leaks may be acceptable depending upon the area in which they are found.
Blast leaks are unacceptable, in which case the ducts will have to be dismantled to find
and solve the problem and then reassembled.
LEAK DETECTION
Duct leak detection systems are heat sensitive devices to warn the crew of a leak or a
rupture of the pneumatic ducts. One type of leak detector relies on a heat sensitive
element which is attached to the duct supports and follows the ducts through their entire
length, except in the engine bays where engine overheat and fire detection systems
already exist.
The element consists of an electrical conductor which is encapsulated in an earthed metal

tube, between the conductor and the earth is a material whose electrical resistance is
inversely proportional to temperature, that is to say the higher the temperature the lower
the resistance of the material.
Under normal conditions the resistance of the material prevents the flow of electricity
between the conductor and the earth (as the resistance is high). As the material
increases in temperature the resistance lowers and allows a current to flow.
17
Pneumatic & Vacuum
This current flow makes the circuit to the warning devices on the flight deck to inform the
crew of a duct overheat. A typical duct leak sensor system is shown in the following
figure.
Typical Sensor Installation
On some aircraft spot detectors are used at various stations along the ducting. These
detectors rely on the principle of the bi-metallic strip, as hot air plays on the detector the
outer shell expands and allows the contacts inside the tube to touch, thus completing the
circuit and operating a warning device.
Spot Sensor
18
Pneumatic & Vacuum
The warning normally consists of a light on the crew instrument panel and sometimes an
aural warning such as a horn.
ALTERNATE SUPPLY
When the aircraft is on the ground auxiliary power units (APUs) and ground pneumatic
carts are used to supply air into the pneumatic ducting as an alternative to engine feed
Auxiliary Power Units
In the case of the APU many different installations exist. For safety reasons and noise
limitations, mainly for embarking and disembarking passengers, the APU is situated well
out of the way of entry doors.
The most common position is shown in the figure, i.e., at the rear end of the fuselage.
APUs are also situated in the main wheel wells exhausting through an openable door on
the top surface of the mainplane.
Typical APU Installation
19
Pneumatic & Vacuum
The APU is a small gas turbine engine, which drives a compressor to supply bleed air to
the pneumatic ducting. Some APUs drive a gear box to which generator and hydraulic
pumps are attached. These items will make the aircraft fully independent of ground
equipment. Some types of APU are able to be started and run while the aircraft is
airborne and to act as a back up supplier of pneumatic and electrical power in the event of
an engine shut down. On other types, airborne operation is inhibited by the air ground
system.
Prior to starting the APU certain checks which are listed in the Maintenance Manual must
be carried out. Typical precautions are:
i) Ensure intake and exhaust ductings are clear.

ii) Wear ear defenders when working around the APU area.
iii) Always have a fire extinguisher near the APU whilst it is running.
iv) Ensure there is adequate battery voltage prior to starting the APU.
Ground Pneumatic Carts
Ground carts are used mainly for starting gas turbine engines that employ an air driven
starter, they can also supply air for other services such as an air conditioning pack. The
pneumatic cart is basically a compressor driven by an engine, usually a diesel. The
compressor output pressure is regulated to prevent damage to the pneumatic ducts. The
metal end of the air hose is fitted to an attachment on the aircraft to allow the ground cart
air into the aircraft ducting
Ground Cart Connection at Aircraft
20
Pneumatic & Vacuum
The maximum air pressure that is allowed into the aircraft ducts and the operating
instructions, including safety precautions are written on the inside of the access panel.
Instructions for operating the ground cart will be found on the machines control panel.
The precautions required when starting and operating the ground cart will vary with the
design of the equipment, however these instructions are typical:
i) Off load the compressor prior to starting to relieve the engine's load.
ii) Allow the engine to warm up before bringing the compressor 'on line'.
iii) Accelerate the engine slowly observing the pressure produced.
iv) When starting the aircraft's engine monitor the pressure gauge to ensure that the
maximum pressure is not exceeded.
v) Don't run the ground cart in a confined space as the exhaust is toxic.
vi) Have a fire extinguisher available at all times.
vii) Don't remove the hose from the aircraft until all the pressure has been dissipated.
21
HKAR66 Module11b Aeroplane Systems
Air Conditioning & Pressurisation
INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives guidance on the need for cabin pressurization and air-conditioning
systems, their principles of operation and the inspection and maintenance.
EFFECT OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY
Oxygen is essential for most living processes. Without oxygen, men and other animals
die very rapidly. But before this extreme state is reached, a reduction in normal oxygen
supplies to the tissues of the body can produce important changes in body functions,
thought processes, and degree of consciousness.
The sluggish condition of mind and body caused by a deficiency or lack of oxygen is
called hypoxia. There are several causes of hypoxia, but the one, which concerns
aircraft operations, is the decrease in partial pressure of the oxygen in the lungs.
The rate at which the lungs absorb oxygen depends upon the oxygen pressure. The
pressure that oxygen exerts is about one-fifth of the total air pressure at anyone given
level. At sea level, this pressure value (3 p.s.i.) is sufficient to saturate the blood.
However, if the reduced atmospheric pressure at altitude or because the percentage of
oxygen in the air breathed decreases, then the quantity of oxygen in the blood leaving
the lungs drops and hypoxia follows.
From sea level to 7,000 ft. above sea level, the oxygen content and pressure in the
atmosphere remain sufficiently high to maintain almost full saturation of the blood with
oxygen and thus ensure normal body and mental functions.
At high altitude there is decreased barometric pressure, resulting in decreased oxygen

content of the inhaled air. Consequently, the oxygen content of the blood is reduced.
At 10,000 ft. above sea level oxygen saturation of the blood is about 90%. Long
exposure at this altitude will result in headache and fatigue oxygen saturation drops to
81% at 15,000 ft. above sea level. This decrease results in sleepiness, headache, blue
lips and fingernails, impaired vision and judgment, increased pulse and respiration, and
certain personality changes.
At 22,000 ft. above sea level the blood saturation is 68% and convulsions are likely to
occur. Remaining without an oxygen supply at 25,000 ft. for 5 minutes where the blood
saturation is down to 55 to 50% will cause unconsciousness.
1
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The mixture of gases commonly called air but more technically termed atmosphere is
composed principally of nitrogen and oxygen, but there are smaller quantities of other
important gases, notable carbon dioxide, water vapor, and ozone. Figure indicates the
respective percentage of the quantity of each gas in its relation to the total mixture.
Atmosphere
As the altitude increases, the total quantity of all the atmospheric gases reduces rapidly,
and, except for water vapor and ozone, the relative proportions of the gaseous mixture
remain unchanged up to about 50 miles altitude, or slightly above.
Pressure Of the Atmosphere
The gases of the atmosphere (air), although invisible, have weight just like that of sol id
matter. The weight of a column of air stretching from the surface of the earth out into
space is called the atmospheric pressure. If this column is 1 sq. in., the weight of air at
sea level is approximately 14.7 lbs.; and the atmospheric pressure, therefore, can be
stated as 14.7 p.s.i. at sea level.
2
Another common way of stating the atmospheric pressure is to give the height of a
column of mercury, which weighs the same as a column of the atmosphere of the same
cross sectional area. When measured this way, the atmospheric pressure at sea level
is normally 1013.2 millibars, or 29.92 in. Hg.
The atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. The reason for this is
quite simple: the column of air that is weighed is shorter.
How the pressure changes for a given altitude is shown in figure. The decrease in
pressure is a rapid one, and at 50,000 feet the atmospheric pressure has dropped to
almost one-tenth of the sea level value. At a few hundred miles above the earth, the air
has become so rarefied (thin) that the atmosphere can be considered nonexistent, but
the Iine of demarcation with space is very vague.
How the atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. For example, at sea level the
pressure is 14.7 p.s.i.; while at 40,000 ft., as the dotted lines show, the pressure is only
2.72 p.s.i.
FEET
P.S.I
Changes of Atmospheric Pressure with Altitude
3
Temperature and Altitude
The variations in atmospheric temperature near the earth are well known and need no
discussion. However, at high altitudes the atmospheric temperature is not so variable
but tends to have a more set pattern.
ALTITUDE / 1000 FT.
Temperature / oC
Variation of Ambient Temperature with Altitude
The meteorologist finds it convenient to define, somewhat arbitrarily, the atmosphere as

being made up of several layers. The lowest of these is ca11ed the troposphere. The
air temperature decreases with increasing altitude in the troposphere and reaches a
definite minimum at the top of the layer. The top of the troposphere is called the
tropopause. The tropopause reaches its greatest height over the equator (about 60,000
ft.) and its lowest height over the poles (about 30,000 ft. The tropopause marks the
point at which air temperature stops decreasing with increasing altitude, and remains
essentially constant.
The atmospheric layer above the tropopause is called the stratosphere. The lower
stratosphere is an isothermal (constant temperature) region in which the temperature
does not vary with altitude. The isothermal region continues up to about 82,000 to
115,000 ft. altitude.
4
BASIC REQUIREMENTS IN CABIN
The following is a summary of basic requirements
1. Maximum cabin altitude 8000 feet

2. Maximum cabin rate of change 300 feet/min.
3. Provision of fresh air 1 lb/min/passenger (normal).
4. Provision of fresh air 0.5 lb/min/passenger (emergency minimum).
5. Cabin humidity minimum 30%.
6. Cabin maximum reverse differential 0.5 p.s.i.
7. Cabin maximum reverse differential 0.5 p.s.i.
PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM
When an aircraft is flown at a high altitude, it burns less fuel for a given airspeed than it
does for the same speed at a lower altitude. In other words, the airplane is more
efficient at a high altitude. In addition, bad weather and turbulence can be avoided by
flying in the relatively smooth air above the storms.
However, the low partial pressure of oxygen, low ambient air pressure, and temperature
at high altitude make it necessary to create the proper environment for passenger and
crew comfort. The most difficult problem is maintaining the correct partial pressure of
oxygen in the inhaled air. This can be achieved by using oxygen, pressurized cabins, or
pressure suits. The first and second methods are used extensively in civil aviation.
Pressurization of the aircraft cabin is now the accepted method of protecting persons
against the effects of anoxia.
Within a pressurized cabin, people can be transported comfortably and safely for long
periods of time, particularly if the cabin altitude is maintained at 8,000 ft., or below,
where the use of oxygen equipment is not required. However, the flight crew in this
type of aircraft must be aware of the danger of accidental loss of cabin pressure and
must be prepared to meet such an emergency whenever it occurs.
A cabin pressurization system must accomplish several functions if it is to assure

adequate passenger comfort and safety. It must be capable of maintaining a cabin
pressure altitude of approximately 8,000 ft. at the maximum designed cruising altitude of
the aircraft. The system must also be designed to prevent rapid changes of cabin
altitude, which may be uncomfortable or injurious to passengers and crew. In addition,
the pressurization system should permit a reasonably fast exchange of air from inside to
outside the cabin. This is necessary to eliminate odors and to remove stale air.
5
In the typical pressurization system, the cabin, flight compartment and baggage
compartments are incorporated into a sealed unit, which is capable of containing air
under a pressure higher than outside atmospheric pressure. Pressurized air is pumped
into this sealed fuselage by cabin superchargers or engine bleed air, which deliver a
relatively constant volume of air at all altitudes up to a designed maximum. Air is
released from the fuselage by a device called an outflow valve.
Since the superchargers provide a constant inflow of air to the pressurized area, the
outflow valve, by regulating the air exit, is the major controlling element in the
pressurization system.
The flow of air through an outflow valve is determined by the degree of valve opening.
This valve is ordinarily controlled by an automatic system, which can be set by the flight
crew members. A few simple minor adjustments are required on the average flight, but
most of the time automatic controls need only to be monitored. In the event of a
malfunction of the automatic controls, manual controls are also provided.
In addition to the basic units that control cabin pressure during flight, pressure limiting
and inward relief valves are also provided to safeguard the cabin in the event of failure
of a controlling unit. Indication of cabin pressure, selected altitude, and prevailing
altitude conditions is provided by a differential pressure gauge, a dial and pointer
system in pressure controllers, and a separate altimeter and vertical speed indicator.
PRESSURIZATION
PRESSURIZATION BACK UP
CONTROL CONTROL
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
MANUAL AUTO SAFETY NEGATIVE CABIN ALTITUDE

MODE MODE RELIEF RELIEF WARNING
VALVES VALVES SYSTEM
A Typical Pressurization System
6
Pressure Controller
The pressure controller is the source of control signals for the pressurization system.
The controller provides adjustments to obtain the desired type of pressurized condition.
Most operators specify standard operating procedures for the controller, which have
proven best for their particular type of operation.
The controller looks very much like an altimeter, which has several added adjustment
knobs. The dial is graduated in cabin altitude increments up to approximately 10,000 ft.
Usually there is one pointer, which can be adjusted to the desired cabin altitude by the
cabin altitude set knob. In some cases there is another pointer or a rotating scale,
which also indicates the corresponding aircraft pressure altitude. A separate knob
adjusts the controller to the existing altimeter setting (or sea level barometric pressure).
The barometric setting selected is indicated on a separate dial segment. The third knob
on the controller adjusts the cabin rate of altitude change. This adjustment can be
made on a separate control in some installations.
When the controller knobs are set, adjustments are made on either an electric or a
pneumatic signaling device inside the controller. The setting are compared to the
existing cabin pressure by an aneroid or evacuated bellows. If the cabin altitude does
not correspond to that which is set by the knobs, the bellows causes the appropriate
signal to go to the outflow valve. When the bellows determines that the cabin altitude
has reached that which has been set, the signals to the outflow valve are stopped. As
long as other factors do not change, the outflow valve is held at the setting to maintain
desired cabin pressure. The controller can sense any change, such as variance of
aircraft altitude or loss of one supercharger, and re-adjust the outflow valve as
necessary.
The rate control determines how fast the controller sends signals to the outflow valve.
In some controllers the rate signal is partially automatic. The barometric setting
compensates the cbntro1ler for the normal errors in altimetry, which are encountered on
most flights. This setting improves the accuracy of the controller and, as an example,
protects the cabin from being partia1ly pressurized while a landing is being made.
The signals, which originate in the controller, are very weak. This because it is a
delicate instrument and cannot handle high electric voltages or pneumatic forces.
These weak signals are amplified, either electrically or pneumatically, to operate the
outflow valve.
7
Pressurization Controller
Several instruments are used in conjunction with the pressurization controller. The
cabin differential pressure gage indicates the difference between inside and outside
pressure. This gage should be monitored to assure that the cabin is not approaching
the maximum allowable differential pressure. A cabin altimeter is also provided as a
check on the performance of the system. In some cases, these two instruments are
combined into one. A third instrument indicates the cabin rate of climb or descent. A
cabin rate of climb instrument and a cabin altimeter are illustrate in the figure:
Instruments For Pressurization Control
8
Outflow Valves
The primary function of discharge or outflow valves is to regulate the discharge of cabin
air in response to the signals received from the controller. They vary in design and
construction but, in general, they are of two main types.
In one type the valves are operated by diaphragms and in the other by electric
actuators. The size and number of valves required for a particular type of aircraft is
governed by the amount of air necessary for pressurising, heating and cooling
purposes.
In some types of discharge valve, safety valves and inward relief valves are
incorporated. A means of locking the valve to the closed position in the event of a
forced descent on water (ditching) is also a feature of some discharge valves.
Electrically Operated outflow Valve
Safety Valves and Inward Relief Valves
Safety valves are provided to relieve excess cabin pressure in the event of a failure of
the pressure controller and/or discharge valves. Inward relief valves are provided to
limit any possible negative differential pressure to a safe value.
9
Depending on the system adopted for a particular type of aircraft, the valves installed
may either be in the form of separate units, single integrated units, or they may be
combined with the discharge valves.
The valves vary in construction and operation but those most commonly used are either
of the type utilising diaphragm control similar to a discharge valve, or of the spring-
loaded hinged flap type.
Safety Relief Valve
Filters and Air Driers
Filters are connected in the cabin air pressure sensing lines to the pressure controllers
and discharge valves and normally consist of a casing housing a replaceable filter
cartridge and fitted with appropriate inlet and outlet connections.
In some aircraft installations, air driers are provided to eliminate the possibility of ice
forming in the pressure control system and are connected in the cabin air pressure
sensing lines to discharge valves, safety valves and inward relief valves.
10
Two types of driers are in common use; one utilising the properties of a silica gel drying
agent, and the other consisting of a baffle box mounted on the inside of the fuselage
skin and utilising the skin temperature to condense any water vapour present in the
cabin air. The moisture deposited in the box eventually drains away through an outlet in
the box and aircraft skin.
Indicators
The cabin altitude to be selected and the corresponding aircraft altitude are indicated by
a dial and pointer system, which forms part of the pressure controller.
In addition, pressure-sensing instruments are provided on a pressurisation control panel

to indicate prevailing cabin differential pressure, cabin altitude and cabin rate of
pressure change (rate of climb).
Altitude switches sensitive to cabin pressure are provided in some installations and are
connected to lights or horns which give warning of low pressure conditions.
Instruments of the remote transmitting type may also be provided in some aircraft
systems to indicate the position of certain valves, e.g. spill valves and safety valves.
Emergency Controls
In addition to the normal devices that control cabin pressure to the required values,
provision is made for the normal operating cabin pressure to be reduced rapidly to
provide for emergency landings, clearing the cabin of smoke or other contamination,
and other cases requiring rapid reduction of cabin pressure.
In all such cases cabin pressure is reduced by 'dumping' the air overboard.
This may be achieved in a number of ways and the methods most commonly adopted
include separate manually operated dump valves, manual override control of a
discharge valve or a safety valve, and in some cases manual control of a pressure
controller.
11
A TYPICAL FLIGHT PROFILE
The operation of a system using pneumatic control signal would be best explained by
going through a typical operation from ground to climb, cruise, descent and landing and
shut down of engines.
Altitude Control Without Rate of Change Control
First, in static conditions with no air being introduced into the cabin, the outflow valve
will be closed under the influence of the light spring in the control chamber. The
engines start and the air is introduced into the cabin, which is virtually sealed except for
the main air outlet, so the pressure builds up.
The altitude capsule being selected to the required cabin altitude, say 6,000' has
caused its control valve to be off its seat, so the control chamber pressure will be the
same as atmospheric and at .25 p.s.i. initial inflation pressure, the main outflow valve
will be fully open under the influence of the .25 p.s.i. differential pressure across the
outflow valve flexible diaphragms.
Now, if the aircraft took off, and there was nothing to prevent this occurring, the cabin
would climb at the same speed as the aircraft until 6,000 cabin (and aircraft) altitude
was reached. The altitude capsule would have lengthened sufficiently to restrict the
passage of control chamber pressure to static through the control valve.
Therefore, the control chamber pressure would rise and the differential pressure across
the outflow diaphragm would reduce, causing the outflow valve under the influence of
the light spring to move towards the closed position, which would reduce the outflow
from the cabin and in fact prevent a further increase in cabin altitude regardless of the
fact of the aircrafts continued climb to a cruising altitude of say 20,000.
Well, this of course would be subjecting the passenger to an unnecessarily high rate of
climb, until the 6,000 cabin altitude was reached. The idea is to control the rate of
climb, so that the cabin reaches the selected altitude at the same time as the aircraft
reaches its cruise altitude.
12
Rate of Change Control
The rate of change selector will have placed the needle valve to give the correct
restriction to the outlet from the rate of change capsule.
The result being that as the cabin and control chamber pressure attempted to drop
(increase in altitude) at the same rate of climb as the aircraft, the pressure across the
rate of change capsule would not be balanced.
The larger pressure inside (because it cannot get through the restriction fast enough)
would cause it to expand moving the altitude capsule and valve down, thus restricting
the outlet of the control chamber to static, causing a rise in the control chamber
pressure, which would in turn cause the outflow valve to move towards the closed
position and prevent the selected rate of climb from being exceeded.
Until the selected altitude is reached, when the altitude capsule will cause a stabilisation
of the cabin altitude as previously explained.
Pneumatic Pressure Control Device
13
Maximum Differential Pressure Control
If the aircraft continued to climb with a stable cabin altitude the point would be reached
when the maximum cabin differential pressure would be reached.
At this point the maximum differential capsule would sense this differential pressure. Its
reduction in length would lift the maximum differential control valve from its seat, which
would cause a reduction in control chamber pressure. A consequent opening of the
main outflow valve would prevent this maximum differential pressure from being
exceeded. We can see that this will override any selection made to decrease the cabin
altitude and increase the differential pressure. But whilst the aircraft was flying, any
altitude and/or rate of change selection could be made and would result in the correct
response so long as the maximum differential pressure had not been reached.
If the aircraft climbs after maximum differential has been attained, the rate of climb of
the cabin will be the same as the aircraft and the same differential pressure will be
maintained but at a higher altitude.
Cruise and Descent
The aircraft could then carry on cruising under these conditions.
When the time came to commence the descent, a selection of 1,000 above sea level
could be made and a rate of descent of 267/min selected.
It would result in a descent being made in exactly the reverse of the climb, giving a
gradually decreasing differential pressure until both the aircraft and the cabin would
arrive at 1,000 altitude together with zero differential pressure.
The selection of 1,000 ft. above airport is a standard practice to ensure the aircraft
touching down unpressurized.
When the engines shut down, the outflow valve will be closed under the influence of the
light spring in the control chamber.
14
A Typical Pressurisation Profile
TESTING OF PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS

Pressurisation systems must be tested to ensure that there are no serious leaks and
that pressure control equipment and pressure limiting devices function correctly to
maintain the cabin differential pressure within the limits appropriate to the aircraft type.
The periods at which functioning tests and leak tests should be made are specified in
aircraft Maintenance Schedules. Tests may also be necessary after repairs or
modifications, which affect the structural strength of a cabin, or after suspected damage
to the fuselage.
Tests can be performed either by running the engines, by connecting a ground air
supply unit to an adaptor provided in the aircraft for test purposes or, in aircraft
employing an auxiliary power unit, obtaining the air supply from this unit.
It is, however, recommended that functioning tests be done by running the engines and
utilising bleed air or supplied from engine-driven blowers, as this enables all
components to be tested simultaneously, while leak rate tests with ground air supply.
15
A minimum of two medically fit test operators should be inside the pressurised area
during any pressure test where an external ground test unit is used as the air supply
source. When using engines for the air supply a third operator to run the engines is
required.
It is necessary to ensure that static pressure and pitot pressure pipelines, within the
pressurised area, are complete and connected to their relevant instruments and
components such as autopilot coupling units and height lock units.
All doors, clear vision windows, emergency exits, etc., should be free to operate and,
after closing, should be checked for security.
Functioning Test
Usually all internal doors or hatches within the pressurised area of the fuselage should
be secured in the open position. Unpressurised areas adjacent to the pressure cabin
should be vented to atmosphere.
(1) After entering the aircraft, the entrance doors, emergency exits and hatches, toilet
servicin9 connections, sliding and direct vision windows in the crew compartment
should all be closed. Where specified in the Maintenance Manual, other apertures
such as toilet ventilation bleed outlets should be blanked off for the tests.
(2) Electrical power should be switched on and the controls of the appropriate cabin air
temperature control system and pressurisation system units selected to the settings
specified in the aircraft Maintenance Manual for functional testing.
(3) When introducing the air supply, the cabin pressure should be controlled in the
manner appropriate to the system to ensure that the rate of pressure change
(normally given in feet per minute) does not exceed the maximum values specified in
the Maintenance Manual.
(4) The cabin pressure should be allowed to increase until it stabilises at the maximum
working differential pressure for the aircraft type and a check should be made to
ascertain that the pressure remains constant with a temporary increase in air supply.
If the differential pressure stabilises at a figure above or below the maximum value,
the pressure controlling system should be investigated and rectified as necessary
after the conclusion of the test. After such rectification a further test should be
made.
16
(5) Where multiple pressure control units are provided, each unit should be selected in
turn and checks made to ensure that the differential pressure builds up and
stabilises at the relevant maximum value.
(6) Whilst the cabin is pressurised all flying controls should be operated to test the
efficiency of cable seals, etc.
(7) The automatic action of safety valves should also be checked during pressurisation
system tests with the discharge valves isolated from pressure signal sources. Air
should be supplied to the cabin at the specified controlled rate and a check made on
the pressure at which the valves open. The cabin should then be allowed to
depressurise slowly until the valves close, and the corresponding pressure noted.
The pressures at which valves open and close should be within the Iimits specified
in the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual.
(8) If during a pressure test the leak rate increases unduly, as denoted by both a
sudden fall in differential pressure and a sudden ascent indication on the cabin
vertical speed indicator, the pressure must be released and the fuselage examined
for the cause before continuing the test.
(9) At the conclusion of functioning tests the air supply should be cut off and the cabin
pressure then allowed to fall gradually at a controlled rate. If the pressure is
released too rapidly moisture precipitation may occur and do harm to electric cables
and cabin installations.
Leak Rate Tests
Leak rate tests are necessary at specified periods to ensure that no marked
deterioration in the sealing standard of the aircraft fuselage has occurred. The tests
should also be carried out whenever a component affecting the pressurised area is
renewed, refitted or modified, and after a proof pressure test.
Before testing, adequate time should be allowed for the drying of any freshly applied
sealants. On certain aircraft, leak rate tests may be combined with functioning tests; in
other cases the tests should be carried out separately.
The periods at which tests are to be carried out and test methods, are given in relevant
approved Maintenance Schedules and Maintenance Manuals respectively.
17
(1) A check should be made on permanent fuselage drain holes, battery

compartment vents, hydraulic system reservoir bleeds, etc., to ensure that
they are unobstructed.
(2) The air should be introduced to the cabin gradually until the pressure
stabilises.
(3) After the pressure has stabilised the air supply should be shut off and the
pressure allowed to fall by normal fuselage leakage. The time taken for the
pressure to fall over the range appropriate to the aircraft type must not be less
than that quoted in the Maintenance Manual.
(4) If the leak rate is excessive, an inspection of the fuselage pressurised area
should be carried out with the cabin pressure held to the value specified for
the aircraft type. Escaping a1r may usually be detected by ear, but a soapy
water solution may be used to trace certain leaks and this should be cleaned
off after testing.
(5) At the conclusion of the tests the air supply should be shut off and the cabin
depressurised ensuring that the rate of pressure change does not exceed the
specified value. Before opening doors, windows, or hatches, it must be
ensured that cabin pressure has been reduced to prevailing ambient
conditions.
(6) Electrical power should be switched off and all blanks and plugs used during
tests should be removed.
(7) Where pressure control system components have been removed or isolated
for purposes of leak rate tests, they should be restored to their normal
operating condition. Leak tests of the system should be carried out with the
aid of a pitot-static test set and in the manner detailed in the relevant aircraft
Maintenance Manual.
(8) The fuselage should be examined for obvious damage or distortion, particular
attention being paid to the pressure bulkheads, cabin floor members, window
and windscreen frames and panels, and suppressed antenna covers. The
transparencies should be examined for signs of crazing. All doors, hatches
and windows which are intended to open should be fully opened and closed,
to check for free movement and absence of deformation.
18
MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION
Inspection should be made to ensure that no deterioration of rubber components,

corrosion of metal parts or other damage has occurred during storage or transit. The
security of pipe connections, electrical connections, actuators, etc., should also be
checked and, where specified pre-installation functioning tests carried out.
In some aircraft pressure controllers, discharge valves and safety valves operate as
preset units and must only be used in specific combinations. When renewing or
replacing such units it is therefore essential to ensure that their part numbers are correct
for the installation.
When assembling static pressure and cabin pressure sensing pipelines to pressure
controller, care is necessary to ensure that no obstruction or leakage can occur.
Particular care is necessary to ensure that all pipes are correctly assembled.
At specified intervals controllers should be lightly lubricated using only lubricants

recommended by the manufacturers.
Valve faces and valve seats should be inspected and deposits of dust and nicotine tar
removed in the manner specified in the appropriate Maintenance Manuals. On
completion of a cleaning operation all traces of fluid should be removed and all surfaces
cleaned using a dry, soft, lint-free cloth. High pressure air blasts should not be used to
dry the seating surfaces of discharged valves of the diaphragm-controlled type as
damage may be caused to the diaphragms.
Leak tests and functioning tests should be made after installation, when the
serviceability of valves is suspect, during cabin pressure testing and at the periods
specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule.
Electrical and manual override controls should be checked for security and tested for
correct operation, particular attention being paid to the settings of actuator limit
switches, lost motion in linkages, cable tension and static friction. Where specified,
moveable parts should be Iightly lubricated using only the specified lubricants.
Some valves incorporate an electrically-operated position transmitter which signals the

valve position to an indicator in the crew compartment checks should therefore also be
made to ensure that positions and indications correspond.
19
Checks should be made on the condition of silica gel crystals and the appropriate air
drier containers recharged as necessary. The condition of sealing rings should also be
checked.
Baffle type air driers should be checked for security paying particular attention to the
condition of the sealant. The filter gauze, which is also provided, must be free from
corrosion and cleaned with the recommended cleaning agent.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
The air conditioning system of an aircraft is designed to maintain selected temperature

conditions within flight crew, passenger and other compartments, and is comprised of
five principal sections:
(1) air supply,

(2) heating,
(3) cooling,
(4) temperature control,
(5) distribution.
Some aircraft a humidity control section also forms part of the air conditioning system.
AIR SUPPLIES
The source of air supply and arrangement of essential components depends on the type
of aircraft and air conditioning system employed, but in general one of the methods
described in the following paragraphs may be adopted.
Ram Air
This method is adopted in certain small types of unpressurised aircraft utilising either
combustion heating or engine exhaust heat exchanger systems. A typical system is
diagrammatically illustrated in the Figure.
Typical locations for a ram air intake are at the nose of an aircraft or in a dorsal fairing at
the base of the fin or vertical stabilizer. The air is vented overboard via a spill vent after
circulating through the cabin.
20
Typical Ram Air System
Engine Bleed Air
This is a method adopted in certain types of turbojet aircraft in which the hot air readily
available from main engine compressors is tapped off and supplied to the cabin. Before
the air enters the cabin it is passed through appropriate control valves and a
temperature control system to reduce its pressure and temperature. A typical bleed air
system of the 'bootstrap' type is illustrated in the figure.
Typical Bleed Air ('Bootstrap') System
21
Compressors or Blowers
This method is utilised in some types of turbojet, turboprop and piston engined aircraft,
the compressors or blowers being driven by the engines via accessory drIves and gear
boxes.
The following figure diagrammatically illustrates a typical system employing an air

displacement type of blower.
Air is drawn in through a ram air intake located in a wing leading edge or an engine
nacelle fairing. A filter unit may be provided to protect the blower rotors from foreign
matter and to ensure a clean air supply.
In order to reduce the level of noise emanating from the blower, silencers are
incorporated in the main supply ducting.
System Employing A Displacement Type Blower
22
HEATING
The method of heating the air depends on the type of air supply system and in practice
one of the methods outlined in the following paragraphs may be adopted.
Combustion Heating
This method is normally associated with a direct type of ram air ventilating system, and
depends for its operation on the burning of a mixture of fuel and air within a special
cylindrical combustion chamber.
Air for combustion is obtained from a blower and the fuel is metered from the aircraft
fuel system by a solenoid-operated control valve. A filter and safety valve are also
incorporated in the fuel supply line to the combustion chamber. The fuel-air mixture is
ignited by a spark plug, the burning gases travelling the length of the combustion
chamber and passing through transfer passages to an exhaust: outlet. Ventilating air
from the ram air intake passes through the heater and is heated by contact with the
outer surfaces of the combustion chamber.
Blower operation and supply of fuel is normally controlled by a single switch.

Regulation of the cabin temperature is carried out by manual setting of a mechanically
controlled switch installed in the ducting downstream of the heater.
Engine Exhaust
This method is also associated with ram air ventilating systems, but heating of the air
supply is effected in a simpler and more direct manner. Air enters through an intake
connected to a heater muff, which surrounds the exhaust pipe of a piston engine
exhaust system.
After heating, the air passes into the cabin via a chamber through which cold air also
flows from an intake situated either in the fuselage or in the wing depending on the
installation.
Mechanically operated valves are provided to control the mixing of the air flows and so
regulate the temperature.
Compression Heating
Air compression forms the basis of the heating method employed in air supply systems
utilising engine bleed air and engine-driven compressors.
23
COOLING
In ram air supply systems the cooling method is of the simplest type since the cold air
can be directly admitted to the cabin via adjustable louvres. In the more complex
systems cooling may be accomplished by either the air cycle or the vapour cycle
method.
Air Cycle Cooling
The operation of an air cycle cooling system is based on the principle of dissipating heat
by converting its energy into work.
The principle components of a typical system are the primary and secondary air-to-air
heat exchangers, a turbo-compressor cold air unit and a water separator. The
interconnection of these components in a 'bootstrap' arrangement, is illustrated in the
figure.
The flow control valve, located in the air supply duct to the refrigeration unit, controls the
air pressure to that unit. It is also the main shutoff valve for the cabin air conditioning
and pressurization systems.
Flow Control Valve
24
The valve requires electrical power and a minimum of 15p.s.i upstream pressure to
function. It will regulate the downstream pressure to 11.5 p.s.i. Although this is an
open/close valve, its major open function is to regulate.
This is accomplished by a spring-loaded valve in the airflow line, which is controlled by

a primary piston. Upstream air pressure (if above 15 p.s.i.) bleeds through a filter and
regulating mechanism to act on the primary piston, thereby opening the valve. After the
downstream pressure rises to 11.5 p.s.i., it acts on a secondary piston which, through
mechanical Iinkage, opens a bleed orifice to limit the amount of air acting on the primary
piston. Since the primary piston is spring loaded to the closed" position, it will then
partially close, limiting the downstream pressure to 11.5 p.s.i .
The valve is operated by a solenoid valve that is spring loaded to off. In the off
position, the control air from upstream is vented to atmosphere before it can operate the
primary piston.
When the cockpit switch is actuated, the solenoid is energized and the vent closes,
allowing pressure to build up to operate the primary piston.
Heated air is directed through air passages of a matrix assembly within the primary heat
exchanger and is pre-cooled by air entering a ram air intake and passing across the
matrix. The pre-cooled air then enters the cold air unit or air cycle machine via the axial
inlet of the compressor and is compressed by the action of the compressor impeller and
diffuser assembly. The air leaves the compressor outlet and passes through a matrix
assembly of the secondary heat exchanger, which dissipates a large proportion of the
heat produced by compression. From the secondary heat exchanger the air enters the
turbine of the cold air unit. The air expands through the turbine and in causing the latter
to drive the compressor, sufficient pressure drop across the turbine is achieved to cause
further cooling of the air.
The water separator is installed downstream of the cold air unit to extract a percentage
of free moisture from the air, which subsequently ventilates and pressurises the cabin.
The air from the cold air unit turbine enters the separator and passes through an
assembly in which the moisture in the air coalesces into large water droplets. The
droplets are then carried by the air to a separator assembly, which extracts the water
and permits it to be readily drained away through a drain line and overboard vent.
A safety valve is normally provided to ensure that the flow of air to the cabin is
maintained in the event of the coalescer assemble becoming obstructed by ice.
25
Heat Exchanger
Schematic of Air Cycle Machine
26
Water Separator
Vapour Cycle Cooling
The principle of vapour cycle cooling is based upon the ability of a refrigerant to
absorb heat in the process of changing from a liquid to a gas.
The major components of typical system are a liquid receiver, a thermostatic

expansion valve, an evaporator, a turbo-compressor, a condenser and a
condenser fan.
The function of the fan is to induce air through the condenser when the
refrigeration system is used during ground operation. The following figure
diagrammatically illustrates the interconnection of these components, which are
generally mounted, together to form a refrigeration pack.
The liquid receiver provides storage for the refrigerant, which passes from the
receiver to the thermostatic expansion valve, and is then released into the
evaporator.
The heated air from the main air supply system passes across the evaporator,
releases heat to boil the liquid refrigerant, and passes to the cabin at a much
lower temperature.
27
The vaporised refrigerant is drawn into the compressor, the coupled turbine of
which may be driven by an independent air supply (e.g. a tapping from a wing de-
icing system), by the main air supply or, in some systems, by electrical means.
The gas leaves the compressor at high pressure and high temperature and
passes through a matrix assembly of the condenser in which it is cooled by ram
air. The refrigerant gas condenses into a Iiquid at high pressure and flows back
into the receiver to continue the refrigeration cycle.
Vapour Cycle Cooling System
28
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Control of air temperature conditions in passenger cabins, flight crew and other
compartments, is accomplished by modulating the valves installed in the air ducting of
heating and cooling sections of the air conditioning system.
The methods of control vary and depend on the type of aircraft and the air conditioning
system employed. In general, two principal methods are adopted, i.e. mechanical and
electromechanical.
One mechanical method which, for example, is employed in aircraft utilising an engine
exhaust heating system, consists of valves, which can be manually positioned to
regulate the temperature by varying the proportions of hot and cold air passing through
a mixing box before delivering it to the cabin. In some installations, hot and cold air
enters the cabin through separate valves and ducting.
The electromechanical method to temperature control is employed in some types of

combustion heating system, and also in all air conditioning systems utilising
compression heating and air cycle or vapour cycle methods of cooling.
In a combustion heating system, the electrical power supply to the solenoid valve is
automatically controlled by a duct thermostat. When the temperature of the air flowing
from the heater exceeds the thermostat setting, the thermostat de-energises the
solenoid valve to isolate the fuel supply to the heater. As the heater coots, the
thermostat opens the valve to restore the fuel flow and the combustion process. By
cycling on and off, the heater maintains an even temperature in the cabin.
In systems utilising compression heating and air cycle or vapour cycle methods of
cooling, the temperature control system is designed to automatically modulate actuator
motors, which control particular valves.
A typical system comprises a duct temperature sensing element, a temperature

selector, cabin temperature sensing element and automatic control unit. These
components are electrically interconnected to form a resistance bridge circuit, which is
only in balance when the cabin air temperature is at the selected value. If the bridge
circuit is placed out of balance by a resistance change in either of the sensing elements
due to temperature variation, or by varying the selector switch setting, an error signal is
produced which is fed to an amplifier stage of the control unit. The amplified signal is
then fed to the appropriate actuator motors, which position their valves to adjust the air
flows and so correct the temperature change until the bridge circuit is restored to a
balanced condition.
29
Manual controls are provided to permit overriding of the automatic circuit. Low
temperature and high temperature limit control devices are also provided and
respectively they prevent icing in the water separator, and ensure that upper limits of
supply air temperature are not exceeded.
Electronic Air Temperature Control System (Simplified)
DISTRIBUTION
The air used for conditioning purposes is distributed by a ducting system, the layout of
which depends on the type of aircraft and its air conditioning system.
In a basic system, such as that employing a ram air supply and combustion heating, the
ducting is generally in two distinct sections and provides for separate flows of cold and
heated air.
The outlets for cold air are normally of the adjustable louvre type and are installed so
that air flows from such points as below hat racks, cockpit and cabin sidewalls. Heated
air is distributed through outlet grilles situated at floor level, the degree of heat being
regulated by mechanical valves directly controlled at the outlets, or by control knobs in
the flight compartment. The heated air duct also has a branch duct, which directs
heated air to the windshield panels for demisting purposes.
In larger aircraft the air conditioning equipment is normally grouped together in its own
compartment or bay. The conditioned air is distributed to passenger cabins through
underfloor and hatrack ducting, the latter containing outlet grilles and the requisite
number of individual adjustable cold air louvres, which are supplied from a cold air
source.
30
The distribution of air to flight crew compartments may, in some cases, be through
separate ducting or it may be through ducting tapped into the passenger cabin ducting.
Typical locations for the air outlets are at floor and roof levels and in sidewalls.
Tappings are taken from the cabin and flight crew compartment ducting systems for
supplying warm air to cabin windows and windshields for demisting purposes. After
circulation the air is exhausted to atmosphere through the discharge or outflow valves in
the pressurisation system.
Air Circulation
Materials used in the manufacture of typical ducting systems are light-alloy, plastic,
fibreglass reinforced plastic and stainless steel, the latter being normally used for the
hot air sections of engine bleed air supply systems.
There are various methods of joining the duct sections together and to components. In
those most commonly used the joints are made by flanges and ring clamps of V-section,
by rubber sleeves fitted over the ends of duct sections and secured either by adjustable
clamps or by a rubber adhesive, and by bolted flanges. Fibreglass, formed into blanket
sections by a covering of synthetic material e.g. nylon, is used for the lagging of duct
sections.
31
To permit longitudinal movement of ducting as it expands and contracts, expansion

bellows, sliding clamps and gimbal mountings are provided in some of the large aircraft
systems.
Expansion Bellows And Duct Supports
HUMIDITY CONTROL
In aircraft operating for long periods at high altitudes, it is necessary to increase the
moisture content of the air used for conditioning and pressurising the cabin in order to
overcome physical discomfort arising from low relative humidity.
Various humidity control methods may be adopted but a typical system consists of a
humidifier unit supplied with water (from an individual tank or galley water system) and
also with air under pressure. The water and air supplies, which are controlled by
electromagnetic valves, pass through a jet nozzle system within the humidifier in such a
manner that the water is atomised and enters the distribution ducting in the form of a
fine spray.
32
Humidifier
At the other extreme, operation of aircraft at low altitude and on the ground in regions of
high relative humidity, necessitates a reduction of the moisture content of the air supply.
In addition to the passenger comfort aspect it is necessary to decrease the humidity to
reduce condensation and its effects and a water separating device is installed for this
purpose.
GROUND AIR CONDITIONING
If possible, provision should be made for the conditioning of cabin air while an aircraft is
on the ground. The methods adopted depend on the type of aircraft and the associated
air conditioning system.
In aircraft employing combustion heating systems, cabin heating is normally obtained by

switching on the heater and a ventilating fan located in the main air supply ducting. On
the ground, limited cooling of the cabin air can be obtained by switching on the
ventilating fan.
For heating the cabin air in aircraft equipped with an engine exhaust heating system it is
necessary for the engine(s) to be running, and for the mechanical air flow control valves
to be appropriately adjusted to provide the desired conditions. Limited cooling may be
obtained by switching on the ventilating fan.
33
In aircraft employing more complex air conditioning systems, special connections are
provided in the air distribution system for coupling mobile conditioning units, which form
part of the ground equipment. The units supply conditioned air to maintain an
atmospheric environment influenced by prevailing ambient conditions, and may in some
case be used in carrying out ground test procedures.
In addition to the ground connections, some aircraft are equipped with an auxiliary
power unit for use in the absence of ground conditioning units. Electrically operated
blowers may also be fitted for use either as simple cool air ventilators, or in conjunction
with an auxiliary power unit of a 'bootstrap' air conditioning system, to provide a flow of
cooling air to the heat exchangers.
The following paragraphs describe the maintenance, periodic inspection and testing of
air conditioning system. Reference should be made to the appropriate manual s for the
aircraft concerned.
Compressors And Blowers
Units should be inspected for damage and for security of mounting attachment to
engine drives and accessory gearboxes, and also duct attachments.
Combustion Heaters
Heaters should be examined for security and signs of malfunctioning, the fuel system
should be carefully checked for signs of leakage and drain pipes should be checked to
ensure freedom from obstruction.
At the specified inspection periods, igniter plugs should be cleaned, and heaters should
be subjected to a pressure test in accordance with the procedure laid down by the
manufacturer.
Engine Exhaust Heating
Careful examination of heater muffs is necessary to ensure that no leakage of exhaust

gases into the air delivered to the cabin can occur. Unless damage can be rectified
within the scope of an approved repair scheme, exhaust pipes or muffs, which show
signs of cracking, corrosion or excessive high temperature scaling should be renewed.
34
All muffs should be pressure tested when specified in the Maintenance Schedule. Hot
and cold air ducts associated with the heating system should be free from obstruction
and all controllable shutters, valves, etc., should be checked for correct functioning.
The operation of the complete system should be checked during engine running.
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers should be inspected for security of attachment to the aircraft structure,
security of air duct connections and freedom from damage.
The external surfaces of a heat exchanger matrix must be clean and the cooling air
passages free from obstruction. If dirt or other forms of contamination are found the
surface and air passages should be cleaned by means of an air blast.
Air Cycle Machine Or Cold Air Units
Cold air units should be inspected for security of mounting and external locking devices,
cleanliness, freedom from damage, oil leaks, and leakage of air from duct connections.
In some units a magnetic chip detector is fitted to the oil sump drain plug; this should be
removed and inspected for metal particles. If particles are present, the cold air unit
should be replaced by a serviceable unit. If no particles are present, the chip detector
should be refitted together with a new sealing ring and wirelocked. The oil level must be
checked and replenished if necessary.
Refrigeration Systems
Refrigeration packs and associated components should be checked for security of

mountings, security of pipe line connections between components, and level of
refrigerant.
If the level is low the system should be checked for leaks and, after rectification,
recharged with the refrigerant specified for the system taking care that all precautions
are observed.
35
Temperature Control Systems
All components should be inspected for security of mounting and electrical connections,
signs of damage, deterioration of electrical cables etc.
The operation of individual components should be checked during specified ground

tests to ensure that they respond correctly whenever varying heating and cooling
conditions are selected, and also that, in combination they maintain cabin temperature
conditions within a comfortable range.
Valves
Maintenance of valves associated with air temperature control is usually confined to

inspection for cleanliness, security of mounting, ducting attachments and, where
applicable, security of electrical connections, functioning tests and Iight lubrication
specified by the manufacturer of the component.
Distribution Systems
All ducting and associated air distribution components should be inspected for security
and general condition, particular attention being given to joints between duct sections
and components.
Lagging should always be properly secured and free from oil, hydraulic fluids etc.
Leaks can be detected by ear, although these are sometimes revealed by discoloration
and holes blown in the lagging.
36
Oxygen
INTRODUCTION
With increase in altitude the pressure of the atmosphere and the partial pressure of its
oxygen content decreases, resulting in a deficiency of oxygen in the blood and tissues
of individuals subjected to such pressures. This condition, known as "anoxia, seriously
impairs physical and mental abilities.
If oxygen is not administered at high cabin altitude, unconsciousness and finally death
will occur. The time of onset of unconsciousness depending on the cabin altitude, for
example, without added oxygen the time of useful consciousness at 25,000 feet is
approximately 3 minutes and at 40,000 feet it is 20 seconds. The following table
contains some relevant information extracted from the British Standard.
The purpose, therefore, of oxygen systems in aircraft, is to offset the varying effects of
anoxia by supplying oxygen through a breathing mask at a controlled rate of flow.
Physiological Effects of Altitude Feet
Maximum altitude without oxygen at which flying 8,000

efficiency is not seriously impaired
Altitude at which the incidence of decompression 25,000

sickness increases rapidly with exposures
exceeding ten minutes
Maximum altitude at which sea level conditions can 33,000

be maintained by breathing 100 per cent oxygen
Maximum allowable altitude without pressure 40,000

breathing
Civil transport aircraft cruise at altitudes where cabin pressurisation is necessary to

maintain conditions inside the cabin approximately equal to a maximum altitude of 8,000
feet, regardless of the actual altitude of the aircraft above this figure. Under such
conditions oxygen is not normally needed for the comfort of the passengers and crew.
However, as a precaution, oxygen equipment is installed for use in the event of a cabin
pressurisation system failure. In addition, portable oxygen sets are also provided for
therapeutic purposes, and for cabin attendants' use while moving about the passenger
cabin during low cabin pressure emergencies.
1
Oxygen
In some of the smaller and medium size aircraft designed without a cabin pressurisation
system, oxygen equipment may be installed for use by passengers and crew when the
aircraft is flown above 10,000 feet. In other cases where there is no oxygen system
installation, passengers and crew depend on portable oxygen sets stowed in convenient
positions.
The design of the various oxygen systems used in aircraft depends largely on the type
of aircraft, its operational requirements and, where applicable, the pressurisation
system. In some aircraft the continuous flow oxygen system is installed for both
passengers and crew but the diluter demand system is widely used as a crew system,
especially on the larger types of transport aircraft. Many aircraft have a combination of
both systems, which may be augmented by portable sets.
CONTINUOUS FLOW OXYGEN SYSTEMS
A typical continuous flow oxygen system is illustrated in simplified form in the figure.
When the line valve and cylinder valve are turned ON, oxygen will flow from the
charged cylinder through the high pressure pipe to the pressure reducing valve which
reduces the pressure to that required at the mask connection points. Reducing valves
may be fitted directly to cylinders together with shut-off valves, or they may be separate
units designed for "in-line" coupling. A calibrated orifice is normally provided in the
sockets to control the flow of oxygen delivered to the mask.
Typical Continuous Flow System
2
Oxygen
The passenger system may consist of a series of supply sockets with mask plug-in
connections at each passenger seat group, or it may be the "drop-out mask
arrangement where, in the event of pressurisation system failure, individual masks are
presented automatically to each passenger from service units.
When the masks are pulled to the useable position, valves are opened to permit oxygen
to flow to the masks, the flow being indicated by a simple flow indicator within each
mask hose.
Any automatic control (e.g. barometric control valve) in the ring main supply can be
overridden manually by a member of the crew. Service units are also provided with a
plug-in receptacle for attaching a separate mask for therapeutic use.
DILUTER DEMAND SYSTEM
A diluter demand system is one in which the oxygen is diluted with air and the mixture is
supplied only when the user inhales, i.e. as demanded by an individual respiration
cycle.
The interconnection of a typical system is illustrated in simplified form in the following

figure. It will be noted that there is a regulator for each crew member who can control
the regulator according to his requirements. The operation of a typical regulator is
described later.
Typical Diluter Demand System
3
Oxygen
CHEMICAL OXYGEN GENERATOR SYSTEMS
In these systems, oxygen is produced by chemical generator and dispenser units, which
are contained within service panels at each group of passenger seats and other
essential locations.
In the basic form, a unit consists of a generator, a drop-out mask and hose. The
generator (see next figure) is comprised of a corrosion resistant steel cylinder
containing a thermal insulating liner, a compressed block of sodium chlorate and iron
powder, a filter, and an electrically operated firing mechanism mechanically connected
to the mask by a lanyard. The power supply required for electrical operation 28 volts
d.c. The mask is ejected automatically from the service panel by a release mechanism
controlled by an aneroid switch, the contacts of which are set to make at the appropriate
cabin altitude, e.g. 14,000 feet.
When the mask is pulled towards the user, the lanyard trips the generator firing
mechanism, which then ignites the sodium chlorate charge block. As the temperature
of the block is raised a chemical reaction is created, thereby producing a supply of low
pressure oxygen which flows through the filter to the mask. This process continues until
the charge block is expended. Oxygen normally flows for a period of 15 minutes, and
although extremely high temperatures are generated, the temperature of the oxygen
delivered at the mask does not exceed 10C above ambient.
Oxygen generators are made in three sizes depending on the number of passenger
masks to be supplied. A valve to relieve any excess pressure is incorporated, and an
indication of an expended generator is also provided by the change in colour of a band
of thermal paint around the outside of the case.
Chemical Oxygen Generator System
4
Oxygen
Chemical Oxygen Generator
PORTABLE OXYGEN SETS

A typical portable oxygen set consists of an alloy steel lightweight oxygen cylinder fitted
with a combined flow control/reducing valve and a pressure gauge. A breathing mask,
with connecting flexib1e tube and a fabric carrying bag with the necessary straps for
attachment to the wearer completes the set.
The charged cylinder pressure is usually 1,800 lb./sq.in. The capacities of sets vary, a
size most commonly used being 120 litres.
Depending on the type of set, it is normally possible to select at least two rates of flow,
"Normal" and "High". With some sets three flow rate selections are possible, i.e.
Normal, High and "Emergency which would correspond to 2,4 and 10 litres per
minute with an endurance under these flow rates of 60,30 and 12 minutes respectively
for a cylinder of 120 litre capacity.
COMPONENTS
Brief details of some of the components commonly used in oxygen systems are given in
the following paragraphs. Full descriptive details of the components installed in specific
types of aircraft are contained in the relevant Maintenance Manuals and reference
should be made to these documents.
5
Oxygen
Oxygen Storage Cylinders
Cylinders designed for the storage of gaseous oxygen are made from drawn high
tensile alloy steel and normally have a manual stop valve and, in many instances, a
pressure regulator and a pressure gauge threaded into the neck of the cylinder. The
charged pressure is usually 1,800 lb./sq.in. and capacities vary from 80 litres for
portable sets to 2250 litres for large installations.
Cylinders are often provided with an excess pressure rupture disc, usually fitted in the
valve body, which vents the cylinder contents to the outside of the aircraft in the event of
a dangerous pressure rise. An indicator is provided in some aircraft to indicate
discharge resulting from pressure relief.
Cylinders for use in aircraft oxygen systems are colour coded for identification
purposes, and there are two codes presently adopted:
1. Black for the main body and white for the top hemispherical portion (the valve end).
2. Green for cylinders of American origin.
It is also necessary for the name of the gas and its chemical formula to be marked at
the valve ends of cylinders. In addition, the following information is painted or stencilled
on the bodies of the cylinders:
1. In red letters on a white background: Use No Oil.

2. In white letters on the black cylindrical portion:
Name of manufacturer
Drawing assembly No.
Capacity ... litres
Test pressure.
Working pressure..
Test date.
NOTE: The test date refers to a pressure test and may also be stamped on the neck
ring of a cylinder.
Pipe Lines
High pressure pipes are usually made of either stainless steel or copper-based alloys,
while pipes for low pressure areas of systems are made of aluminium-based alloys.
Pipe also vary in size and some typical values are 3/16 to 1/4 inch outside diameter for
high pressure pipes, and 3/16 inch outside diameter for low pressure pipes.
The types of couplings normally used for pipe joints are of the standard AGS type and
MS flareless tube type. Because of the difficulty of ensuring the complete removal of
flux and scale, silver soldered connections, are, generally, not used.
6
Oxygen
Non-Return Valves
Non-return valves are installed in the lines between cylinders in all aircraft that have
more than one storage cylinder. They are provided to prevent a reverse flow of oxygen
or to prevent the loss of all oxygen as the result of a leak in one of the storage cylinders.
They permit rapid flow of oxygen in only one direction. The direction of unrestricted flow
is indicated by an arrow on the valves.
Of the two basic types of non-return valves commonly used, one type consists of a
housing containing a spring-loaded ball. When pressure is applied to the inlet side, the
ball is forced against the spring, thus breaking the seal and allowing oxygen to flow.
When pressure is equalized, the spring re-seats the ball, preventing any reverse flow of
oxygen. The other type is a bell-mouthed hollow cylinder fitted with a captive ball in its
bore. When pressure is applied at the bell-mouthed end (inlet), the ball will permit
oxygen to flow. Any tendency of reverse flow causes the ball to move onto its seat,
covering the inlet and preventing a reverse flow.
Diluter Demand Regulator
These regulators are used in crew oxygen systems and are designed to adjust the
output ratio of oxygen and air in accordance with cabin pressure and to supply, on
demand, the correct air/oxygen mixture. Figure shows a typical diluter demand
regulator.
Typical Narrow Panel Oxygen Regulator
7
Oxygen
This type of regulator displays a float-type flow indicator which signals oxygen flow
through the regulator to the mask. The regulator face also displays three manual
control levers. A supply lever opens or closes the oxygen supply valve. An emergency
lever is used to obtain oxygen under pressure. An oxygen selector lever is used for
selecting an air oxygen mixture or oxygen only. Figure illustrates how this regulator
operates.
Schematic of A Narrow Panel Oxygen Regulator
1. Normal Mode
With the oxygen supply 'on and "normal oxygen is selected by the appropriate control
lever on the regulator, diluted oxygen in accordance with cabin altitude will be supplied
to the crew member's mask when the user inhales. The amount of air mixed with
oxygen is controlled by the regulator and the air decreases with increase in cabin
altitude until a cabin altitude of 32,000 feet is reached when approximately 100 per cent
oxygen is supplied.
2. 100% Oxygen Mode
If the crew member selects 100% oxygen the regulator air valve is closed and 100 per
cent oxygen is supplied when the user inhales, irrespective of cabin altitude.
8
Oxygen
3. Emergency Mode
If Emergency is selected, e.g. to provide protection against smoke and other harmful
gases, a flow of 100 per cent oxygen is supplied at a positive pressure to avoid any
inward leakage into the mask.
In some type of regulators, a 'Test Mask" switch is provided. If selected, oxygen is

supplied at a higher pressure than that provided for the "Emergency" condition and is
used for testing the masks and equipment for fit and leakage.
Continuous Flow Regulator
The automatic continuous-flow regulator is used in transport aircraft to supply oxygen

automatically to each passenger when cabin pressure is equivalent to an altitude of
approximately 15,OOO ft. Operation of the system is initiated automatically by means
of an electrically actuated device. The system can also be actuated electrically or
manually should the automatic regulator malfunction.
Upon actuation, oxygen flows from the supply cylinders to the service units. A typical
passenger service unit is shown in figure on the next page. During the first few seconds
of oxygen flow, a pressure surge of 50 to 100 psi causes the oxygen mask box doors to
open.
Each mask assembly then falls out and is suspended by the actuating attachment on
the flexible tubing. The action of pulling the mask down to a usable position withdraws
the outlet valve actuation pin, opening the rotary valve, allowing oxygen to flow to the
mask.
Typical Passenger Service Unit
9
Oxygen
Filters
Filters, generally of the gauze or sintered bronze type, are provided at points
downstream of oxygen cylinders and in some cases, immediately after the ground
charging connection. In most systems in current use a filter, usually of the sintered
bronze type, is normally embodied in the supply connection of a particular component,
e.g. a regulator or a reducing valve.
In some instances the charging connection is counter- bored to house a slug-type

sintered bronze filter which also acts as a restrictor to guard against too rapid charging
of the system.
Pressure Reducing Valves
These valves reduce the high pressure oxygen from the storage cylinders to the
pressure required in the low pressure part of the system. In a continuous flow system
the reduced pressure is supplied to the mask connection points. In a pressure demand
system the pressure from the reducing valve is comparatively higher than that for a
continuous flow system and further pressure regulation is necessary at each regulator.
Design features vary considerably, but in general, reducing valves comprise a pressure
reducing pre-set spring and valve control mechanism with a relief valve to safeguard
against overloads. Pressures can be reduced to the pressure required for a particular
system {e.g. from 1,800 1b/in2 to 80-100 lb/in2)
Oxygen System Flow Indicators
Flow indicators are used in oxygen system to give visual indications that oxygen is
flowing through the regulator. They do not show how much oxygen is flowing.
Furthermore, their operation does not indicate that the user is getting enough oxygen.
In the blinker type indicator, the eye opens and closes each time the user inhales and
exhales.
Oxygen Flow Indicator

10
Oxygen
Supply Sockets
These components provide connections between the aircraft system and individual
oxygen mask connecting tubes. Some embody two socket points for Normal" or High"
flow and others may have only one socket point with a flow selector lever. Calibrated
orifices in the socket points of continuous flow systems control the flow rate to the
masks.
Socket points are made with self-closing shut-off valves, spring loaded in the closed
position, and open when the mask tube connecting plug is inserted in the socket.
Pressure and Contents Indicators
Pressure indicators are provided to indicate cylinder pressure and, where necessary,
medium and low pressure in the supply lines. The indicators are normally of the direct-
reading Bourdon tube type calibrated in lb/in, and may be located on cylinders,
pressure regulators and at oxygen system servicing panels.
In aircraft requiring monitoring of system high pressure at a flight engineer's station,

electrical indicating systems are also employed. These consist of a transducer, which
senses high pressure and converts it to a variable electrical signal for controlling an
indicator at the flight engineer's panel. The power supply required for operation is 28
volts d.c. and a regulating circuit is incorporated to ensure that pressure indicators are
not affected by fluctuations in supply voltage.
Low-pressure gage High-pressure gage
Oxygen Pressure Gages
11
Oxygen
Pressure switches are installed in the low pressure sections of some passenger oxygen
systems to illuminate warning lights, thereby indicating that a system is in use. The
lights are located on a cockpit overhead panel and on cabin attendants' panels.
Contents indicators, as opposed to pressure indicators, are fitted to some types of

cylinders and they are normally marked with coloured sectors to indicate contents in
terms of FULL, 13/4 FULL", etc.
Oxygen Masks
There are numerous types of oxygen masks in use, which vary widely in design. In
general, crew masks can be fitted to the wearer's face with minimum leakage and may
be of the self-contained re-breather type. Crew masks also contain a microphone cord
and jackplug for connection into the aircraft communications system
In some instances there is a requirement for pressurised aircraft to carry oxygen masks
designed for the protection of crew members in a smoke-or fume-laden atmosphere.
These masks are of the full-face type consisting of a transparent visor, oxygen supply -
hose and adjustable head straps, or of the sweep-on" type with pre-set head straps
and/or elasticated sides. A demand regulator may also be fitted to some masks to
control the flow. The hose connections are of the plug-in type designed for insertion
into the supply sockets of a ring main system or, alternatively, a portable cylinder.
The masks provided in automatic drop-out systems for passengers are normally simple
cup-shaped rubber mouldings sufficiently flexible to obviate individual fitting. They may
be held in position by a simple elastic head strap, or may require holding to the face by
the passenger. In non-automatic systems, the masks are usually plastic bags fitted with
a simple elastic head strap.
Passenger Oxygen Mask
12
Oxygen
Thermal Compensator
Thermal compensator assemblies are installed in the charging lines of some oxygen
systems for the purpose of minimising temperature build-up when oxygen, at charging
pressure, flows through. A compensator consists of a brush-like wire element
approximately 5 inches long, inserted into a stainless steel tube provided with
connectors at each end.
There are two types of thermal compensators in use, one for connection to oxygen
cylinders and the other for connection to shut-off valves or regulators. Those fitted to
oxygen cylinders have a coupling nut fitting that attaches direct to a cylinder and the
downstream end has a flareless tube connection. The second type of compensator is
attached to the component by means of a corrosion-resistant steel union through which
the wire element extends. A flareless tube connection is fitted to the upstream end.
Cylinder Coupling Assembly with Integral Thermal Compensator
Discharge Indicators
In some aircraft, discharge indicators are mounted flush to the fuselage skin in an area
adjacent to the oxygen system servicing panels. They are connected to the pressure
relief lines from the oxygen cylinders and consist of a green plastic disc, which is
normally retained within its holder by a circlip.
In the event of an excess pressure within a cylinder the safety valve opens and
escaping oxygen will blowout the indicator disc, thereby providing a visual indication
that discharge has occurred.
13
Oxygen
Ground Charging Valves
Oxygen systems are provided with valves to permit "in-situ" charging of the cylinders
from special ground servicing units. The charging connections to the valves are
normally sealed off by blanking cap nuts. A short length of chain between a cap nut and
an adjacent part of the structure ensures retention of the nut at the charging point
location when removed for charging purposes.
In some systems, the charging valve incorporates manual temperature and pressure
compensation adjustments, which allow the system cylinder to be charged to optimum
pressure at the ambient temperature in the vicinity of the cylinder. The charging rate is
automatically controlled by the valve to a safe value thereby minimising the hazard of
heat build-up. A pressure/temperature correction chart is normally displayed near the
charging valve for reference purposes.
Pressure/Temperature Correction
14
Oxygen
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
To ensure that oxygen systems serve their purpose of supplying hygienically clean
oxygen under emergency conditions in an efficient and safe manner, strict observance
of servicing instructions, and the necessary safety precautions, is essential during the
installation and maintenance of components.
Failure to observe such precautions could result in fire and explosions and consequent
serious injury to personnel and severe damage to an aircraft. The emphasis is, at all
times on cleanliness and on the standards of the work to be carried out at the
appropriate stages of installation and maintenance.
The information given in the following paragraphs is intended to serve as a guide to

practices and precautions applicable to systems in general. Details relevant to specific
types of aircraft systems are contained in the approved Maintenance Manuals and the
schedules drawn up by an aircraft operator, and reference must always be made to
these documents.
Servicing Personnel
Servicing personnel must fully understand the operation of an aircraft system, the
relevant ground charging equipment and its connection to charging points, and must
have a full knowledge of any appropriate engineering and maintenance regulations in
force. Personnel should also be alert to emergency situations, which could arise during
oxygen system servicing.
Oxygen Fires or Explosions
An oxygen fire or explosion depends on a combination of oxygen, a combustible

material and heat. The danger of ignition is in direct ratio to the concentration of
oxygen, the combustible nature of the material exposed to the oxygen, and the
temperature of either the oxygen or the material, or both.
Oxygen itself does not burn but it supports and vigorously intensifies a fire with any
combustible material. The term combustible material is used in its widest sense,
denoting not only flammable materials but also such materials as steel, normally
considered to be non- combustible, but which is in fact combustible at high
temperatures in the presence of oxygen under pressure.
Any oxygen system leak can lead to a build-up of near-pure oxygen un-ventilated
zones, particularly in aircraft that remain idle. A concentration of oxygen in such a zone,
e.g. behind upholstery, or thermal/acoustic lagging, or in control panels, could result in a
fire or explosion by contact with grease, oil or electrical hot spots.
15
Oxygen
Any indication of pressure loss or leaks must, therefore, be treated as hazardous and
must be traced and eliminated before further flight.
Heat can be generated in an oxygen system by sudden compression or by resonance of

oxygen under relatively low pressure impinging into a dead-end cavity. It can also be
caused by the vibration of a seal, O ring, or other non-metallic material, which is
exposed to oxygen under pressure. A small high pressure leak could cause ignition of
the material through which it is leaking due to heat generated by friction.
Many materials such as oils, grease, fuel, paint, flammable solvents and metal swarf
(e.g. from a damaged thread or a pipe coupling) are liable to ignite or explode
spontaneously when exposed to oxygen under pressure. Similarly, extraneous matter
such as dust, lint from a cleaning rag or natural oil from the hands getting into the
system or into a component could cause ignition or explosion. It is essential therefore
to keep these materials and other extraneous matter away from exposed parts of
oxygen systems to prevent contamination. Clean areas should be used for dismantling
and assembly of all oxygen system components.
Safety Precautions
Before carrying out any work on an oxygen system, the following precautions against
fire should be taken:
1. Provide adequate and properly manned fire-fighting equipment.

2. Display "No Smoking" and other appropriate warning placards outside the aircraft.
3. If artificial lighting is required, use explosion-proof lamps and hand torches.
4. Testing of aircraft radio or electrical systems should be avoided.
5. Ensure that the aircraft is properly earthed.
6. Ensure that charging or servicing units, appropriate to oxygen systems are used and
that they, and all other necessary tools, are serviceable and free of dirt, oil, grease
or any other contaminants.
7. Where work on an oxygen system is to be performed in a confined space within the
aircraft, adequate ventilation must be provided to prevent a high concentration of
oxygen.
8. Pipe and component connections should be wiped clean and dry if contamination is
present.
9. One of the most serious hazards with oxygen is the penetration of the gas into
clothing, which can take place when a person has been exposed to an oxygen-rich
atmosphere. In this state an infinitesimal particle of hot ash from a pipe or cigarette,
can ignite the clothing, which will immediately burst into a fierce flame. Clothing
which has been saturated by oxygen should be kept away from naked lights or any
other source of heat until a period of a quarter of an hour has elapsed, or until
thorough ventilation with air has been effected.
10. A clean area, with bench surfaces and tools free of dirt and grease, should be used
whenever it is necessary to carry out work on oxygen system components.
16
Oxygen
The following general procedures and precautions should be followed when handling,
testing and cleaning any part of an oxygen system:
1. Clean, white, lint-free cotton gloves should be worn by servicing personnel.

2. Before installing a component it must have been cleaned in accordance with the
cleaning instructions laid down in relevant manuals. In order to avoid contamination,
protective/blanking caps should not be removed until immediately before the
installation of the component When the caps are subsequently removed, the fittings
of the component should be checked to ensure they are clean and free of
contaminants e.g. flaked particles from protective caps.
3. Shut-off valves should always be opened slowly to minimise the possibility of heat
being generated by sudden compression of high pressure oxygen within the
confined spaces of valves or regu1ators. Particular attention must also be paid to
any torque values specified for valve operation.
4. Before uncoupling a connection the oxygen supply must be turned off. Connections
should be unscrewed slowly to allow any residual pressure in the line or component
to escape.
5. Certain components are stored in polythene bags, which should not be opened until
immediately prior to installation. If a bag containing a component has been torn or
unsealed during storage, the component should be re-cleaned.
6. All open pipe ends or component apertures should be kept capped or plugged at all
times, except during installation or removal of components Only protection caps or
plugs designed for the purpose should be used.
7. On replacement of a component requiring electrical bonding or power supply
connections e.g. an electrical pressure transducer, the circuit should be tested.
8. For leak testing, only those solutions specified in the relevant manuals must be
used. Care must be taken to prevent a solution from entering any connection, valve
or component. All tested parts must be wiped clean and dried immediately.
9. For the testing of components, clean dry filtered air or nitrogen may be used instead
of oxygen. On completion of the test, components should be purged with breathing
oxygen.
COMPONENTS
The following paragraphs detail some of the procedures and precautions generally
applicable to the installation and maintenance of the principal components comprising
oxygen systems.
Reference should always be made to the approved Maintenance Manual relevant to a

specific aircraft and system for full details.
17
Oxygen
Cylinders
The handling and transportation of cylinders requires that extreme care be exercised at
all times. They must not be allowed to fall over, or be knocked or jarred against hard or
sharp objects, or against each other. On no account must they be rolled from a truck or
trolley directly onto the ground.
1. Rapid opening of valves to allow a sudden release of oxygen under pressure from
the outlet connections should be avoided. This applies particularly to cylinders,
which do not incorporate a pressure reducing valve. Apart from the fire risk, the
reaction from the pressure discharge can cause an insecurely held cylinder to
become a dangerous uncontrollable object.
2. Cylinders must be checked to ensure that the date of the last pressure test has not
expired and that the storage pressure is not below the minimum specified in the
relevant manual. A pressure of 200 to 300 1b/in is typical.
3. Where specified, it is necessary to carry out tests to ensure that there is no leakage
of oxygen from the seats and spindle glands of cylinder valves.
4. Control valves and, where appropriate, pressure regulators and gauges, are fitted by
the cylinder manufacturers and no attempt should be made to remove them during
service.
5. The exterior of cylinders should be checked for signs of corrosion and damage such
as dents, cuts, gouging or marking by metal stamps other than that prescribed by
the manufacturer on defined areas of the body. If the acceptability of a cylinder is in
question after making these checks it must be withdrawn for more detailed
inspection and overhaul.
6. Checks on threads of connections should be carried out to ensure they are clean
and free from damage, Thread lubricants should not be used, Protective caps should
remain on the connections until a cylinder is ready for' installation and should be
replaced immediately a cylinder is removed.
7. During installation of cylinders a check must be made that they are properly aligned
with their respective pipelines before finally tightening cylinder clamps and pipe
connecting unions.
8. After installation, cylinder valves should be slowly opened to pressurise the high
pressure lines, and a leak test carried out at the cylinder connections and any other
connections, which may have been opened. On satisfactory completion of a leak
test, cylinder pressures should be checked and recharging to normal system
pressure carried out where necessary and valves should be wire locked in the open
position.
9. If cylinders are inadvertently discharged below the minimum specified pressure,
condensation will occur. Cylinders in this condition should be identified for special
action when re-charging.
18
Oxygen
Chemical Oxygen Generators
Unexpended generators should be handled with extreme care to prevent inadvertent

removal of the firing pin. A blanking cap is normally fitted over the pin and this should
remain in position until the generator is finally installed and the lanyard is tied to the
disconnect ring of the mask. If a generator should become activated it should be
immediately placed on a non-combustible surface.
A minimum clearance of 5/8 inch must exist between a generator and its heat shield to
allow proper cooling when the generator is activated.
1. Oil or grease must not be used to lubricate the hinges or latch mechanism of a
service panel door.
2. When closing the door of a service panel it should be checked that the hoses
between the generator and masks would fold without kinking or twisting.
Pipes and Fittings
Pipes and fittings should be inspected for damage, cleanliness and signs of corrosion.
If a pipe is damaged or deformed it should be removed and a new pipe fitted. The
security of pipe attachments such as p clips, support brackets, etc, and the conditions
of electrical bonding connections should be checked.
1. Only pipes and fittings designated for use with oxygen and cleaned by an
approved method must be installed.
2. Clearances between pipes and aircraft structure should be in agreement with
those specified in the relevant aircraft manuals and installation drawings,
otherwise damage may be caused by vibration. Particular care is necessary to
ensure clearance between pipes and moving parts such as aircraft control rods,
and levers.
3. Before making a connection it is important to verify that any loose parts which
may form part of the connection such as nipples and filters, are properly
positioned and that any identification {e.g. filter notice or direction of flow) relating
to the connection is clearly shown.
4. Pipes and fittings should align with each other and with components such as
cylinders, valves, etc, and be assembled without using undue force, and no gap
should exist between the fittings.
5. Pipes should, in the first instance, be positioned and only partially coupled {i.e.
turning union nuts through one or two threads) to each other or components as
the case may be. The alignment of the tubes should then be adjusted for
optimum clearance, and the tubes partially secured to the structure by the
appropriate attachment method. Commencing at either end of the pipe run, the
union nuts should be backed off and a check made on the seating of the fittings.
If satisfactory, union nuts should be re-fitted and tightened and the pipe
attachments finally secured.
19
Oxygen
6. Torque values specified for a particular oxygen system should be strictly

observed when tightening the fittings. A fitting should never be overtightened to
effect a seal or to establish a proper electrical bond; loosen the fitting and
retorque it several times, if necessary, until the seal or bond has been
established.
7. When tightening or disconnecting a pipe coupling, a second spanner should be
used as a back-up to prevent rotation of the fitting to which the pipe union is
attached.
8. If a section of the pipeline system is left open or disconnected during installation
or removal, clean blanking caps must be fitted to open lines, fittings or parts to
prevent contamination of the system. In connection with the application of
blanking caps, the following points should be particularly noted:
a. Plastic caps should only be used on plain sections of pipes, e.g. flareless
pipes. Plastic caps should not be re-used.
b. Where caps are to be fitted to threaded unions or fittings they should be of
the metal type.
c. Plugs which can be jammed into pipes should not be used.
d. Metal caps may be re-used after cleaning in accordance with an approved
method.
e. Blanking caps should be sealed in polythene bags and should not be
opened until ready for use. After opening, the bags should be re-sealed
immediately to prevent contamination of unused caps.
9. During installation and removal of thermal compensators care must be taken not
to separate the connector couplings and nuts. The elements should not be
rotated within unions since damage to the wire bristles and jamming of the
element may result.
10. Flexible hoses should not be twisted, kinked or collapsed during installation. In
some aircraft, flexible hose assemblies are used in both the high and low
pressure systems and these can be connected to standard pipe connectors.
Care must, therefore, be taken to ensure that the hoses are not interchanged.
11. On completing the installation of pipes a leak test must be carried out on all
relevant connections and fittings. If a connection leaks, a check should be made
that the specified torque values were used in tightening. If the leak persists,
using the specified torque value, the connection should be re-opened and
inspected to find the cause. Defective pipes or fittings should be replaced by
serviceable items.
Masks
The procedure for the installation of masks depends largely on whether they are of the
plug-in type or automatic drop-out type, and full details should, therefore, be obtained
from relevant manuals. In general, the following points should be observed during
installation and maintenance:
20
Oxygen
1. Masks should be properly stored without kinking or twisting of the hoses.

2. Masks and hoses should be free from cracks, breaks and other damage or
deterioration. Plug-in couplings should be checked for proper insertion and
removal.
3. Stowage compartments should be inspected for cleanliness and general
condition.
4. Reservoir bags, where used in service panels, must be correctly positioned and
folded to ensure efficient drop-out.
5. Masks should be cleaned and disinfected before installation, and also whenever
the oxygen system has been used, and at the periods specified in approved
Maintenance Schedules.
Thread Lubrication
With the exception of teflon sealing tape to specification MIL-T-27730, it is

recommended that the application of any other lubricants or anti-seize compounds to
the threads of pipe or component connections be avoided. The tape, which contains a
lubricating compound, should be applied to all except the first two threads of male
fittings, and not more than three wraps of tape should be used. The tape should be
wrapped in a direction opposite to the running thread; any excess should be trimmed
off.
NOTE: All traces of previous tape should be removed from threads and extreme care
must be taken to prevent debris from entering the oxygen system.
LEAK TESTING
Whenever a system component e.g. cylinder, pipe or regulator, etc., has been removed,
re-installed, or the system has in any way been disconnected, tests for leakage should
be carried out. The system pressure should be at its normal maximum value.
Leaks should be located using a leak detecting solution free from any combustible
substances unless, of course, particular leaks are large enough to be heard or felt.
Solutions recommended for this purpose are those conforming to specifications MIL-L-
25567B and MIL-L-25567C Type 1.
The solution should be applied with a soft brush and the suspected connections
checked for signs of frothing or bubble formation. After testing, all traces of solution
must be removed by a thorough rinsing with clean water and drying with a soft lint-free
cloth.
Where it may be necessary to check a leak-rate (e.g. through a valve) a leak-rate tester
should be used. A simple tester consists of a flexible tube into which has been inserted
a length of inch bore glass tube.
21
Oxygen
To check a leak-rate, the free end of the flexible tubing is fitted over the outlet to be
tested whilst the glass tube is immersed one inch below the surface of water in a glass
jar. The leak-rate can then be calculated from the number of bubbles passing through
the water. Eight bubbles are considered equal to 1 c.c., therefore eight bubbles per
minute would show a leak-rate of 60 c.c. per hour.
NOTE : Where very accurate leak-rate measurement is necessary, special leak-rate

testing instruments are available and should be used as appropriate.
PRESSURE TESTS
Pressure testing of oxygen cylinders is required at stated periods (e.g. every four years)
normally indicated in the relevant manuals and schedules. The date of pressure test is
usually stamped on the neck ring of a cylinder or painted on the top hemispherical
portion.
NOTE : The dates of any pressure tests should not be over-stamped or obliterated
FLOW TESTING
Where the testing of flow rates is required at various points in a system (e.g. at mask
socket connections) special oxygen flowmeters should be used in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. These flowmeters generally consist of a float inside a glass
cylinder graduated for the appropriate flow ranges in litres per minute.
CLEANING
Cleanliness is of the utmost importance in the installation and maintenance of an
oxygen system since contamination can provide noxious or toxic fumes to the user,
prevent system components from operating properly, or cause fires and explosion.
Contamination of the exterior surfaces of components may also cause fires in the
presence of leaking oxygen and possible sources of ignition (e.g. electrical equipment).
In addition to observing the handling precautions noted earlier it is necessary for
cleaning operations to be performed at certain stages of installation and maintenance
procedures.
FUNCTIONAL TESTING.
The functional testing of systems in-situ" should be carried out at the periods specified
in approved Maintenance Schedules and whenever a component has been changed.
The methods of conducting tests, and the equipment required, vary between types of
systems and reference should always be made to the relevant, manuals for full details.
In general, the methods include tests for leakage, flow checks at mask connections and,
where appropriate, the simulation of the automatic drop-out action of masks.
22
Oxygen
CHARGING OF OXYGEN SYSTEMS
For the charging of oxygen system cylinders, breathing oxygen to British Standard N3
must be used. Oxygen produced for other applications, e.g. welding, may contain
excess water, which could freeze in and obstruct pipelines, regulators and valves of the
oxygen system.
To facilitate the charging procedure, the oxygen is supplied in large transport cylinders
at a pressure of 3,600 lb./sq.in., several of which are interconnected and mounted in a
special oxygen servicing trolley. The pressure is reduced to between 1,800 and 1,900
lb./sq.in. for charging purposes by a regulator consisting basically of a manually
adjustable reducing valve and a shut-off valve. The regulator is mounted in the
servicing trolley together with pressure gauges, which indicate the transport cylinder
pressure and the charging pressure. A special oxygen high pressure hose for
connecting the trolley to the aircraft's charging point completes the basic equipment.
NOTE : An oxygen servicing trolley must never be used for the charging or testing of
systems and components designed for operation by compressed air or other gases.
Before charging a system, reference should be made to the relevant aircraft

Maintenance Manual to determine any special procedures to be adopted for the
particular system, and also to the operating instructions appropriate to the type of
servicing trolley. In addition to the safety precautions, the following points which apply
generally to charging should be observed:
1. The servicing trolley and aircraft should be properly bonded.

2. The operation of ground power units should not be permitted in the vicinity during
charging operations.
3. The aircraft and servicing trolley hose charging adaptors and servicing panels,
where appropriate, should be scrupulously clean both internally and externally.
4. Before coupling to the aircraft, the charging hose should be purged by slowly
opening the trolley shut-off valve to produce a low pressure flow of oxygen in the
hose.
5. Care should be taken when coupling the hose and aircraft coupling adaptors
since, in many instances, the adaptors have a left-hand thread.
6. Charging valves and cylinder valves must be opened slowly and pressures
allowed to stabilise. Servicing trolley and aircraft system pressure gauges should
be continuously monitored to ensure that excessive pressures are not applied
and to prevent high cylinder temperatures.
a. Charging graphs are located at the servicing points of many types of aircraft
and the maximum permissible charging pressure should be determined from
the graphs, after having checked the ambient temperature in the vicinity of the
aircraft cylinders.
23
Oxygen
b. In charging a system that incorporates manual temperature and pressure

compensation adjustments, the dials should be set to the most restrictive
setting, i.e. that corresponding to the lower pressure of the system and to the
lower value of ambient temperatures in the vicinity of the aircraft cylinders.
This will ensure that a conservative rate of charging is applied and that the
maximum pressure is not exceeded.
7. If a cylinder has been emptied, contamination resulting from moisture can
develop. In such cases, the cylinder should be blanked off either by closing its
shut-off valve or by using blanking caps. It should be removed and suitably
identified as requiring purging before recharging.
NOTE: Depending on the degree of exposure to moisture, advisable to examine
a cylinder for internal corrosion
8. On completion of charging, the trolley shut-off valve and aircraft charging valve
should be closed and the pressure in the aircraft system allowed to stabilise. A
check should then be made on the cylinder pressure gauges and other system
gauges if fitted, to ensure that the cylinders are fully charged.
a. Trolley hose adaptors should always be removed slowly from the
aircraft charging adaptor to dissipate any trapped pressure
b. Aircraft charging adaptor blanking caps must be checked to ensure that
they are scrupulously clean before re-fitting.
OXYGEN CONTAMINATION
At specified periods, or if for any reason the system is thought to be contaminated, the
oxygen should be tested and if necessary the system purged. Purging should always
be carried out if it is known that a system is empty.
The main cause of contamination is moisture in the system. This may be due to damp
charging equipment, charging of cylinders when their pressure is below a certain
minimum value. The small amount of moisture contained in breathing oxygen may, due
to repeated charging especially in very cold weather, also cause contamination.
NOTE : In some cases it has been known for the system to freeze due to the presence
of moisture, thus restricting the flow of oxygen.
Although the introduction of moisture into the aircraft oxygen can be considerably
reduced by using the correct charging procedure, cumulative condensation in the
system cannot be entirely avoided. There have been instances where oxygen systems,
unused for long periods, have developed an unpleasant odour which necessitated
purging to clear the system of moisture.
24
Oxygen
Oxygen Moisture Tests
To test the moisture content of oxygen in the aircraft system a hygrometer, based on
the dew-point principle, is normally used.
By determining the dew-point (i.e. the temperature at which the gas becomes saturated)
of the oxygen and referring this to a conversion chart the moisture content of the oxygen
can be established.
The type of apparatus normally used depends on a flow of oxygen. (at a constant rate
and pressure) impinging on the surface of a mirror, the temperature of which is
gradually lowered (e.g. by means of carbon dioxide) until a film of moisture is formed
on the mirror thus determining the dew-point.
NOTE : Breathing oxygen dew-point is -40C at 300 1b/in with a flow rate of 15 litres
per minute. This corresponds to a moisture content of 0.005?grammes per cubic metre
at standard temperature and pressure.
SOLDERING ON OXYGEN SYSTEM

If soft soldering or silver soldering is required on any part of an oxygen system it is
important that only specified materials are used, particularly in the case of fluxes.
After soldering, or silver soldering operations have been completed, it is of the utmost
importance to ensure that all traces of flux or scale are completely removed by thorough
cleaning. A trace of flux or a minute piece of scale inside a pipe or component could
cause an explosion when in contact with high pressure oxygen.
Resin-based soldering fluxes should never be used for soldering nipples, connections,
etc. on oxygen system pipes.
25
Ice Protection
INTRODUCTION
For all weather operation of aircraft, one of the major problems to be overcome was that
of ice accretion on the airframe and on the engine installations during flight.
These ice accretions may be formed in two ways. The most frequent occurrence is that
due to impingement and freezing on exposed surfaces of the aircraft of minute droplets of
super-cooled' water. These supercooled water droplets, striking an unheated surface at
sub-zero temperatures freeze almost instantaneously, producing a rough, relatively
opaque ice formation known as 'Rime' ice.
When the temperature is just slightly below freezing, the kinetic energy of the droplet
produces a certain amount of heat on impact and this may delay the freezing of the
droplet. In this case the water remains liquid for a period and runs back over the surface
before freezing, producing a clear, smooth formation known as Glaze' ice.
The second type of ice accretion is due to minute ice crystals striking a cold surface on the
aircraft. Normally, they bounce off and no ice formation is produced.
They may, however, collect at bends in air Intakes causing blockage. Ice crystals striking
a heated surface are quite another proposition. They absorb heat from the surface, melt,
run back along the surface and may freeze again further back, if the heated region
terminates before the water evaporates or is blown off the surface.
Water droplets on a heated surface behave in a similar manner but the heat required to
keep a surface free of ice formation, when ice crystals are present, is much greater than
that necessary to deal with water droplets, due to the heat absorbed in melting the
crystals.
ICING LEGISLATION
The 5th Schedule, Scale G(iv) of AN(HK)O states that - in the case of an aircraft of which
the maximum total weight authorized exceeds 5700 kg, means of observing the existence
and build up of ice on the aircraft.
Scale L states:
Equipment to prevent the impairment through ice formation of the functioning of the
controls, means of propulsion, lifting surfaces, windows or equipment of the aircraft, so as
to endanger the safety of the aircraft."
5th schedule states that the above equipment will be carried on flights when the weather
reports or forecasts available at the aerodrome at the time of departure indicate that
conditions favouring ice formation, are likely to be met.
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Ice Protection
ICING EFFECTS AND PREVENTION
Ice on an aircraft affects its performance and efficiency in many ways. Ice buildup
increases drag and reduces lift. It causes destructive vibration, and hampers true
Instrument readings. Control surfaces become unbalanced or frozen. Fixed slots are
filled and movable slots jammed. Radio reception is hampered and engine performance
is affected.
The methods used to prevent icing (anti-icing) or to eliminate has formed (deicing) vary
with the aircraft make and model.
Several means to prevent or control ice formation are used in aircraft today:
1. Heating surfaces using hot air,

2. heating by electrical elements,
3. breaking up ice formations, usually by inflatable boots, and
4. alcohol spray.
A surface may be anti-iced either by keeping it dry by heating to a temperature that

evaporates water upon impingement; or by heating the surface just enough to prevent
freezing, maintaining it running wet; or the surface may be deiced by allowing ice to form
and then removing it.
Ice prevention or elimination systems ensure safety of flight when icing condit1ons exist.
Ice may be controlled on aircraft structure by the following methods
Location of Ice Method of Control
Leading edge of the wing Pneumatic, thermal

Leading edge of vertical and horizontal
Pneumatic, thermal
stabilizers
Windshields, windows, and radomes Electrical, alcohol
Airframe Stall warning transmitters Electrical
Pitot tubes Electrical
Flight controls Pneumatic, thermal
Lavatory drain Electrical
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Ice Protection
Location of Ice Method of Control
Heater and engine air inlets Electrical

Piston Engine
Carburetors Thermal, alcohol
Jet Engine Air Inlets Electrical, Pneumatic
Propeller Blade Leading Edge Electrical, alcohol
ICE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Ice Detection Systems use one of the following methods of detecting and assessing the
formation of ice.
1. Ice Accretion Method
Ice is allowed to accumulate on a probe, which projects into the airstream and in doing so
operates a warning system.
2. Inferential Method.
Atmospheric conditions conducive to the formation of ice are detected and continuously
evaluated to operate a warning system.
Note : The inferential method of ice detection is not usually employed in series aircraft, but
is used extensively in wind tunnels and on flight trials for aircraft certification.
Pressure Operated Ice Detector Heads
These consist of a short stainless steel or chromium plated brass tube, which is closed at
its outer end and mounted so that it projects vertical downwards from a portion of the
aircraft known to be susceptible to icing.
A heater element is fitted to allow the detector head to be cleared of ice. In some units of
this type a further restriction to the air flow is provided by means of a baffle mounted
through the centre of the tube.
The ice detector heads have front and rear holes which, in flight, supply a slight positive
air pressure to the detector relays. As soon as ice starts to form, the front holes Ice up to
create a slight negative air pressure, which closes contacts in the detector relays and
lights the warning lamps.
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Ice Protection
A heater, energised by the detector relays, automatically clears the ice from the head but
a cam holds the lamps on for a further four minutes and the heaters for a further 30
seconds.
Should icing conditions persist and the detector heads again ice up, the cam is
automatically re-set and the time cycle repeated.
Pressure Operated Ice Detector Head
4
Ice Protection
Hot Rod Ice Detector Head
This consists of an aluminium alloy oblong base (called the plinth) on which is mounted a
steel tube detector mast of aerofoil section, angled back to approximately 30 from the
vertical, mounted on the side of the fuselage, so that it can be seen from the flight
compartment windows. The mast houses a heating element, and in the plinth there is a
built-in floodlight.
Hot Rod Ice Detector Head
The heating element is normally off and when icing conditions are met ice accretes 'on the
leading edge of the detector mast. This can then be observed by the flight crew. During
night operations the built-in floodlight may be switched on to illuminate the mast.
By manual selection of a witch to the heating element the formed ice is dispersed for
further observance.
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Ice Protection
Serrated Rotor Ice Detector Head
This consists of a serrated rotor, incorporating an integral drive shaft coupled to a small
a.c. motor via a reduction gearbox, being rotated adjacent to a fixed knife-edge cutter.
The motor casing is connected via a spring-tensioned toggle bar to a micro-switch
assembly. The motor and gear box assembly is mounted on a static spigot attached to
the motor housing, and together with the micro-switch assembly, is enclosed by a
cylindrical housing. The detector is mounted through the fuselage side so that the inner
housing is subjected to the ambient conditions with the outer being sealed from the
aircraft cabin pressure.
Serrated Rotor Ice Detector Head
The serrated rotor on the detector head is continuously driven by the electrical motor so
that its periphery rotates within 0.050 mm (0.002 in) of the leading edge of the knife-edge
cutter. The torque therefore required to drive the rotor under non-icing conditions will be
slight, since bearing friction only has to be overcome.
Under icing conditions however, ice will accrete on the rotor until the gap between the
rotor and knife edge is filled. A cutting action by the knife edge will produce a substantial
increase in the required torque causing the toggle bar to move against its spring mounting
and so operate the micro switch, to initiate a warning signal. Once icing conditions cease,
the knife-edge cutter will no longer shave ice, torque loading will reduce and allow the
motor to return to its normal position and the micro switch will open-circuit the ice warning
indicator.
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Ice Protection
Vibrating Rod Ice Detector Head
This ice detector senses the presence of icing conditions and provides an indication in the
flight compartment that such conditions exist. The system consists of solid-state ice
detector & advisory warning light.
The ice detector is attached to the fuselage with its probe protruding through the skin.
The ice detector probe (exposed to the airstream) is an ice sensing element that
ultrasonically vibrates in an axial mode of its own resonant frequency of approximately 40
KHz.
Vibrating Rod Ice Detector Head
When ice forms on the sensing element, the probe frequency decreases. The ice
detector circuit detects the change in probe frequency by comparing it with a reference
oscillator. At a pre-determined frequency change (proportional to ice build-up), the ice
detector circuit is activated. Once activated, the ice warring light in the flight compartment
is illuminated and a timer circuit is triggered. The operation of the time circuit switches a
probe heater on for a set period of time to remove the ice from the probe. After the timer
has timed out, it switches off the ice warning indicator and returns the system to a detector
mode, providing that icing conditions no longer exist.
If, however, a further ice warning signal is received during the timer period, the timer will
be re-triggered, the warning light will remain on and the heater will again be selected on.
This cycle will be repeated for as long as the icing conditions prevail.
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Ice Protection
Ice Formation Spot Light
Many aircraft have two ice formation spot lights mounted on each side of the fuselage, in
such a position as to light up the leading edges of the mainplanes, when required, to allow
visual examination for ice formation.
Ice Formation Spot Light
PNEUMATIC DE-ICING SYSTEMS

Pneumatic de-icing systems are employed in certain types of piston-engined aircraft and
twin turbo-propeller aircraft. The number of components comprising a system vary
together with the method of applying the operating principle. The arrangement of a typical
system is illustrated schematically in the following figure.
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Ice Protection
Schematic Diagram of A Pneumatic De-Icing System
The de-icer boots, or overshoes, consist of layers of natural rubber and rubberised
between which are disposed flat Inflatable tubes closed at the ends. The tubes are made
of rubberised fabric and are vulcanised inside the rubber layers.
In some boots the tubes are so arranged that the boots are in position on a wing or
tailplane leading edge the tubes run parallel to the span; in others they run parallel to the
chord. The tubes are connected to the air supply pipelines from, the distribution va1ves
system by short lengths of flexible hose secured to connectors on the boots and to the
pipelines by hose clips. The external surfaces of boots are coated with a film of
conductive material to bleed off accumulations of static electricity. Depending on the type
specified, a boot may be attached to a leading edge either by screw fasteners (rivnuts) or
by cementing them directly to the leading edge.
During operation, the tubes are inflated with pressurized air, and deflated in an alternating
cycle as shown in the figure below. This inflation and deflation causes the ice to crack
and break off. The ice is then carried away by the airstream.
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Ice Protection
Deicer tubes are inflated by an engine-driven air pump (vacuum pump), or by air bled
from gas turbine engine compressors. The inflation sequence is controlled by either a
centrally located distributor valve or by solenoid operated valves located adjacent to the
deicer air inlets.
Deicers are installed in sections along the wing with the different sections operating
alternately and symmetrically about the fuselage. This is done so that any disturbance to
airflow caused by an inflated tube will be kept to a minimum by inflating only short
sections on each wing at a time.
Deicer Boot Inflation Cycle
In addition to the deicer boots, the major components of a representative pneumatic

deicing system are a source of pressurized air, an oil separator, air pressure and suction
relief valves, a pressure regulator and shutoff valve, an inflation timer, and a distributor
valve or a control valve.
A schematic of a typical system is shown in the following figure.
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Ice Protection
Schematic of A Pneumatic Deicing System
In this system, air pressure for system operation is supplied by air bled from the engine
compressor. The bleed air from the compressor is ducted to a pressure regulator. The
regulator reduces the pressure of the turbine bleed air to the deicer system, pressure. An
ejector, located downstream of the regu1ator, provides the vacuum necessary to keep the
boots deflated.
The air pressure and suction relief valves and regulators maintain the pneumatic system
pressure and suction at the desired settings. The timer is essentially a series of switch
circuits actuated successively by a solenoid-operated rotating step switch. The timer is
energized when the deicing switch is placed in the on position.
When the system is operated, the deicer port in the distributor valve is closed to vacuum
and system operating pressure is applied to the deicers connected to that port. At the end
of the inflation period the deicer pressure port is shut off, and air in the deicer flows
overboard through the exhaust port. When the air flowing from the deicers reaches a low
pressure (approximately 1 p.s.i.), the exhaust port is closed. Vacuum is re-applied to
exhaust the remaining air from the deicer. This cycle is repeated as long as the system is
operating. If the system is turned off, the system timer automatically returns to its starting
position.
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Ice Protection
A pneumatic deicing system that uses an engine-driven air pump is shown in the following
figure. The right hand side of the system is illustrated, however, the left hand side is
identical. Notice that inflatable deicers are provided for the wing leading edges and the
horizontal stabilizer leading edges. Included in the system are two engine-driven air
(vacuum) pumps, two primary oil separators, two combination units, six distributor valves,
an electronic timer, and the control switches on the deicing control panel. To indicate
system pressure, a suction indicator and a pressure indicator are included in the system.
A Pneumatic Deicing System Using an Engine-Driven Air Pump
12
Ice Protection
Pneumatic System Operation

As shown in figure above the deicer boots are arranged in sections. The right-hand wing
boots include two sections:
2. An inboard (inner boot A1 and outer boot B2) section.

3. An outboard (inner boot A3 and outer boot B4) section.
The right-hand horizontal stabilizer has two boot sections (inner boot A5 and outer boot
B6). A distributor valve serves each wing boot section and another distributor valve
serves both horizontal stabilizer boot sections. Notice that each distributor valve has a
pressure inlet port, a suction outlet port, a dump port, and two additional ports (A and B).
Distributor valve A and B ports are connected to related boot A and B ports.
Pressure and suction can be alternated through A and B ports by the movement of a
distributor valve solenoid servo valve. Note also that each distributor valve is connected
to a common pressure manifold and a common suction manifold.
When the pneumatic deicing system is ON, pressure or suction is applied by either or
both engine-driven air (vacuum) pumps. The suction side of each pump is connected to
the suction manifold. The pressure side of each pump is connected through a pressure
relief valve to the pressure manifold. The pressure relief valve maintains the pressure in
the pressure manifold at 17 p.s.i.
The pressurized air then passes to the primary oil separator. The oil separator removes
any oil from the air. Oil-free air is then delivered to the combination unit. The combination
unit directs, regulates to 15 p.s. i., and filters the air supply to the distributor valves.
When the pneumatic deicing system is off, air pump suction, regulated at 4 in. Hg by an
adjustable suction reIief valve, holds the deicing boots deflated. Air pump pressure is
then directed overboard by the combination unit.
DEICING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Vacuum Pump
The engine-driven air pump is of the rotary, four vane, positive displacement type and is
mounted on the accessory drive gear box of the engine. The compression side of each
pump supplies air pressure to inflate the wing and tail deicer boots.
Suction is supplied from the inlet side of each pump to hold down the boots, when not
being inflated, while in flight. One type of pump uses engine oil for lubrication and is
mounted so that the drive gear is mated with the drive gear in the accessory drive gear
box. The oil taken in the pump for lubrication and seating is discharged through the
pressure side, to the oil separator. At this point, most of the oil is separated from the air
and fed back to the engine oil sump.
13
Ice Protection
When installing a new pump, care should be taken to ensure that the oil passages in the
gasket, pump, and engine mounting pad are aligned (figure). If this oil passage does not
line up, the new pump will be damaged from lack of lubrication.
Lubrication of Wet Type Vacuum Pump.
Another type of vacuum pump, called a dry pump, depends on specially compounded
carbon parts to provide pump lubrication. The pump is constructed with carbon vanes for
the rotor. This material is also used for the rotor bearings. The carbon vane material
wears at a controlled rate to provide adequate lubrication. This eliminates the need for
external lubricants.
When using the dry type of pump, oil, grease, or degreasing fluids must be prevented
from entering the system. This is important at installation and during subsequent
maintenance.
Maintenance of the engine-driven pump is limited to inspection for loose connections and
security of mounting.
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Ice Protection
Safety Valves
An air pressure safety valve is installed on the pressure side of some types of
engine-driven air pumps. Schematically, this valve is placed on the air pressure side of
the pump between the primary oil separators and the pump. The safety valve exhausts
excessive air at high pump r.p.m. When a predetermined pressure is reached. The valve
is preset and is not adjustable.
Oil Separator
An oil separator is provided for each wet-type air pump. Each separator has an air inlet
port, an air outlet port, and an oil drain line, which is routed, back to the engine oil sump.
Since the air pump is internally lubricated, it is necessary to provide this means of
separating oil from the pressurized air. The oil separator removes approximately 75% of
the oil from the air.
The only maintenance required on the oil separator is flushing the interior of the unit with
a suitable cleaning solvent. This should be done at intervals prescribed by the applicable
maintenance manual.
Combination Regulator, Unloading Valve, And Oil Separator
The combination regulator, unloading valve, and oil separator consists of a diaphragm
controlled, spring loaded unloading valve, an oil filter and drain; a diaphragm type air
pressure regulator valve with an adjustment screw; and a solenoid selector valve.
The assembly has an air pressure inlet port, an exhaust port, and outlet to the solenoid
distributor valves, and outlet to the suction side of the engine-driven air pumps, and an oil
drain. The combination unit has three functions:
(i) to remove all residual oil left in the air by the primary oil separator before it enters
the pressure manifold;
(ii) to control, direct, and regulate air pressure in the system;
(iii) and to discharge air to the atmosphere when the deicer system is not in use,
thereby allowing the air pump to operate at no pressure
Maintenance of this unit consists of changing the filter element as prescribed by the
applicable maintenance manual.
The pressure regulator may be adjusted, if the deicer system pressure gage does not
register the specified pressure. The adjusting screw should be turned counterclockwise
to increase the pressure and clockwise to decrease the system pressure.
15
Ice Protection
Suction Regulating Valve
An adjustable suction regulating valve is installed in each engine nacelle. One side of
each valve is piped to the inlet (suction) side of the engine-driven air pump and the other
side to the main suction manifold line. The purpose of the suction valve is to maintain the
deicer system suction automatically.
Maintenance of this valve consists of removing the air intake filter screen and cleaning it
with a cleaning solvent as prescribed by the applicable maintenance manual.
This valve may be adjusted to obtain the desired deicing system suction The deicer
system suction is increased by turning the adjusting screw counter-clockwise and
decreased by turning it clockwise.
Solenoid Distributor Valve
The solenoid distributor valve is normally located near the group of deicer boots which it
serves. Each distributor valve incorporates a pressure inlet port, suction outlet port, two
ports (A and B) to the boots, and a port piped overboard to a low pressure area. Each
distributor also has two solenoids, A and B. The pressure inlet port is integral with the
manifold pressure line, thereby making approximately 15 p.s.i. pressure available at all
times when the deicer system is operating.
The suction port is connected to the main suction line. This allows approximately 4 in. Hg
suction available at all times in the distributor valve. Ports A and B connect suction
and pressure to the boots, as controlled by the distributor valve. The port piped to the low
pressure area allows the air under pressure in the boots to be dumped overboard as
controlled by the distributor valve servo.
The distributor valve normally allows suction to be supplied to the boots for holddown in
flight. However, when the solenoid in the distributor valve is energized by the electronic
timer cycle control, it moves a servo valve, changing the inlet to that section of the boot
from suction to pressure. This allows the boot to inflate fully for a predetermined time.
This interval is controlled by the electronic timer. When the solenoid is de-energized, the
airflow through the valve is cut off.
The air then discharges out of the boot through an integral check valve until the pressure
reaches approximately 1 in. Hg, the boot is ported to the suction manifold and the
remaining air is evacuated, thus again holding the boot down by suction.
16
Ice Protection
Electronic timer
An electronic timer is used to control the operating sequence and the time intervals of the
deicing system. When the deicing system is turned on, the electronic timer energizes a
solenoid in the unloading valve.
The solenoid closes a servo valve, thereby directing air pressure to the unloading valve
and closing it until the regulator valve of the combination unit takes over. The regulator
valve then tends to keep the entire manifold system at approximately 15 p.s.i. pressure
and unloads any surplus air at the separator by dumping it overboard.
The pressure manifold line is then routed to the distributor valves. The electronic timer
then controls the operating sequence of the distributor valves.
PNEUMATIC DEICING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

Maintenance on pneumatic deicing systems varies with each aircraft model. The
instructions of the airframe or system components manufacturer should be followed in all
cases.
Depending on the aircraft, maintenance usually consists of operational checks,

adjustments, troubleshooting, and inspection
Operational Checks
An operational check of the system can be made by operating the aircraft engines, or by
using an external source of air. Most systems are designed with a test plug to permit
ground checking the system without operating the engines.
When using an external air source, make certain that the air pressure does not exceed
the test pressure established for the system.
Before turning the deicing system on, observe the vacuum operated instruments. If any
of the gages begin to operate, it is an indication that one or more check valves have failed
to close and that reverse flow through the instruments is occurring. Correct the difficulty
before continuing the test. If no movement of the instrument pointers occurs, turn on the
deicing system.
With the deicer system controls in their proper positions, check the suction and pressure
gages for proper indications. The pressure gage will fluctuate as the deicer tubes inflate
and deflate.
A relatively steady reading should be maintained on the vacuum gage. It should be noted
that not all systems use a vacuum gage. If the operating pressure and vacuum are
satisfactory, observe the deicers for actuation.
17
Ice Protection
With an observer stationed outside the aircraft, check the inflation sequence to be certain
that it agrees with the sequence indicated in the aircraft maintenance manual.
Check the timing of the system through several complete cycles. If the cycle time varies
more than is allowable, determine the difficulty and correct it. Inflation of the deicers must
be rapid to provide efficient deicing. Deflation of the boot being observed should be
completed before the next inflation cycle.
Adjustments
Examples of adjustments that may be required include adjusting the deicing system
control cable linkages, adjusting system pressure relief valves and deicing system
vacuum (suction) relief valves.
A pressure relief valve acts as a safety device to relieve excess pressure in the event of
regulator valve failure.
To adjust this valve, operate the aircraft engines and adjust a screw on the valve until the
deicing pressure gage indicates the specified pressure at which the valve should relieve.
Vacuum relief valves are installed in a system that uses a vacuum pump to maintain
constant suction during varying vacuum pump speeds.
To adjust a vacuum relief valve, operate the engines. While watching the vacuum
(suction) gage, an assistant should adjust the suction relief valve adjusting screw to
obtain the correct suction specified for the system.
Troubleshooting
Not all troubles that occur in a deicer system can be corrected by adjusting system
components. Some troubles must be corrected by repair or replacement of system
components or by tightening loose connections.
Several troubles common to pneumatic deicing systems are shown on the following table.
Note the probable causes and the remedy of each trouble listed in the chart. In addition to
using troubleshooting charts, operational checks are sometimes necessary to determine
the possible cause of trouble.
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Ice Protection
Trouble Probable Remedy

Repair or replace lines.
Faulty lines or connections. Tighten loose
Deicing boots torn or
Repair faulty boots.
punctured.
Pressure
gage Faulty gage. Replace gage.
oscillates
Adjust or replace relief
Faulty air relief valve.
valve.
Adjust or replace
Faulty air regulator.
regulator.
Pressure gage Vacuum check valves installed
Re-install correctly.
oscillates; peaks at improperly.
a specified
pressure while Vacuum relief valve improperly Adjust or replace valve as
instrument vacuum adjusted or faulty. necessary.
gage shows no
Faulty lines between pump and Tighten, repair, or
reading.
gage. replace faulty lines or
Faulty pressure gage line. Repair or replace line.

Pressure gage
shows no pressure Faulty pressure gage. Replace gage.
while vacuum gage
shows normal Adjust or replace as
Pressure relief valve faulty.
Reading. necessary.
Adjust or replace as
Pressure regulator faulty.
necessary.
Loose or faulty tubing and Tighten, repair, or
connection. replace as necessary.
Cycling period
Boots torn or punctured. Repair faulty boots.
irregular.
Faulty electronic timer Replace timer.
Troubleshooting Pneumatic Deicing Systems
19
Ice Protection
Inspection
During each preflight and scheduled inspection, check the deicer boots for cuts, tears,
deterioration, punctures, and security; and during periodic inspections go a little further
and check deicer components and lines for cracks. If weather cracking of rubber is noted,
apply a coating of conductive cement. The cement in addition to sealing the boots against
weather, dissipates static electricity so that it will not puncture the boots by arcing to the
metal surfaces.
Deicer Boot Maintenance
The life of the deicers can be greatly extended by storing them when they are not needed
and by observing these rules when they are in service:
(i) Do not drag gasoline hoses over the deicers.

(ii) Keep deicers free of gasoline, oil grease, dirt and other deteriorating substances.
(iii) Do not lay tools on or lean maintenance equipment against the deicers.
(iv) Promptly repair or re-surface the deicers when abrasion or deterioration is noted.
(v) Wrap the deicer in paper or canvas when storing it.
Thus far preventive maintenance has been discussed. The actual work on the deicers
consists of cleaning, re-surfacing, and repairing. Cleaning should ordinarily be done at
the same time the aircraft is washed, using a mild soap and water solution. Grease and
oil can be removed with a cleaning agent, such as naphtha, followed by soap and water
scrubbing.
Whenever the degree of wear is such that it indicates that the electrical conductivity of the
deicer surface has been destroyed, it may be necessary to re-surface the deicer. The
re-surfacing substance is a black, conductive neoprene cement. Prior to applying the
re-surfacing material, the deicer must be cleaned thoroughly and the surface roughened.
Cold patch repairs can be made on a damaged deicer. The deicer must be relieved of its
installed tension before applying the patch. The area to be patched must be clean and
buffed to roughen the surface slightly.
One disadvantage of a pneumatic deicer system is the disturbance of airflow over the
wing and tai1 caused by the inf1ated tubes. This unwanted feature of the deicer boot
system has 1ed to the development of other methods of ice contro1, one of which is the
thermal anti-icing system.
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Ice Protection
THERMAL ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS
Thermal systems used for the purpose of preventing the formation of ice or for deicing
a1rfoil leading edges, usually use heated air ducted spanwise along the inside of the
leading edge of the airfoil and distributed around its inner surface. However, electrically
heated elements are also used for anti-icing and deicing airfoil leading edges.
There are several methods used to provide heated air. These include bleeding hot air
from the turbine compressor, engine exhaust heat exchangers, and ram air heated by a
combustion heater.
In installations where protection is provided by preventing the formation of ice, heated air
is supplied continuously to the leading edges as long as the anti-icing system is on.
When a system is designed to deice the leading edges, much hotter air is supplied for
shorter periods on a cyclic system.
The systems incorporated in some aircraft include an automatic temperature control. The
temperature is maintained within a predetermined range by mixing heated air with cold
air.
A system of valves is provided in some installations to enable certain parts of the

anti-icing system to be shut off. In the event of an engine failure these valves also permit
supplying the entire anti-icing system with heated air from one or more of the remaining
engines.
In other installations the valves are arranged so that when a critical portion of the wing has
been deiced, the heated air can be diverted to a less critical area to clear it of ice. Also,
should icing conditions of unusual severity be encountered, the entire flow of air can be
directed to the most critical areas. The portions of the airfoils which must "be protected
from ice formation are usually provided with a closely spaced double skin.
A Typical Heated Leading Edge
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Ice Protection
The heated air carried through the ducting is passed into the gap. This provides sufficient
heat to the outer skin to melt the layer of ice next to the skin or to prevent its formation.
The air is then exhausted to the atmosphere at the wing tip or at points where ice
formation could be critical; for example, at the leading edge of control surfaces.
When the air is heated by combustion heaters, usually one or more heaters are provided
for the wings. Another heater is located in the tail area to provide hot air for the leading
edges of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers.
When the engine is the source of heat, the air is routed to the empennage through ducting,
which is usually located under the floor.
Anti-Icing Using Combustion Heaters
Anti-icing systems using combustion heaters usually have a separate systems for each
wing and the empennage.
A typical system of this type has the required number of combustion heaters located in
each wing and in the empennage. A system of ducting and valves controls the airflow.
The anti-icing system is automatically controlled by overheat switches, thermal cycling

switches, a balance control, and a duct pressure safety switch. The overheat and cycling
switches allow the heaters to operate at periodic intervals, and they also stop heater
operation completely if overheating occurs.
The balance control is used to maintain equal heating in both wings. The duct pressure
safety switch interrupts the heater ignition circuits if ram air pressure falls below a
specified amount. This protects the heaters from overheating when not enough ram air is
passing through.
An airflow diagram of a typical wing and empennage anti-icing system using combustion
heaters is shown on the following figure:
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Ice Protection
Airflow Diagram Of A Typical Anti-Icing System
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Ice Protection
Anti-Icing Using Exhaust Heaters
Anti-icing of the wing and tail leading edges is accomplished by a controlled flow of
heated air from heat muffs around a reciprocating engine's tail pipe.
In some installations this assembly is called an augmentor. As illustrated in the figure

below, an adjustable vane in each augmentor aft section can be controlled through a
range of positions from closed to open. Partially closing each vane restricts the flow of
cooling air and exhaust gases. This causes the temperature to rise in the heat muff
forward of the vane. This provides a source of heat for the anti-icing system.
Heat Source For Thermal Anti-Icing System
Figure on the following figure is a schematic of a typical anti-icing system that uses
exhaust heaters.
Note that, normally, the wing and tail anti-icing system is controlled electrically by
operating the heat anti-ice button. When the button is in the off position, the outboard
heat source valves and the tail anti-ice valve are closed. While the anti-ice system is off,
the inboard heat source valves are controlled by the cabin temperature control system.
Furthermore the augmentor vanes can be controlled by the augmentor vane switch.
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Ice Protection
Wing And Tail Anti-Icing System Schematic
Pushing the heat anti-ice button to the on position opens the heat source valves and the
tail anti-icing valve. A holding coil keeps the button in the ON position. In addition, the
augmentor vane control circuits are automatically armed. The vanes can be closed by
positioning the augmentor vane switch to close." This provides for maximum heat from
the system.
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Ice Protection
A safety circuit, controlled by thermostatic limit switches (not shown) in the anti-icing
system ducts, releases the anti-ice button to the "off position whenever a duct becomes
overheated. When overheating occurs, the heat source valves and the tail anti-icing
shutoff valve close and the augmentor vanes go to the trail (open) position.
Anti-Icing Using Engine Bleed Air
Heated air for anti-icing is obtained by bleeding air from the engine compressor. The
reason for the use of such a system is that relatively large amounts of very hot air can be
tapped off the compressor, providing a satisfactory source of anti-icing and deicing heat.
A typical system of this type is shown in figure. This system is divided into six sections.
Each section includes:
(1) a shutoff valve.

(2) a temperature indicator, and
(3) an overheat warning light.
Schematic of A Typical Thermal Anti-Icing System
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Ice Protection
The shutoff valve for each anti-icing section is a pressure regulating type. The valve
controls the flow of air from the bleed air system to the ejectors, where it is ejected
through small nozzles into mixing chambers. The hot bleed air is mixed with ambient air.
The resultant mixed air at approximately 350 flows through passages next to the leading
edge skin.
Each of the shutoff valves is pneumatically actuated and electrically controlled. Each
shutoff valve acts to stop anti-icing and to control airflow when anti-icing is required. A
thermal switch connects to the control solenoid of the shutoff valve causes the valve to
close and shut off the flow of bleed air when the temperature in the leading edge reaches
approximately 185.
When the temperature drops, the valve opens, and hot bleed air enters the leading edge.
The heat source valves can be closed manually by the manual heat anti-ice shutoff
handle. Manual operation may be necessary if the e1ectrical control circuits for the
valves fail.
In this system, the handle is connected to the valves by a cable system and clutch
mechanism.
Once the heat source valves have been operated manually, they cannot be operated
electrically until the manual override system is re-set. Most systems provide for re-setting
of the manual override system in flight.
The temperature indicator for each anti-icing section is located on the anti-icing control
panel. Each indicator is connected to a resistance-type temperature bulb located in the
leading edge area.
The temperature bulb is placed so that it senses the temperature of the air in the area aft
of the leading edge skin, not the hot air passed next to the skin.
Overheat warning systems are provided to protect the aircraft structure from damage due
to excessive heat. If the normal cyclic system fails, temperature sensors operate to open
the circuit controlling the anti-ice shutoff valves. The valves close pneumatically to shut
off the flow of hot air.
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Ice Protection
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
Heat exchangers
These units should be inspected for security of attachment to the aircraft structure,
security of duct connections, evidence of engine exhaust gas leaks, evidence of
overheating, and freedom from damage.
Note: Careful examination of connections is necessary to ensure that no leakage of

exhaust gases into the main ducting of the de-icing system can occur.
The external surfaces of a heat exchanger matrix must be clean and the ram air passages
free from obstruction. If dirt or other forms of contamination are found, the surface and air
passages should be cleaned by means of an air blast applied in a direction opposite to the
normal air flow.
If a matrix has not been satisfactorily cleaned due to the contamination being excessive or
hardened on to the surfaces, or if internal contamination or leakage is suspected, the heat
exchanger should be removed for cleaning and repair and replaced by a serviceable unit.
Heat exchangers should be pressure tested at the periods and at the test figures
recommended in the approved Maintenance Schedule.
Combustion heaters
Heaters should be examined for security. The fuel system should be carefully checked
for evidence of leakage and drain pipes checked to ensure freedom from obstruction. At
the specified inspection periods, igniter plugs should be cleaned, and heaters should be
subjected to a pressure test in accordance with the procedure laid down by the
manufacturer.
Electrical wiring and associated electrical components should be checked for security,
loose connections, chafing of insulation, etc. The sheath of the igniter plug cable should
be examined for any possible indications of arcing, evident by burning or discolouration of
the sheath.
Filters, air and fuel regulating devices, safety devices {e.g. overheat switches, fuel cut-off
valves, etc.), and all controls should be inspected, adjusted and tested as required by the
approved Maintenance Schedule.
System operation should be checked at the periods specified in the approved

Maintenance Schedule and in the manner prescribed in the relevant aircraft Maintenance
Manuals.
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Ice Protection
Ducting
All ducting should be inspected for security of attachment to the relevant parts of the
aircraft structure, freedom from damage and overheating. Attention should be paid to
weak and critical areas most likely to be found around bends and bifurcations where the
gauge may be locally reduced by deformation during manufacture.
Joints between duct sections, and adjustable clamps should be secure and where
appropriate tightened to specified torque values. Expansion bellows, flexible couplings
and gimbal joint assemblies should be examined for freedom from cracks, distortion,
corrosion and damage. Checks should also be made for free movement and, where
necessary, manufacturing clearances should be checked to ensure they are within the
limits specified for the installation.
Rupture disc and blow-out disc assemblies, where fitted, should be inspected for security
and freedom from damage and a check made to ensure that the blow-out disc lies flush
with the aircraft skin. In the event that a rupture disc has operated (indicated by
protrusion of the blow-out disc), or if there is any cause to suspect the application of
excessive duct pressure, the rupture disc assembly must be replaced and the duct
inspections detailed in the aircraft Maintenance Manual carried out. It should be noted
that manual re-setting may require the replacement of a shear device, which forms part of
the blow-out disc assembly.
When specified, ducts should be tested for leaks in the manner prescribed in the relevant
aircraft Maintenance Manual. The test pressures and rate of leakage should not exceed
the limits quoted for the system.
Notes: Adequate safety precautions must be taken when inspecting duct section under
pressure.
It is usually more convenient to test a complete duct system by dividing it into sections
and applying a recommended pressure separately and in sequence. The sections should
be selected so that all critical joints are subjected to the test pressure; advantage being
taken of stop valves, non-return valves, etc., where these provide convenient boundaries
between sections.
Air leaks can be detected by ear and where ducts are lagged, leaks are sometimes
revealed by discolouration and holes blown in the lagging material. If there is any
difficulty in locating leaks, the soap and water method may be used.
Lagging should always be properly secured and free from oil, hydraulic fluids, etc.
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Ice Protection
Temperature control components
All components should be inspected for security of mounting, mechanical and electrical
connections, signs of damage, deterioration of electrical cables, etc.
Moveable flaps, linkages and actuators associated with engine exhaust units and with
heat exchangers, should be inspected for freedom of movement and where specified,
lubricated with the oil or grease recommended in the relevant aircraft Maintenance
Manual. Inter-connecting linkages, flap hinges, etc., should be checked for excessive
play and evidence of lost motion.
Maintenance of valves, inching control units, etc., associated with temperature control is
usually confined to inspection for cleanliness, security of mounting, ducting attachments
and, where applicable, security of electrical connections, functioning tests and lubrication
specified in the particular component Maintenance Manual.
Sliding or rotating parts of valve assemblies should be free from scores, damage or
excess static friction. The maximum effort required to move a valve should be checked
when necessary and should not exceed the figure recommended by the manufacturer.
Valve seats and valve faces should be kept free of dust or traces of lubricant.
Temperature sensing elements, indicators and overheating warning devices should be

checked for proper functioning and that the correct indications appropriate to system
operating conditions are obtained.
In the event that the pointer of an indicator moves to a position beyond maximum scale
reading, the power supply should be switched off immediately and a continuity check of
the sensing element and cables carried out, as this fault is an indication of an open circuit
in the temperature sensing signal line.
The combined operation of components comprising a temperature control system should

be checked during specified ground test to ensure that they respond correctly to the
selected operating conditions.
The test procedures which must be carried out at the periods specified in the approved
Maintenance Schedule vary. The extent to which a system can be tested may, in some
cases, be limited, particularly in relation to the duration of a test and the air temperature to
be attained in leading edge sections. On the other hand, full-range temperature control of
a system in some aircraft may be checked on the ground. Reference should be made to
the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual for the procedure to be adopted and limitations
to be observed.
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Ice Protection
FLUID DE-ICING SYSTEMS
A de-icing fluid is drawn from a storage tank by an electrically driven pump and fed
through micro filters to a number of porous metal distributor panels. The panels are
formed to the profiles of the wing and tail unit leading edges into which they are fitted. At
each panel the fluid passes into a cavity. and then through a porous plastic sheet to a
porous stainless steel outer skin. As the fluid escapes it breaks the bond between ice and
the outer skin and the fluid and ice together are directed rearward, by the airflow, over the
aerofoil.
The interconnection of components of a typical fluid de-icing system is shown. The head
compensating valve is fitted in some types of aircraft to correct for variations in system
pressure (head effect) due to differences in level between the wings, horizontal and
vertical stabilisers. The non-return valves prevent back flow when the system is
inoperative. Nylon pipelines are usually used throughout the system; those for the main
fluid supply being of 5/16 inch outside diameter and those for connections to individual
distributor panels of 3/16 inch outside diameter.
Typical Fluid De-Icing System
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Ice Protection
A sectional view of a typical distributor panel is shown. The connector contains a

metering tube, which is accurately calibrated to provide the required rate of f1uid flow
through the distributor. In some aircraft the metering of fluid to the distributor panels is
done via proportioning units containing the corresponding number of metering tubes.
Section of A Typical Distributor Panel
To prevent electrolytic corrosion, plastic sealing strips are interposed between the
stainless steel panel and the metal used in the aerofoil structure.
In some installations an epoxy resin sealing compound is used, and to facilitate the
removal of a panel it is sprayed along its edges with a thin coating of
polytetrafluourethylene (p.t.f.e.) to act as a release agent.
In addition, a strip of p.t.f.e. tape may be laid along the mating surfaces of the aerofoil
structure.
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Ice Protection
WINDSCREEN DE-ICING AND ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS
In order to keep window areas free of ice, frost, etc., window anti-icing, deicing, defogging,
and demisting systems are used.
The systems vary according to the type of aircraft and its manufacturer. Some
windshields are built with double panels having a space between, which will allow the
circulation of heated air between the surfaces to control icing and fogging. Others use
windshield wipers and anti-icing fluid, which is sprayed on.
Fluid De-icing System
The method employed in this system is to spray the windscreen panel with a
methyl-alcohol based fluid. The principal components of the system are a fluid storage
tank, a pump, which may be a hand-operated or electrically-operated type, supply pipe
lines and spray tube unit. Figure illustrates the interconnection of components based on a
typical aircraft system in which fluid is supplied to the spray tubes by two
electrically-operated pumps.
Typical Fluid De-Icing System
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Ice Protection
ELECTRICAL ANTI-ICING SYSTEM
This system employs a windscreen of special laminated construction heated electrically

to prevent, not only the formation of ice and mist, but also to improve the impact
resistance of the windscreen at low temperatures.
The film-type resistance element is heated by alternating current supplied from, the
aircrafts electrical system. The power required for heating varies according to the size of
the panel and the heat required to suit the operating conditions.
Section of A Laminated Windshield
The circuit embodies a controlling device, the function of which is to maintain a constant
temperature at the windscreen and also to prevent overheating of the vinyl interlayer,
which would cause such permanent damage as vinyl 'bubbling' and discolouration.
In a typical anti-icing system shown schematically in the following figure, the controlling
device is connected to two temperature sensing elements laminated into the windscreen.
The elements are usually in the form of a fine wire grid, the electrical resistance of which
varies directly with the windscreen temperature.
One sensing element is used for controlling the temperature at a normal setting and the
other is used for overheat protection.
A system of warning lights and, in some cases, magnetic indicators, also forms part of the
control circuit and provides visual indications of circuit operating conditions, e.g. normal,
off' or overheat.
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Ice Protection
Typical Electrical Anti-Icing System
When the power is applied via the system control switch and power relay, the resistance
element heats the glass. When it attains a temperature predetermined for normal
operation the change in resistance of the control element causes the control device or
circuit to isolate, or in some cases to reduce, the power supply to the heater element.
When the glass has cooled through a certain range of temperature, power is again
applied and the cycle repeated.
In the event of a failure of the controller, the glass temperature will rise until the setting of
the overheat sensing element is attained. At this setting an overheat control circuit cuts
off the heating power supply and illuminates a warning light. The power is restored and
the warning light extinguished when the glass has cooled through a specific temperature
range. In some systems a lock-out circuit may be incorporated, in which case the warning
light will remain illuminated and power will only be re-applied by cycling the system control
switch to 'OFF' and back to 'ON'.
In addition to the normal temperature control circuit it is usual to incorporate a circuit

which supplies more heating power under severe icing conditions when heat losses are
high. When the high power setting is selected, the supply is switched to higher voltage
output tappings of an auto transformer, which also forms part of an anti-icing system
circuit thus maintaining the normal operating temperature. The temperature is controlled
in manner similar to that of the normal control temperature circuit.
For ground testing purposes, the heating power supply circuit may also be controlled by
landing gear shock-strut microswitches in such a way that the voltage applied to the
resistance elements is lower than that normally available in flight.
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Ice Protection
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE
Fluid De-Icing Systems
The installation and maintenance of components and pipelines of fluid de-icing systems is,
in general, a straight forward procedure and only requires once checks to ensure security
of attachment to appropriate parts of the aircraft structure, signs of fluid leakage, security
of connections and wirelocking where necessary.
After installation of a component and at the periods detailed in the aircraft approved
Maintenance Schedule, the tank contents should be checked and replenished with the
specified fluid as necessary.
The system should also be tested to ensure proper functioning and checks made for fluid
leakage at the connections of the various components. Fluid filters, where fitted, should
also be inspected for cleanliness.
Electrical Anti-Icing Systems
Before installation, the electrical resistance of the conducting film and the temperature
sensing elements should be measured to ensure that it is within the Limits specified in the
relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual.
The resistances of conducting films may, in some cases, have to be matched by selective
assembly. In certain types of aircraft an indication of conducting fi lm resistance is also
given by a code number etched in the corner of the glass near the busbar terminals.
At the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule, all components should
be checked for security of attachment, security of electrical connections and for evidence
of any damage. System functioning checks should also be carried out.
Testing of Systems
The method of testing varies between individual systems; there are, however, aspects of
testing and certain precautions which are of a standard nature, and these are
summarised for guidance as follows:
(1) In general, test procedures are principally concerned with the checking of the
electrical resistance of heating films and temperature sensing elements, checking
of the voltages applied at selected system operating conditions, e.g. 'normal', low
and 'high' settings of a system control switch and also checking of insulation
resistance between circuits.
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Ice Protection
(2) Electrical power should always be applied initially at low intensity and the
windscreen allowed to warm up gradually thus minimising the effects of thermal
shock stresses.
(3) When carrying out resistance and voltage checks of some anti-icing system it is
necessary to isolate the overheat sensing element circuit. In such cases, the
period of time during which power is applied to the heating elements must be kept
to a minimum to avoid overheating of the windscreens.
(4) In systems incorporating electrically heated direct vision and other side windows,
the circuits to these windows must be checked at the same time as the windscreen
anti-icing system checks.
(4) During ground testing attention should be paid to the effect of ambient temperature
and strong sunlight on the behaviour of temperature control systems. Ambient
temperatures approaching those of the normal operating temperature of
windscreens will result in a very brief application of power, followed by no power for
a considerable period.
In some instances power will not be applied at all. It is possible, therefore, to be

misled into believing that a serviceable system is malfunctioning. Where it is
necessary to carry out system tests and checks in such conditions, it is
recommended that the aircraft be positioned in the shade or in a hangar if
practicable, and also that cool wet cloths be applied to the windscreens thereby
lowering their temperature prior to switching on the power.
Bearing in mind thermal shock stresses, the use of ice should be avoided.
WINDOW DEFROST SYSTEM
The window defrost system directs heated air from the cabin heating system (or from an
auxiliary heater, depending on the aircraft) to the pilots and copilots windshield and side
windows by means of a series of ducts and outlets. In warm weather when heated air is
not needed for defrosting, the system can be used to defog the windows. This is done by
blowing ambient air on the windows using the blowers.
PITOT TUBE ANTl-ICING
To prevent the formation of ice over the opening in the pitot tube, a built-in electric heating
element is provided. A switch, located in the cockpit, controls power to the heater. Use
caution when ground checking the pitot tube since the heater must not be operated for
long periods unless the aircraft is in flight.
Heating elements should be checked for functioning by ensuring that the pitot head
begins to warm up when power is applied. If an ammeter or load-meter is installed in the
circuit, the heater operation can be verified by noting the current consumption when the
heater is turned ON.
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Ice Protection
WATER AND TOILET DRAIN HEATERS
Heaters are provided for toilet drain lines, water lines, drain masts, and waste water
drains when they are located in an area that is subjected to freezing temperatures in flight.
The types of heaters used are integrally heated hoses, ribbon, blanket, or patch heaters
that wrap around the lines, and gasket heater (see figure).
Thermostats are provided in heater circuits where excessive heating is undesirable or to

reduce power consumption. The heaters have a low voltage output and continuous
operation will not cause overheating.
Typical Water and Drain Line Heaters
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Ice Protection
GROUND DEICING OF AIRCRAFT
The presence of ice on an aircraft may be the result of direct precipitation, formation of
frost on integral fuel tanks after prolonged flight at high altitude, or accumulations on the
landing gear following taxiing through snow or slush.
Any deposits of ice, snow, or frost on the external surfaces of an aircraft may drastically
affect its performance. This may be due to reduced aerodynamic lift and increased
aerodynamic drag resulting from the disturbed airflow over the airfoil surfaces, or it may
be due to' the weight of the deposit over the whole aircraft. The operation of an aircraft
may also be seriously affected by the freezing of moisture in controls, hinges, valves,
microswitches, or by the ingestion of ice into the engine.
When aircraft are hangared to melt snow or frost, any melted snow or ice may freeze
again if the aircraft is subsequently moved into subzero temperatures. Any measures
taken to remove frozen deposits while the aircraft is on the ground must also prevent the
possible re-freezing of the liquid.
Frost Removal
Frost deposits can be removed by placing the aircraft in a warm hangar or by using a frost
remover or deicing fluid. These fluids normally contain ethylene glycol and isopropyl
alcohol and can be applied either by spray or by hand. It should be applied within 2 hrs. of
flight.
Deicing fluids may adversely affect windows or the exterior finish of the aircraft.
Therefore, only the type of fluid recommended by the aircraft manufacturer should be
used.
Removing Ice and Snow Deposits
Probably the most difficult deposit to deal with is deep, wet snow when ambient
temperatures are slightly above the freezing point. This type of deposit should be
removed with a brush or squeegee. Use care to avoid damage to antennas, vents, stall
warning devices, vortex generators, etc., which may be concealed by the snow.
Light, dry snow in subzero temperatures should be blown off whenever possible; the use
of hot air is not recommended, since this would melt the snow, which would then freeze
and require further treatment.
Moderate or heavy ice and residual snow deposits should be removed with a deicing fluid.
No attempt should be made to remove ice deposits or break an ice bond by force.
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Ice Protection
After completion of deicing operations, inspect the aircraft to ensure that its condition is
satisfactory for flight. All external surfaces should be examined for signs of residual snow
or ice, particularly in the vicinity of control gaps and hinges. Check the drain and pressure
sensing ports for obstructions. When it becomes necessary to physically remove a layer
of snow, all protrusions and vents should be examined for signs of damage.
Control surfaces should be moved to ascertain that they have full and free movement.
The landing gear mechanism, doors, and bay, and wheel brakes should be inspected for
snow or ice deposits and the operation of uplocks and microswitches checked.
Snow or ice can enter turbine engine intakes and freeze in the compressor. If the
compressor cannot be turned by hand for this reason, hot air should be blown through the
engine until the rotating parts are free.
RAIN ELIMINATING SYSTEMS
When rain forms on a windshield during flight, it becomes a hazard and must be
eliminated. To provide a clear windshield, rain is eliminated by wiping it off or blowing it
off. A third method of rain removal involves chemical rain repellants.
Rain is blown from the windshield of some aircraft by air from jet nozzles located beneath
the windshield. On other aircraft, windshield wipers are used to eliminate the rain. The
windshield wipers of an aircraft accomplish the same function as those of an automobile.
In each instance, rubber blades wipe across the windshield to remove rain and slushy ice.
Electrical Windshield Wiper Systems
In an electrical windshield wiper system, the wiper blades are driven by an electric
motor(s) which receive(s) power from the aircraft's electrical system. On some aircraft
the pilot's and copilot's windshield wipers are operated by separate systems to ensure
that clear vision is maintained through one of the windows should one system fail.
A typical electrical windshield wiper installation is shown in figure. An electrically operated

wiper is installed on each windshield panel. Each wiper is driven by a motor-converter
assembly. The converters change the rotary motion of the motor to reciprocating motion
to operate the wiper arms. A shaft protruding from the assembly provides an attachment
for the wiper arm.
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Ice Protection
Electrical Windshield Wiper System
41
Ice Protection
Windshield Wiper Circuit Diagram
The windshield wiper is controlled by setting the wiper control switch to the desired wiper
speed. When the 'high position is selected (figure), relays 1 and 2 are energized. With
both relays energized, field 1 and field 2 are energized in parallel. The circuit is
completed and the motors operate at an approximate speed of 250 strokes per minute.
When the low position is selected, relay 1 is energized. This causes field 1 and field 2 to
be energized in series. The motor then operates at approximately 160 strokes per
minute.
Setting the switch to the off" position, allows the relay contacts to return to their normal
positions. However, the wiper motor will continue to run until the wiper arm reaches the
park position.
When both relays are open and the park switch is closed, the excitation to the motor is
reversed. This causes the wiper to move off the lower edge of the windshield, opening
the cam-operated park switch. This de-energizes the motor and releases the brake
solenoid applying the brake. This ensures that the motor will not coast and re-close the
park switch.
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Ice Protection
Pneumatic Rain Removal Systems
Windshield wipers characteristically have two basic problem areas. One is the tendency
of the slipstream aerodynamic forces to reduce the wiper blade loading pressure on the
window, causing ineffective wiping or streaking. The other is in achieving fast enough
wiper oscillation to keep up with high rain impingement rates during heavy rain falls. As a
result, most aircraft wiper systems fail to provide satisfactory vision in heavy rain.
With the advent of turbine-powered aircraft, the pneumatic rain removal system became
feasible. This method uses high pressure, high temperature engine compressor bleed air
which is blown across the windshields (figure). The air blast forms a barrier that prevents
raindrops from striking the windshield surface.
Typical Pneumatic Rain Removal System
43
Ice Protection
Windshield Rain Repellant
When water is poured onto clean glass, it spreads out evenly. Even when the glass is
held at a steep angle or subjected to air velocity, the glass remains wetted by a thin film of
water.
However, when glass is treated with certain chemica1s, a transparent fi1m is formed
which causes the water to behave very much like mercury on glass. The water draws up
into beads, which cover only a portion of the glass and the area between beads is dry.
The water is readily removed from the glass.
This principle lends itself quite naturally to removing rain from aircraft windshields. The
high velocity slipstream continually removes the water beads, leaving a large part of the
window dry.
A rain repellant system permits application of the chemical repellant by a switch or push
but on in the cockpit. The proper amount of repellant is applied regardless of how long the,
switch is held.
The repellant is marketed in pressurized disposable cans, which screw into the aircraft
system and provide the propelling force for application. Actuating the control switch
opens an electrically-operated solenoid valve, which allows repellant to flow to the
discharge nozzles. The liquid repellant is squirted onto the rain itself as the carrying
agent to distribute the chemicals over the windshield surface.
The rain repellant system should not be operated on dry windows because heavy
undiluted repellant will restrict window visibility. Should the system be operated
inadvertently, do not operate the windshield wipers or rain clearing system as this tends to
increase smearing.
Also the rain repellant residues cause by application in dry weather or very light rain can
cause staining or minor corrosion of the aircraft skin. To prevent this, any concentrated
repellant or residue should be removed by a thorough fresh-water rinse at the earliest
opportunity.
After application, the repellant film slowly deteriorates with continuing rain impingement.
This makes periodic re-application necessary. The length of time between applications
depends upon rain intensity, the type of repellant used, and whether windshield wipers
are in use.
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Ice Protection
MAINTENANCE OF RAIN ELIMINATING SYSTEMS
Windshield wiper systems
Maintenance performed on windshield wiper systems consists of operational checks,

adjustments, and troubleshooting.
An operational check should be performed whenever a system component is replaced or

whenever the system is suspected of not working properly. During the check, make sure
that the windshield area covered by the wipers is free of foreign matter and is kept wet
with water.
Adjustment of a windshield wiper system consists of adjusting the wiper blade tension,
the angle at which the blade sweeps across the windshield, and proper parking of the
wiper blades. Figure below illustrates the adjustment points on a typical wiper blade
installation.
Adjustment of Windshield Wiper Components
One adjustment is that of the tie rod length. The tie rod connects the wiper blade holder to
a pivot bolt next to the drive shaft. With the drive arm and the tie rod connected to the
wiper blade holder, a parallelogram linkage is formed between the wiper blade holder and
the wiper converter. This linkage permits the wiper blade to remain parallel to the
windshield posts during its travel from one side of the windshield to the other.
45
Ice Protection
The length of the tie rod may be adjusted to vary the angle at which the wiper blade
sweeps across the windshield.
Another adjustment is that which is required for proper parking of the windshield wiper
blades. When they are not operating, the wiper blades should move to a position where
they will not interfere with vision. If the wipers do not park as they should, the cam, which
actuates the microswitch on the converter, can be adjusted.
The other adjustment to be made is that of the windshield wiper spring tension. To make
the adjustment, place a lightweight spring scale under the drive arm at its point of
attachment to the wiper blade, and lift the scale up at a 90O angle to the drive, to a point at
which the blade is just ready to leave the glass. (If tension is properly adjusted, the spring
scale should indicate between 5 and 6 lbs.) If the scale reading does not fall within this
limit, adjust the pressure adjustment nut shown in figure until the proper tension is
indicated on the scale.
Pneumatic (Jet Blast) systems
Maintenance of a jet blast system includes the replacement of defective components, the
checking (by hand) of duct-to-valve connections for leakage, and an operational
checkout.
46
HKAR-66 Module 11b Aeroplane Systems
Hydraulic Power
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Hydraulics is a method of transmitting power through pipes and control devices, using
liquid as the operating medium. For certain applications hydraulic systems are used In
preference to mechanical or electrical systems for a number of reasons, among which are
ease of application of force, ability to increase the applied force as necessary, ease of
routing of pipelines, and elimination of backlash between components.
Liquids are, for most practical purposes, incompressible, and this fact enables movement
to be transmitted through pipelines, over great distances, without loss of time or motion.
However, liquids will expand or contract as a result of temperature changes, and a relief
valve is necessary, to prevent damage from excessive pressures, in any closed system
which may be subjected to large changes of temperature.
When liquid is in motion, its dynamic characteristics must also be taken into consideration.
Friction exists between the molecules of a liquid, and between the liquid and the piping
through which it flows; this friction increases with any increase in viscosity or velocity of
the liquid. Friction results in some of the power available from a pump being transformed
into heat, and in a reduction in pressure throughout the pipelines.
Any restriction in a pipeline will increase liquid velocity and produce turbulence, resulting
in reduced pressure downstream of the restriction
Pascal's Law
In a simple form, Pascal's Law states that pressure in an enclosed container is

transmitted equally and undiminished to all parts of the container and acts at right angles
to the enclosing walls.
Pascal's Law
In the figure, we have a closed container, filled with fluid. Pressure gauges are arranged
around the container to measure the pressure created of force F pushing down the piston.
The pressure will be FA pounds per square inch and will be the same on every gauge
regardless of the position in the system, or the shape of the container.
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Hydraulic Power
This law is taken advantage of in an automobile brake system. When the brake pedal is
depressed pressure is transmitted equally and undiminished to all of the wheels,
regardless of the distance between the wheel and the brake pedal.
Mechanical Advantage
In a closed static system, pressure exerted on a liquid is transmitted equally in all

directions. Figure shows a simple arrangement of pistons cylinders and pipes, which
uses this principle to obtain mechanical advantage.
The area of piston A is 10 mm, and the force applied to it is 10 N. The pressure in the
liquid is, therefore, 1 N/mm, which is transmitted undiminished to piston B. The area of
piston B is 100 mm, and the force exerted upon it is thus 100 N, representing a
mechanical advantage of 10:1. This advantage is obtained at the expense of distance,
however, because the area of piston B is 10 times that of piston A and piston B will move
only one tenth the distance of piston A.
Mechanical Advantage by Hydraulic Means
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
To be suitable as a means of transmitting hydraulic forces, fluids must have certain basic
qualities. These are:
1. Low viscosity
2. Not affected by extreme temperatures
3. Oiliness (they will act as lubricant)
4. Will not corrode metals
5. Types of rubber are available to act as seals, which will not be affected by the fluid.
6. Non-toxic or burning to operators.
7. Fire resistant
8. Stability (its properties will not change with time).
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Hydraulic Power
The special requirements of aircraft systems have resulted in the use of vegetable,
mineral and synthetic-based oils (known as hydraulic fluids).
Fluids are coloured for recognition purposes, and fluids to different specifications must
never be mixed: fluids to the same specification, but produced by different manufacturers,
may be mixed when permitted by the appropriate Maintenance Manual. Use of a fluid,
which is not approved for a particular system may result in rapid deterioration of seals,
hoses and other non-metallic parts, and may render the system inoperative.
a. Vegetable-based fluid is normally almost colourless, and must be used with pure
rubber seals and hoses. It is used in some braking systems but is not often found
in hydraulic power systems.
b. Mineral-based fluid is normally coloured red, and must be used with rubber seals
and hoses. It is widely used in light aircraft braking systems, hydraulic power
systems, and shock-absorber struts.
c. Phosphate ester based fluid is widely used on modern aircraft, mainly because of
its fire-resistance and extended operating-temperature range. It may be coloured
green, purple or amber, and must only be used with butyl rubber, ethylene
propylene or Teflon seals and hoses. This fluid requires extreme care in handling
as it is irritant to the skin and eyes.
A barrier cream should be applied to the hands and arms, and fluid resistant gloves
should be worn, whenever servicing operations on the hydraulic system are carried out.
In addition, goggles should be worn whenever there is the possibility of fluid being
splashed into the eyes, such as when pressure-testing or bleeding components.
Spillage of fluid should be avoided, but if it does occur, the area affected should
immediately be wiped with a dry rag, and thoroughly washed with soap and hot water.
In view of the incompatibility of different fluids, it is important that any containers, or test
rigs, used for servicing aircraft, are clearly marked with the type of fluid they contain.
BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
A hydraulic system is one, which employs various devices to control fluid flows so as to
provide power to actuate certain components of the aircraft.
There are two main types of system in use, the open-centre system and the closed
system. The former is frequently found on light aircraft, and the latter, or a combination of
the two, is found on most large aircraft.
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Hydraulic Power
Open-Centre System
The main advantage of this system is its simplicity, and the main disadvantage is that only
one service can be operated at a time. When no services are being operated, the
pressure in the system is at a low value, pump output passing directly to the reservoir.
Figure shows a simple open-centre system, which contains all the components necessary
for operation. It should be noted, however, that when the actuator reaches the end of its
travel, pressure will build up and remain at the relief valve setting until the selector is
returned to neutral. This imposes a high load on the pump, which is normally overcome
by fitting automatic- return selectors.
Open-Centre System
Closed System
With this type of system, operating pressure is maintained in that part of the system,
which leads to the selector valves, and some method is used to prevent over-loading the
pump.
In systems which employ a fixed volume pump an automatic cut-out valve is fitted, to
divert pump output to the reservoir when pressure has built up to normal operating
pressure.
In other systems a variable volume pump is used, delivery being reduced as pressure
increases, whilst in some simple Iight aircraft systems, operation of an electrically-drive
pump is controlled by a pressure-operated switch.
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Hydraulic Power
A simple closed system is illustrated.
Closed System
POWER PACKS
A power pack system is one in which most of the major components, with the exception of
the actuators, and, with some systems, of the pumps, are included in a self-contained
unit.
The system may operate on either the open-centre or the closed system principle, and is
widely used in light aircraft.
Figure shows a simple power pack used for raising and lowering the landing gear. Power
is provided by the accumulator, which is automatically re-charged by operation of the
electrically operated pump.
When a selection is made, pressure in the accumulator drops and the plunger is raised
until its collar contacts the trip switch arm, providing electrical power to the pump motor.
As pressure builds up in the system, the accumulator plunger lowers until it contacts the
switch arm and cuts off power to the pump motor. Pressure is constantly maintained
between the pump cut-in and cut-out pressures, and power is constantly available for
operation of the landing gear.
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Hydraulic Power
Typical Power Pack
HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS
Most modern aircraft are fitted with either fixed volume or variable volume, multi-piston
type hydraulic pumps, driven from the engines.
Other types of pumps, such as gear or vane positive displacement pumps, may be found
in some installations, but these are generally used for powering emergency systems.
Hand pumps, where fitted, are often of the double-acting type.
FIXED VOLUME PUMPS
These pumps deliver a fixed quantity of fluid into the system at a particular speed of
rotation regardless of system requirements and means must be provided for diverting
pump output when it is not required in the system.
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Hydraulic Power
Piston Type Pump
One type of fixed volume multi-piston pump is illustrated in the figure.
The cylinder block and drive shaft rotate together, and because of the angle between the
cylinder block and shaft axes, each piston moves into and out of its cylinder once each
revolution.
The stationary valve block has two circumferential slots leading to the top of the cylinder
block, which are connected to the fluid inlet and outlet ports. They are arranged so that
the pistons draw fluid into the cylinders on the outward stroke, and expel fluid into the
system on the inward stroke.
Axial Piston Pump
Another type of fixed volume pump is illustrated in the following figure.
In this pump the cylinders are arranged radially around an eccentric crankshaft, so that
when the crankshaft is rotated, a piston moves up and down in each cylinder once per
revolution.
Fluid is drawn into the pump body, and enters each cylinder, through ducting in the
cylinder block, whenever the associated piston is at the bottom of its stroke. As a piston
moves outwards into its cylinder, it covers the inlet port, and forces fluid out of the top of
the cylinder, past a delivery valve, to the pump outlet connection.
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Hydraulic Power
Radial Piston Pump
Gear Type Pump
A gear-type power pump (figure) consists of two meshed gears that revolve in a housing.
The driving gear is driven by the aircraft engine or some other power unit. The driven
gear meshes with, and is driven by, the driving gear. Clearance between the teeth as
they mesh, and between the teeth and the housing, is very small.
Gear-Type Power Pump

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Hydraulic Power
The inlet port of the pump is connected to the reservoir, and the outlet port is connected to
the pressure line. When the driving gear turns in a counterclockwise direction, as shown
in figure, it turns the driven gear in a clockwise direction. As the gear teeth pass the inlet
port, fluid is trapped between the gear teeth and the housing, and is then carried around
the housing to the outlet port.
Gerotor Type Pump
A gerotor-type power pump consists essentially of a housing containing an

eccentric-shaped stationary liner, an internal gear rotor having five wide teeth of short
height, a spur driving gear having four narrow teeth, and a pump cover which contains two
crescent-shaped openings.
One opening extends into an inlet port, and the other extends into an outlet port. The
pump cover as shown in figure has its mating face turned up to clearly show the crescent
shaped openings.
Gerotor-Type Power Pump
When the cover is turned over and properly installed on the pump housing, it will have its
inlet port on the left and the outlet port on the right.
During the operation of the pump, the gears turn clockwise. As the pockets on the left
side of the pump move from a lowermost position toward a topmost position, the pockets
increase in size (figure) resulting in the production of a partial vacuum within these
pockets. As the pockets open at the inlet port, fluid is drawn into them. As these same
pockets (now full of fluid) rotate over to the right side of the pump, moving from the top
most position toward the lowermost position, they decrease in size. This results in the
fluid being expelled from the pockets through the outlet port.
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Hydraulic Power
Vane Type Pump
The vane-type power pump (figure) consists of a housing containing four vanes (blades),
a hollow steel rotor with slots for the vanes, and a coupling to turn the rotor.
The rotor is positioned off centre within the sleeve. The vanes, which are mounted in the
slots in the rotor, together with the rotor, divide the bore of the sleeve into four sections.
As the rotor turns, each section, in turn, passes one point where its volume is at a
minimum, and another point where its volume is at a maximum. The volume gradually
increases from minimum to maximum during one-half of a revolution, and gradually
decreases from maximum to minimum during the second half of the revolution. As the
volume of a given section is increasing, that section is connected to the pump inlet port
through a slot in the sleeve. Since a partial vacuum is produced by the increase in volume
of the section, fluid is drawn into the section through the pump inlet port and the slot in the
sleeve. As the rotor turns through the second half of the revolution, and the volume of the
given section is decreasing, fluid is displaced out of the section, through the slot in the
sleeve, through the outlet port, and out of the pump.
Vane-Type Power Pump
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Hydraulic Power
VARIABLE VOLUME PUMP
This type of pump is similar in construction to the fixed volume pump, but the cylinder
block and drive shaft are co-axial. The pistons are attached to shoes which rotate against
a stationary yoke, and the angle between the yoke and cylinder block is varied to increase
or decrease pump stroke to suit system requirements.
Figure shows the operation of the pump. When pressure in the system is low, as would
be the case following selection of a service, spring pressure on the control piston turns the
yoke to its maximum angle, and the pistons are at full stroke, delivering maximum output
to the system. When the actuator has completed its stroke, pressure builds up until the
control piston moves the yoke to the minimum stroke position; in this position a small flow
through the pump is maintained, to lubricate the working parts, overcome internal leakage
and dissipate heat.
On some pumps a solenoid-operated depressurising valve is used to block delivery to the

system, and to off-load the pump.
Variable Volume Pump
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Hydraulic Power
HAND PUMPS
A hand pump is included in some aircraft installations, for emergency use and for ground
servicing operations.
Figure illustrates a double-acting hand pump (i.e. a pump which delivers fluid on each
stroke). As the piston moves upward in the cylinder, fluid is drawn in through a non-return
valve (NRV) at the inlet connection into the cylinder. At the same time fluid above the
piston is discharged through a non-return valve in the outlet connection. As the piston
moves downwards, the inlet NRV closes and the transfer NRV opens, allowing fluid to
flow through the piston; since the area below the piston is larger than the area above the
piston, part of this fluid is discharged through the outlet port. When pressure in the outlet
line exceeds the relief valve setting, discharged fluid is by-passed back to the pump inlet.
Double Acting Hand Pump
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Hydraulic Power
PRESSURE CONTROL UNITS
Maximum system pressure is often controlled by adjustment of the main engine-driven

pump, but a number of other components are used to maintain or limit fluid pressures in
various parts of a hydraulic system, and these sometimes have additional functions.
Relief Valves
A relief valve is the simplest form of pressure limiting device, and may be used by itself, or
within larger components.
A relief valve is frequently used as a safety device, e.g. a thermal relief valve, in which
case it is adjusted to blow-off at a pressure slightly higher than normal system pressure,
and is normally designed to relieve only a small quantity of fluid.
In some systems a full-flow relief valve is fitted down-stream of the pump, to by-pass full
pump output to the reservoir in the event of failure of the cut-out valve, or of blockage
elsewhere in the system.
A simple ball-type relief valve and full-flow relief valve are shown in Figure.
Relief Valves
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Hydraulic Power
Cut-Out Valves
A cut-out valve is fitted to a system employing a fixed volume pump, to provide the pump
with an idling circuit when no services have been selected.
An accumulator is essential when a cut-out is fitted, since any sIight leakage through
components, or from the system, would result in operation of the cut-out, and in frequent
loading and unloading of the pump.
Cut-Out Valve
Figure shows the operation of a cut-out valve. When a service has been selected and the
pump is delivering fluid to the system, the NRV is open and equal pressure is applied to
the poppet valve and piston.
The force of the spring combined with the pressure on he poppet valve is greater than the
force on the piston, so the valve is closed and the return line to reservoir is blocked.
When the service selected has completed its travel, pressure builds up in the delivery line
to the system until the force applied to the piston is sufficient to lift the poppet valve off its
seat. This results in a sudden drop in pressure on the pump side of the poppet valve,
which snaps the poppet valve open and the NRV closed'.
Pressure in the return line drops to a low value and the load on the pump is removed.
Pressure in the system is maintained by the accumulator until a further selection is made.
When pressure drops, and the force on the cut-out piston becomes less than the spring
force, the poppet valve closes and pump output is again directed into the system.
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Hydraulic Power
Pressure Maintaining Valves
A pressure maintaining valve, or priority valve, is basically a relief valve, which maintains
the pressure in a primary service at a value suitable for operation of that service
regardless of secondary service requirements.
When main system pressure exceeds this pre-determined value, the spring load is
over-come, and the valve opens to allow main system pressure to reach the secondary
service.
A pressure maintaining valve is generally used to safeguard operation of important

services such as flying controls and wheel brakes. Figure shows a valve in the open
position, pressure being sufficient to move the piston against spring pressure and connect
the main supply to the sub-system.
Pressure Maintaining Valve
Pressure Reducing Valves
A pressure reducing valve is often used to reduce main system pressure to a value
suitable for operation of a service such as the wheel brakes.
Figure illustrates a pressure reducing valve, which also acts as a relief valve for the
service operating at reduced pressure. Fluid enters the inlet port, and flows through the
valve to the sub-system; when the fluid pressure exceeds the spring-loading on the valve,
the valve is lifted and gradually covers the inlet port until sub-system pressure reaches
the specified value. If sub-system pressure increases for any reason, the valve is lifted
further and uncovers the return port to relieve excess pressure.
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Hydraulic Power
Pressure Reducing Valve
Brake Control Valves
A brake control valve is essentially a variable pressure reducing valve, which controls
pressure in the brake system according to the position of the pilots' brake pedals. The
valve usually contains four elements, one pair for the brakes on each side of the aircraft,
to provide duplicated control. Figure illustrates a single element, in this case operated by
a slave servo from the brake pedal.
Brake Control Valve
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Hydraulic Power
When either pilot's brake pedal on the appropriate side is depressed, or the hand brake is
operated, the servo piston applies load to the linkage on the control valve, which, via the
lever assembly and plunger, presses down the exhaust valve cap. This action initially
closes the gap between the exhaust valve cap and the exhaust valve seat, then moves
the cradle down to open the inlet valve, and to direct fluid to the brakes.
Pressure builds up in the brakes and valve, until it is sufficient, assisted by the spring, to
overcome the inlet pressure, to force the cradle and exhaust valve seat against the
exhaust valve cap, and to close the inlet valve. An increase in the load applied to the
valve Iinkage will be balanced by increased delivery pressure, and a decrease in the load
applied will be balanced by relief of delivery pressure past the exhaust valve. When the
brake pedals are released, the exhaust valve cap lifts, and exhausts pressure from the
brakes to the reservoir.
FLOW CONTROL UNITS
The components described in this paragraph are used to control the flow of fluid to the
various services operated by the hydraulic system.
Non-Return Valves
The most common device used to control the flow of fluid is the non-return valve, which
permits full flow in one direction, but blocks flow in the opposite direction. Simple ball-type
non-return valves are included in the previous figure but design may vary considerably.
When a non-return valve is used as a separate component, the direction of flow is

indicated by an arrow moulded on the casing, in order to prevent incorrect installation.
Restrictor Valves
A restrictor valve may be similar in construction to a non-return valve, but a restrictor

valve is designed to permit limited flow in one direction and full flow in the other direction;
the restriction is usually of fixed size, as shown in the figure. A restrictor valve is used in
a number of locations, in order to limit the speed of operation of an actuator in one
direction only. It may, for instance, be used to slow down flap retraction or landing gear
extension.
Restrictor Valve
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Hydraulic Power
Selectors
The purpose of a selector is to direct fluid to the appropriate side of an actuator, and to
provide a return path for fluid displaced from the opposite side of that actuator.
Many selectors are simple four-way valves, connecting the pressure and return lines to
alternate sides of the actuator, without a neutral position, but selectors in open-centre
systems often lock fluid in the actuators while providing an idling circuit for the pump.
Selector valves are generally manually operated, and some typical examples are
illustrated in the figure.
Manual Selector Valves
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Hydraulic Power
Follow-Up Linkage
It is sometimes necessary to be able to hold the actuator in an intermediate position. On

some aircraft this is achieved by using a selector which blocks both lines to the actuator
when it is in the neutral position, the selector being manually returned when the desired
actuator position is reached. However, as this could be distracting for the pilot at a critical
stage of flight, a feed-back mechanism is often used, which automatically returns the
selector to neutral whenever a selected position is reached.
Figure shows, diagrammatically, a method which is used in a flap circuit to enable any
intermediate position to be held; the selector would normally operate in a gated quadrant.
Follow Up Linkage
Electrically-Operated Selectors
It is sometimes convenient to locate a selector valve at a position remote from the crew
compartment, and to eliminate the need for extensive mechanical linkage the selector is
normally operated electrically.
The selector shown in the figure is a typical electrically-operated two-way valve, which
may be used, for example, for emergency operation of the flaps or landing gear.
With the solenoid de-energised, the pilot valve is spring-Ioaded against the return seat,
and fluid from the emergency system passes to both sides of the slide valve. Since the
right hand end of the valve is of larger diameter than the left, the valve moves to the left
and fluid passes to the actuator to extend its ram; fluid from the opposite side of the
actuator passes through the selector to the return line.
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Hydraulic Power
With the solenoid energised, the pilot valve is held against the pressure seat, and supply
pressure acts on the left hand side of the slide valve only. The right-hand side being open
to return. The slide valve moves to the right, and directs fluid to retract the actuator ram,
the opposite side of the actuator being open to return.
Electrical Selector Valve (2-Way)
Shuttle Valves
These are often used in landing gear and brake systems, to enable an emergency system
to operate the same actuators as the normal system. During normal operation, free flow
is provided from the normal system to the service and the emergency line is blocked.
When normal system pressure is lost and the emergency system is selected, the shuttle
valve moves across because of the pressure difference, blocking the normal line and
allowing emergency pressure to the actuator. A typical shuttle valve is shown in the figure.
Shuttle Valve
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Hydraulic Power
Sequence Valves
Sequence valves are often fitted in a landing gear circuit to ensure correct operation of the
landing gear doors and jacks. Examples of mechanically operated and hydraulically
operated sequence valves are illustrated in the figure.
Sequence Valve
Mechanically operated sequence valves ensure that the landing gear does not extend
until the doors are open, and that the landing gear is retracted before the doors close.
Completion of the initial movement in the sequence results in part of the mechanism
operating the plunger of the sequence valve, and allowing fluid to flow to the next
actuator.
During extension of the landing gear, pressure in the 'up lines could exceed pressure in
the 'down' lines, because of the force of gravity acting on the landing gear, and thus result
in partial closing of the doors. This is prevented by fitting a hydraulically operated
sequence valve in the up' line, which blocks return flow until down line pressure, acting
on the plunger, is sufficient to overcome the spring and open the valve.
The ball valve is virtually a non-return valve, which does not significantly restrict flow
when the landing gear is selected up.
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Hydraulic Power
Modulators
A modulator is used in conjunction with the anti-skid unit in a brake system. It allows full
flow to the brake units on initial brake application, and thereafter a restricted flow.
Figure shows a modulator, the swept volume of which would be equal to .the operating
volume of the brake cylinders. During initial operation of the brake control valve, the
piston is forced down the cylinder against spring pressure, and the brakes are applied.
Subsequent fluid feed to the brakes necessitated by anti-skid unit operation, is through
the restricting orifice, and is very limited.
This limited flow allows the anti-skid unit to completely release the brakes when
necessary, and conserves main system pressure. When the control valve is released, the
piston returns to its original position under the influence of the spring and the return fluid.
Modulator
Flow Control Valves
A flow control valve may be fitted in a hydraulic system to maintain a constant flow of fluid
to a particular component; it is frequently found up-stream of a hydraulic motor, which is
required to operate at a constant speed. A typical flow control valve is show in figure, and
consists of a body and a floating valve.
Flow through the valve head is restricted by an orifice, which creates a pressure drop
across the valve head. At normal supply pressure and constant demand, the pressure
drop is balanced by the spring and the valve is held in an intermediate position. The
tapered land on the valve partially restricting flow through the valve seat, and maintaining
a constant flow through the outlet.
If inlet pressure rises, or demand increases, the pressure differential across the valve
head also increases, arid moves the valve to the left to reduce the size of the aperture and
maintain constant flow. The spring loading is increased by the valve movement, and
again balances the pressure drop. Similarly, if inlet pressure drops or demand decreases,
the valve takes up a new position, slightly further to the right, so as to maintain a constant
flow.
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Hydraulic Power
Flow Control Valve
ACCUMULATORS
An accumulator is fitted to store hydraulic fluid under pressure, to dampen pressure

fluctuations, to allow for thermal expansion, and to provide an emergency supply of fluid
to the system in the event of pump failure.
A non-return valve fitted upstream of an accumulator, prevents fluid from being

discharged back to the reservoir.
Three different types of accumulator are illustrated in figure.
Typical Accumulators
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Hydraulic Power
The gas side of the accumulator is charged to a predetermined pressure with air or
nitrogen. As hydraulic pressure builds up in the system, the gas is compressed until fluid
and gas pressures equalise at normal system pressure.
At this point the pump commences to idle, and system pressure is maintained by the
accumulator. If a service is selected, a supply of fluid under pressure is available until
pressure drops sufficiently to bring the pump on line.
The initial gas charge of the accumulator is greater than the pressure required to operate
any service, and the fluid volume is usually sufficiently large to operate any service once;
except that brake accumulators permit a number of brake applications.
The gas side of an accumulator is normally inflated through a charging valve, which may
be attached directly to the accumulator, or installed on a remote ground servicing panel
and connected to the accumulator by means of a pipeline.
The charging valve usually takes the form of a non-return valve, which may be depressed
by means of a plunger in order to relieve excessive pressure.
RESERVOIRS
A reservoir provides both storage space for the system fluid, and sufficient air space to
allow for any variations in the volume of fluid in the system, which may be caused by
thermal expansion and actuator operation.
Most reservoirs are pressurised, to provide a positive fluid pressure at the pump inlet, and
to prevent pump cavitation at high altitude.
On modern jet aircraft, air pressure is normally supplied from the compressor section of
an engine, but it may be supplied from the cabin pressurisation system.
Air entering the reservoir is filtered, and, in some cases, provision is also made for the
removal of moisture.
There are two common types of reservoir as shown in the following figure.
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Hydraulic Power
Reservoir "In-Line"
Hydraulic Reservoir Pressurized With Hydraulic Fluid
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Hydraulic Power
A reservoir also contains a relief valve to prevent over-pressurisation, connections for

suction pipes to the pumps, return pipes from the system, a contents transmitter unit and
a filler cap, in some cases, a temperature sensing probe.
In systems which are fitted with a hand pump, the main pumps draw fluid through a stack
pipe in the reservoir. This ensures that, if fluid is lost from that part of the system
supplying the main pumps, or supplied solely by the main pumps, a reserve of fluid for the
hand pump would still be available.
ACTUATORS
The purpose of an actuator is to transform fluid flow into linear or rotary motion. Figure
illustrates three types of simple linear actuator, which are used for different purposes in an
aircraft hydraulic system.
Numerous refinements to the simple actuator will be found in use, and these may include
such features as internal locking devices, auxiliary pistons and restrictors, each designed
to fulfil a particular requirement. Details of a particular actuator should be obtained from
the appropriate Maintenance Manual.
Actuators
The single acting actuator is normally used as a locking device, the lock being engaged
by spring pressure and released by hydraulic pressure. A typical application is a landing
gear up-lock.
The double-acting actuator is used in most aircraft systems. Because of the presence of
the piston rod the area of the top of the piston is greater than the area under it.
Consequently, more force can be applied during extension of the piston rod. Therefore,
the operation which offers the greater resistance is carried out in the direction in which the
piston rod extends; for example, in raising the landing gear.
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Hydraulic Power
A balanced actuator, in which equal force can be applied to both sides of the piston, is
often used in applications such as nose-wheel steering and flying control boost systems.
Either one or both sides of the piston rod may be connected to a mechanism.
Hydraulic motors are a form of rotary actuator, and are sometimes connected through
gearing to operate a screw jack, or to drive generators or pumps. In some aircraft they
are used for driving a hydraulic pump unit, thus enabling power to be transferred from one
hydraulic system to another without transferring fluid.
The construction of a hydraulic motor is generally similar to the construction of a variable

volume multi-piston pump. Hydraulic pressure directed through the inlet port forces the
pistons against the angled yoke, causing rotation of the cylinder block and drive shaft. A
starter valve is used to initiate rotation in the correct direction, and a governor, driven from
the cylinder block, meters fluid to a control piston, altering the angle of the yoke according
to the load placed upon the motor.
FILTERS
Main filters are fitted in both suction and pressure lines in a hydraulic system, in order to
remove foreign particles from the fluid, and to protect the seals and working surfaces in
the components. In addition, individual components often have a small filter fitted to the
inlet connection.
Main filters usually comprise a filter head containing inlet and exhaust valves, and a sump
which houses the filter element. Installation of the sump normally opens the valves, and
removal of the sump normally closes them, so that the filter element can be removed
without the need for draining the complete system.
Some filters are fitted with a device which senses the pressure differential across the filter
element, and releases a visual indicator, in the form of a button, when the pressure
differential increases as a result of the filter becoming clogged. False indication of
element clogging, as a result of high fluid viscosity at low temperature, is prevented by a
bi-metal spring, which inhibits indicator button movement at low temperatures.
Other filers are fitted with a relief valve, which allows unfiltered fluid to pass to the system
when the element becomes clogged; this type of filter element must be changed at
regular intervals.
Micronic Filter
A typical micronic type filter is shown in figure. This filter utilizes an element made of
specially treated paper, which is formed in vertical convolutions (wrinkles). An internal
spring holds the elements in shape.
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Hydraulic Power
The micronic element is designed to prevent the passage of solids greater than 10
microns (0.00394 inch) in size (figure). In the event that the filter element becomes
clogged, the spring loaded relief valve in the filter head will bypass the fluid after a
differential pressure of 50 p.s.i. has been built up.
Hydraulic fluid enters the filter through the inlet port in the filter body and flows around the
element inside the bowl. Filtering takes place as the fluid passes through the element into
the hollow core, leaving the foreign material on the outside of the element.
Hydraulic Filter, Micronic Type
Enlargement of Small Particles
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Hydraulic Power
Paper filter elements are usually discarded when removed, but elements of wire cloth
may usually be cleaned. Cleaning by an ultrasonic process is normally recommended,
but if a new or cleaned element is not available when the element becomes due for check,
the old element may be cleaned in trichloroethylene as a temporary measure.
Wire Mesh Filter
A filter similar to the one with the paper element has a stainless steel wire mesh, such as
shown in figure. This wire will retain about 95% of all of the contamination larger 1:han 5
to 10 microns.
Wire Mesh Filter
Edge Filter
Edge filters, often called Cuno filters" are composed of stacks of thin metal discs with
spacers between them. All of the fluid flows between the discs and contaminants are
stopped on the edge.
Edge Filter
These filters are cleaned by turning the shaft, which rotates the discs and scrapes the
contamination from between them into the outer housing where it can be removed by
draining.
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Hydraulic Power
SEALS
Seals perform a very important function in a hydraulic system, in preventing leakage of

fluid. Static seals, gaskets and packing are used in many locations, and these effect a
seal by being squeezed between two surfaces.
Dynamic seals, fitted between sliding surfaces, may be of many different shapes,
depending on their use and on the fluid pressures involved. 'U AND V ring seals are
effective in one direction only, but O rings and square section seals are often used where
pressure is applied in either direction.
Typical Installation of Seals
Dynamic seals require lubrication to remain effective, and wetting of the bearing surface,
or a slight seepage from the seals, is normally acceptable. Where high pressures are
used, an '0 ring is normally fitted with a stiff backing ring, which retains the shape of the
seal and prevents it from being squeezed between the two moving surfaces. Seals are
made in a variety of materials, depending on the type of fluid with which they are to be
used. If a seal of an incorrect material is used in a system, the sealing quality will be
seriously degraded, and this may lead to failure of the component. Typical seal
installations are shown in figure. Seals are easily damaged by grit, and a wiper ring is
often installed on actuators to prevent any grit that may be deposited on the piston rod
from contaminating the seals.
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Hydraulic Power
AIRCRAFT INSTALLATIONS
Light aircraft are often fitted with a power pack or provided with a single hydraulic system
of the open circuit type, which is powered by an engine-driven or electrically-driven pump.
A hand pump is fitted to enable the flaps to be lowered in the event of main pump failure.
Landing gear up-locks are manually released to enable the landing gear to free-fall and
lock down under its own weight.
If a power-operated brake system is fitted, sufficient pressure is available in the

accumulator to enable a landing to be made. Multi-engined transport aircraft usually have
tow or more self-contained hydraulic systems, each system providing power for the flying
controls and some of the remaining services. In addition, facilities are provided for
transferring power from one system to another following failure of a main pump.
Alternative pumps, operated by a.c. or d.c. electrical power, or air turbines, are often
provided for use in emergency. A cut-off valve is sometimes provided for each system,
and this may be operated by use of the fire control handle.
Since weight is an important factor with aircraft, modern hydraulic systems tend to use
very high pressures, thus enabling smaller diameter piping and jacks, and less fluid, to be
used.
Tubing in parts of the system containing fluid at maximum pressure is usually made, from
stainless steel, but tubing providing return flow only, or subjected solely to air pressure, is
often made from aluminium alloy.
Tubing used in the hydraulic system is labelled for recognition purposes in accordance
with British Standard M23. This marking consists of a label with the word HYDRAULIC"
in black on a white, or black and yellow, background, and a symbol in the form of a black
circle on a white background. In addition, the sub-system, e.g. LANDING GEAR, and
the direction of flow may be added.
In most modern aircraft, a number of the major components such as accumulators,

electrically-operated pumps, reservoirs, filters, drain valves, charging valves, and
associated instruments, are grouped together in a hydraulic service bay, which is easily
accessible for routine servicing operations.
INSTRUMENTATION
In many light aircraft, there is often no indication in the cabin of hydraulic system
operation. Incorrect operation will, therefore only become known to the pilot when a
service is selected. However, an aircraft fitted with a power pack, will normally have a
combined warning lamp/master switch on the instrument panel, which will indicate when
the pump motor is operating, and will enable correct operation of the system to be
determined.
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Hydraulic Power
Larger aircraft normally have a hydraulic services panel in the crew compartment, which
contains indicators covering parameters such as fluid quantity, pressure and temperature,
and switches to control operation of emergency pumps and valves. The instruments and
switches for each separate hydraulic system are normally grouped together, and the
panel may be marked with a mimic diagram to assist the crew in transferring hydraulic
power, or in overcoming an emergency situation. The components normally used are
described below
Quantity Indicators
A clear window fitted in the reservoir provides a means of checking fluid level during
servicing, but the reservoir may also be fitted with a float-type contents unit, which
electrically signals fluid quantity to an instrument on the hydraulics panel in the crew
compartment.
Pressure Relays
A pressure relay is a component, which transmits fluid pressure to a direct reading

pressure gauge, or to a pressure transmitter which electrically indicates pressure on an
instrument on the hydraulics panel.
In some cases both types of indication are provided, the direct reading gauge being fitted
in the hydraulic equipment bay, adjacent to the relay. A typical pressure relay is shown in
figure.
During normal operation the piston acts as a separator, transmitting fluid pressure to the
gauge side. If a leak develops on the gauge side, the piston moves to the gauge end of
the cylinder, and the valve seats in the cylinder head, thus preventing leakage from the
system. The valve also permits bleeding when a new gauge, or gauge line, is fitted.
Pressure Relay
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Hydraulic Power
Pressure Gauges
Electrically operated pressure gauges are fitted on the hydraulics panel, to register main
and emergency system pressures. Direct reading gauges are often fitted to the
accumulators and reservoirs, to enable servicing operations to be carried out.
Pressure Switches
Pressure switches are often used to illuminate a warning lamp, and to indicate loss of fluid
pressure, or loss of air pressure in a reservoir. Such switches contain a diaphragm, which
flexes under fluid or air pressure, this movement being transmitted to a micro switch,
which, at the appropriate pressure, makes or breaks contact with the warning lamp.
Flow Indication
A flow indicator valve is often fitted in the outlet line from a pump, and is used to provide
warning of pump failure. The valve comprises a body, a spring-Ioaded plunger connected
to an actuator arm, and a micro-switch.
During normal operation, fluid pressure overcomes spring pressure, and the plunger
moves to allow full flow through the valve. If pump output decreases below a
predetermined minimum, the spring loading overcomes fluid pressure, moving the
plunger and actuator arm, and closing the micro-switch contact to illuminate the warning
lamp.
Temperature Indication
Warning of fluid overheating is normally provided by a temperature sensing element in the

reservoir. Warning of overheating of electrical motors, which are used to operate
emergency pumps, is normally provided by fitting a similar element in the motor casing.
The sensing element takes the form of a bimetal strip or rod arrangement, which operates
a snap-action switch when the warning temperature is reached. Operation of the switch
closes the contacts to an associated warning lamp.
COMPONENTS FOR SERVICING PURPOSES

A number of components are included in the hydraulic system specifically to facilitate
servicing. These components are normally located in the hydraulic equipment bay.
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Hydraulic Power
Quick-disconnect Couplings
In positions where it is necessary to frequently disconnect a coupling for servicing

purposes, a self-sealing, quick-disconnect coupling is fitted. The coupling enables the
line to be disconnected without loss of fluid, and without the need for subsequent
bleeding.
Pressure Release Valves
Pressure release valves are fitted to enable pressure to be released from the system for
servicing purposes. The valves are manually operated, and consist of a valve body with
an inlet and outlet port, the passage between the two being blocked by a spring-loaded
valve. Operation of an external lever opens the valve against spring pressure and allows
fluid to flow from the accumulator to the reservoir.
Drain Cocks
Drain cocks are generally simple manually operated spherical valves, and are located in
the hydraulics bay at the lowest point in the system. They are marked to indicate direction
of flow, and are used to drain the system, when it is necessary to do so, in order to replace
the fluid, or, in some systems, to change certain components.
Fluid Sampling Points
Fluid sampling points are suitably positioned in the suction and pressure lines, to enable
samples of fluid to be removed for analysis. The component is usually a T-piece adapter,
the two main connections being connected in the system pipeline, and the third
connection being fitted with a bleed screw.
Ground Servicing Couplings
These components are included in most hydraulic systems, and enable the system to be
tested using a ground test rig. The coupling is self-sealing, and is similar to the
quick-disconnect coupling, one half being located in the aircraft and the other on the test
rig. When not in use the coupling is sealed by a dust cap.
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Hydraulic Power
POWERED FLYING CONTROLS
Because of the high loads imposed on the flying control surfaces, modern transport
aircraft are provided with power-operated or power-assisted controls. Because of the
importance of the flying control system, hydraulic power to each control surface is
provided by at least two independent hydraulic systems (sometimes using separate
actuators) plus an emergency system operated by electrical power or by ram air turbines.
In addition, some systems allow for reversion to manual operation of the control surfaces,
or tabs, in the event of all hydraulic systems failing.
A hydraulic sub-system for the operation of the flying controls, often fed through a priority
valve, which ensures that fluid under pressure is always available. The subsystem may
also have a separate accumulator.
The unit, which moves a control surface is a combined selector valve and actuator,
usually known as a servo-control unit, the selector being connected by cables and rods to
the pilots' controls. A typical servo-control unit is illustrated in the figure.
With hydraulic power available, operation of a pilot control moves the spool in the selector,
thus directing fluid to one side of the actuator and opening a return path from the other
side. Movement of the actuator operates the control surface, and at the same time moves
the selector back towards the neutral position.
When control surface movement corresponds to the deflection of the pilots control, this is
fed back to the selector and put the selector back to the neutral position. Fluid is locked in
the actuator when no hydraulic pressure is available, the interconnecting valve opens
under spring pressure and the actuator is free to move.
The control may then be operated by alternative servo-control units, or by manual linkage,
depending on the particular installation.
Servo-Control Unit
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Hydraulic Power
An alternative method of operating the flying controls is by means of self-contained

powered flying control units (PFCU's).
Control surfaces are divided into sections, and each section is operated by a separate
PFCU, thus providing duplication to guard against failure of a unit. Each unit is controlled
by mechanical linkage from the pilots controls, and some units also accept electrical
inputs from the auto-pilot and auto- stabilizer. The mechanical input rod to each unit is
telescopic and spring loaded, so that failure of one PFCU will not prevent operation of the
associated control system.
In the event of failure, or when a unit is inoperative, the actuating ram is mechanically
locked in the neutral position, thus preventing movement of the associated section of the
control surface. Actual operation is basically similar to that of the servo-control unit
described previously, but each PFCU is a self-contained hydraulic system, and is not
connected with the main hydraulic system, or with other PFCUs. The main body of each
PFCU acts as a reservoir, and houses all the components necessary for operation of the
unit, including electrically driven pumps and hydraulic actuator.
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE
Aircraft installations vary considerably, and the appropriate Maintenance Manual should
be consulted before any work is carried out on the hydraulic system of any particular
aircraft. Failure to observe the precautions detailed by the manufacturer could lead to
damage to the aircraft, and, possibly, to physical injury.
Even when the aircraft pumps are stationary, high pressures are maintained in parts of
the system by the accumulators, and no disconnection should be made while the system
is pressurised. Any specific instructions regarding the isolation of electrical circuits, or the
fitting of hydraulic safety locks during servicing, should be carefully followed.
Cleanliness
With a modern hydraulic system cleanliness is of the utmost importance. The filters fitted
in the aircraft system will normally protect the components from the effects of particle
contamination, but it is important that any ground equipment used for servicing purposes
is kept scrupulously clean; and that the fluid is filtered to a similar standard.
Contamination from other fluids must also be avoided, and provision is usually made for
taking fluid samples.
Whenever a connection js broken or a component is removed, precautions must

immediately be taken to prevent the ingress of foreign matter or moisture. If it is
necessary to top-up the system, fluid should be poured directly from a new fluid container
into the reservoir, or a sealed dispensing rig should be used. When the system is
topped-up from a can, any unused fluid should be discarded.
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Hydraulic Power
Sampling
Samples of the system fluid should be taken at the periods specified in the approved
Maintenance Schedule, and whenever contamination is suspected.
If a fluid sampling kit is available it should be used strictly in accordance with the
manufacturers' instructions, but, if such a kit is not available, the sample should be sent to
a laboratory for examination.
The parameters to be tested are acidity, specific gravity, viscosity, water content, and
particle contamination, and acceptable values are specified in the appropriate
Maintenance Manual.
If slight contamination is present, the fluid should be circulated by operation of the

services, and a further sample taken. If heavy contamination is found, the affected
system should be flushed or drained, and re-filled with clean fluid.
Flushing
Flushing is normally required after extensive removal and replacement of pipelines or

components, and is carried out by operating the particular service a number of times, so
that the filters may trap any particle contamination.
When it is necessary to flush the main system, the filters should be changed and
operating the largest hydraulic jacks a number of times should circulate the fluid. Either
an auxiliary pump, or an external hydraulic test rig, may be used for flushing, but, if an
auxiliary pump is used, it is normally recommended that it is subsequently removed and
inspected for possible damage.
Draining the System
The hydraulic system should be drained whenever components, which are not provided
with self-sealing couplings, have to be removed, and also when overheating or
mechanical failure of a pump, or the introduction of extraneous fluids or foreign matter,
has resulted in contamination of the system.
It is common practice to disconnect the engine-driven pump from the system before
commencing draining, so as to prevent the formation of air locks in the pump and to
maintain lubrication when the pump is rotated.
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Hydraulic Power
The hydraulic system should be made electrically safe (by the tripping of circuit-breakers
or the removal of fuses, as appropriate), the hydraulic pressure should be released by
operating one of the services, and the air pressure should be released from the
accumulators and reservoir. The reservoir filler cap should be removed, and fluid should
be drained into a clean container of suitable capacity, by means of the system drain cock.
Drained fluid should be returned, in appropriately identified containers, for reclamation by
an approved process.
If fluid contamination is the reason for draining, it will also be necessary to remove the
filters, and to clean or replace the filter elements as appropriate. Cleaning is usually by an
ultrasonic cleaning process, but washing in trichloroethylene may also be permissible as
a temporary measure.
Filling the System
Following initial installation, and whenever the fluid has been drained, the system should
be filled and primed. Filling may be carried out through the reservoir filler neck, or through
a priming connection in the ground servicing bay, using an external priming rig. The
system is pressurised for priming purposes by using either an aircraft
electrically-operated pump or an external hydraulic test rig.
To ensure correct operation of the system, all air must be removed from the pipelines and
components. Some components are bled by slackening the pipe connections, allowing
fluid to escape, then retightening; some components are fitted with bleed valves, and
others are purged by operating the service and forcing any trapped air to return to the
reservoir.
The aircraft should be jacked in accordance with the relevant Maintenance Manual, and
the accumulators should be charged with air or nitrogen, as appropriate. Ground
electrical power should be connected, and the appropriate fluid and pump overheat
warning lamps should be tested.
The reservoir filler cap should be removed, the system should be completely filled with
fluid, and the quantity indicators should be checked. The system should be pressurised
to normal system pressure, using the electrically operated pump or test rig as appropriate,
and one of the services should be operated until the reservoir fluid level has stabilised.
Trapped air should be released from the reservoir, and fluid added to keep the level at
maximum. This process should be repeated for each service, bleeding being carried out
where appropriate, and careful watch being kept on the pump and fluid temperatures.
Fluid bled or drained from components must not be returned to the system.
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Hydraulic Power
After each service has been primed, the fluid level should again be checked. In some
systems the fluid level depends on the positions of various actuators, and, before
checking the fluid level, it is necessary to make the appropriate selections, and to ensure
that all accumulators and reservoirs are fully charged.
When filling and priming are completed, all connections should be checked for tightness,
and locked. Electrical power (and the hydraulic test rig, if used) should be disconnected,
and the aircraft should be lowered to the ground. Engines should be run to check correct
operation of the hydraulic services.
Replacement of Components
Before removing any components in the system, fluid pressure should be released by
operating an appropriate service a number of times, and gas pressure should be released
by means of the accumulator gas charging valve and the reservoir filler cap.
Care should be taken to release gas pressure slowly. In addition, it may be necessary to
electrically isolate some components by tripping the associated circuit-breaker, or by
removing a fuse, making due note of the circuits disconnected, for reference when
re-assembling. Electrical isolation is preferable, in order to avoid any possibility of
inadvertent selection, whether or not power is available at that time.
Some components, such as the engine-driven pumps, are connected into the system by
quick-release couplings, so that they may be removed without disturbing the rest of the
system, but it may be necessary to drain the system in order to remove other
components.
In instances where a component, such as a pump, has to be removed because of

mechanical failure, the fluid may have been contaminated by metal particles, and it will be
necessary to clean the filters, drain the old fluid, and flush the system with clean fluid.
Care should be taken not to spill any fluid drained from the system, and pipes should be
blanked immediately they are disconnected. Blanks should not be removed until
immediately prior to fitting the new component.
Installation
Replacement components must be checked to ensure that they have the correct
modification standard, and that storage life has not been exceeded. The age of
replacement seals is particularly important. If the components are filled with storage oil,
they should be drained and flushed, then filled with system fluid before installation.
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Hydraulic Power
Care should be taken, when fitting the pipes, to ensure that the connections meet properly.
Flexible pipes should not be allowed to twist when the end fittings are tightened, and the
associated mechanism should be operated to ensure that the pipes are not stretched or
kinked, and do not foul any adjacent structure.
Any adjustments to sequence valves, micro-switches and linkage, should be carried out
in accordance with the relevant Maintenance Manual, to ensure correct operation of the
service and its associated signalling and warning systems. Where necessary, the system
should be filled and primed, and all connections should be tightened to the specified
torque, and locked, as appropriate.
Actuators usually have a range of movement slightly greater than that of the service they
operate. This both ensures that the actuator piston will not bottom in its cylinder before
operation of the service is complete, and allows for vibration and flexing of the structure.
Adjustable actuators are often used to operate the over-centre linkage on a landing gear,
and these are initially adjusted so that the attachment pins are an easy fit. They are then
lengthened by one turn of the eye-end, to make sure that the actuator piston will not
bottom and inadvertently release the over-centre lock. After adjustment, the eye-end
should be checked to ensure that it is still in safety, i.e. that the thread can be seen in the
hole provided in the piston rod for this purpose.
Another example of an adjustable actuator, is the single acting actuator used as a locking
device, although in this case, the actuator cylinder may be adjustable for length. These
actuators are adjusted in a similar way, to ensure that the lock is always under spring
pressure.
Testing
In order to carry out functional tests, the system must be full, accumulators must be
charged with air or nitrogen to the correct pressure, and the -electrical circuits must be
re-connected. Power for operation of the system may be provided by an engine-driven
pump, by an aircraft electrically-operated pump, or by an external hydraulic test rig. All
hydraulic controls and switches should be set to their appropriate operating positions, and
the system should be checked for correct operation service operating times, and signs of
fluid leakage.
Both the normal and emergency systems should be operated, and all gauges,
instruments and warning lights should be checked for correct operation, according to the
particular aircraft system.
Full normal functioning tests should be carried out after testing the emergency systems,
to ensure that shuttle and emergency valves are returned to their normal positions.
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Hydraulic Power
Routine Maintenance
The procedures outlined below are applicable to most aircraft hydraulic systems, but the
detailed requirements for a particular system should be obtained from the approved
Maintenance Schedule.
Lubrication of pivots and intervals linkages should be carried out at the specified time.
Filters and chip detectors should be removed for examination and cleaning and fluid
samples should be taken and sent for analysis whenever contamination is suspected.
Filter sumps should be cleaned, and a new gasket or seal should be fitted when changing
the filter element.
Exposed actuator rods should be cleaned, and wiped with a lint-free cloth moistened with
system fluid.
The fluid level in the reservoirs should be checked and topped-up as necessary. A certain
amount of fluid may be lost through heating and seepage past seals, but the amount lost
should remain fairly constant. If the level is unusually low, the system should be checked
for leakage. The gas pressure in the accumulators should be checked, and the cause of
any excessive loss of pressure should be investigated. Internal leakage past the
separator or diaphragm may introduce gas into the fluid, and external leakage would
reduce the effectiveness of the accumulator.
All system components should be examined for damage, corrosion, leaks and security.
Pipes should be examined for kinks, dents, chafing, leaks, and security.
CHECKS FOR SYSTEM DETERIORATION

Sluggish or erratic operation of a hydraulic system may be caused by external leakage
from components or joints, or by internal leakage resulting from erosion, or faulty seals. A
small amount of external leakage may not seriously affect system operation, and some
Maintenance Manuals specify acceptable limits.
Temperature indicators installed in some aircraft hydraulic systems will, since flow
produces heat, give some warning of incipient failure; but internal leakage tests are
generally only conducted at specified intervals, or when faulty system operation is
reported.
Depending on the type of system installed, either flow rate or leak rate checks are carried
out, an external hydraulic test rig usually being connected to the aircraft, and the hydraulic
system usually being prepared for normal operation.
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Hydraulic Power
z Flow Rate Check
This check is carried out with a flow indicator installed in line with the external test rig, the
hydraulic services being systematically operated in the manner prescribed in the relevant
Maintenance Manual, and the flow rates being recorded.
Flow through a particular component may be checked by comparing the flow reading at
various actuator positions, but some aircraft are fitted with a maintenance hydraulic power
system, which uses separate pipelines and isolation cocks .to facilitate flow rate checks.
Components with internal leakage greater than the maximum permitted, should be
removed for investigation.
z Leak Rate Check
For this check, the system should be pressurised to normal operating pressure, then the
test rig should be quickly turned off and the time taken for system pressure to decay by a
prescribed amount, should be recorded. If the leakage rate is excessively high, parts of
the system may be checked individually by blanking appropriate connections and
recording the leakage rate through particular components, or groups of components.
In some cases, leakage through a component, such as an actuator, may be checked by

disconnecting one pipeline, applying system pressure to the opposite connection, and
measuring the quantity of fluid discharged through the open port over a specified time.
Components showing excessive leakage should be removed for examination and
possible replacement of seals.
Seals
When it becomes necessary to remove a component with a gasket or static seal fitted to
the joint face, or to disassemble a component containing static or dynamic seals, the old
gaskets or seals should be discarded, and new ones should be fitted. A new seal should
be checked to ensure that it is the correct size, and of the correct material for the type of
fluid in the system, and to ensure that the shelf-life, where applicable, has not been
exceeded.
Extreme care must be exercised when handling and fitting a seal, and a suitable
assembly tool or guide should be used where necessary; a tubular guide should be used
when passing a seal over a thread. Scratches and nicks must be avoided, and the seal
must not be stretched excessively; it is particularly important to check 'O' rings after
assembly to ensure that they are not twisted.
Seals should normally be lubricated with system fluid before assembly, and in some
instances it is recommended that they should be soaked in fluid for a specified time.
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Hydraulic Power
In some cases a number of seals are used together, or in an assembly with backing rings
or wiper rings. It must be ensured that these components are fitted facing in the correct
direction, and in the correct sequence, otherwise leakage and failure of the component
may result.
Backing rings of nylon or similar material may be supplied uncut. The ends should be
trimmed to produce the gap specified in the appropriate Maintenance Manual.
Rings made from polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) require particular care during assembly,
as undue stretching or kinking could result in permanent damage. A tapered mandrel
should normally be used during assembly, to minimize stretch with the larger diameter the
same size as the land over which the ring must pass. It is recommended that the
component to which the ring is fitted should not be assembled for 30 minutes, to enable
the ring to relax.
STORAGE
Hydraulic components are normally packed in sealed containers or plastic bags, and
should not be unpacked until required for use. They should be stored in conditions, which
are dry and free from corrosive fumes.
Assemblies containing seals, or other non-metallic parts, are normally filled with system
fluid or storage oil, and all connections are securely blanked to prevent leakage or ingress
of dirt or moisture. Pipes are usually blanked and stored in a dry condition, and care must
be taken to ensure that flexible pipes are stored in the shape in which they have been
manufactured or which they have assumed during use. Particular care should be taken
with pipes manufactured from PTFE, which had a low structural strength, and which may
become permanently kinked if bent.
Storage life of assemblies is determined by the life of the non-metallic parts, and depends
on the material from which those parts are made. The life of rubber components is
dependent upon storage conditions, and may be limited, but the life of PTFE parts may be
indefinite. The date of packing, and the storage life, should be marked on the container,
but storage life may also be checked by reference to the appropriate Maintenance
Manual.
Components removed from storage should be checked, before installation, for damage
and corrosion. Components which have been stored dry, or have been filled with storage
oil, should be flushed with system fluid, and every precaution should be taken to prevent
the ingress of dirt or moisture.
43
Flight Controls
CONTROL SYSTEMS
A control system is defined as a system by which the flight attitude or the propulsive force
of an aircraft is changed.
For the purpose of duplicate inspections a control system comprises control surfaces
including the primary flight controls, tabs, flaps, air brakes, the mechanisms used by the
pilot to operate them, the primary engine controls, the related system controls {e.g.
throttle controls, fuel cock controls, oil-cooler controls) and the mechanisms used by the
crew to operate them.
The duplicate inspection also applies to systems, which are inter-linked in such a manner
with the main control systems that they could adversely affect the correct operation of the
main system to such an extent as to affect the safety of the aircraft.
All control systems should be so designed and constructed that at all reasonably possible
breakdown points, it is mechanically impossible to:
1. assemble the controls to be disastrously out of phase,

2. assemble the controls so that they operate in the reverse sense, or
3. interconnect the controls of two systems where this is not intended.
These requirements are satisfied in practice in a number of ways:
1. by the use of end fittings having different diameter threads for different cables,
2. by the use of different diameter pins in correspondingly different diameter holes in end
fittings,
3. by staggering the positions of breakdown points so that cross-connecting, etc, is
impossible.
MANUALLY OPERATED FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control of aircraft about the longitudinal, normal and lateral axes is effected by means of
ailerons, rudder and elevators respectively.
The following figures show how the control surfaces are controlled manually by the
control columns and rudder pedals in the flight compartment.
1
Flight Controls
Sketch of Elevator Control System
Sketch Of Rudder Control System
2
Flight Controls
Sketch Of Aileron Control System
To offset the forces that tend to unbalance an aircraft in flight, ailerons, elevators and
rudders are provided with auxiliary controls known as tabs. These are small, hinged
control surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the primary control surfaces.
Tabs can be moved up or down by means of a crank or moved electrically from the
cockpit.
Trim Tabs
Trim tabs trim the aircraft in flight. To trim means to correct any tendency of the aircraft to
move toward an undesirable flight attitude.
Trim tabs control the balance of an aircraft so that it maintains the desired attitude without
pressure on the control column, control wheel, or rudder pedals. In the following figure
illustrates a trim tab.
Note that the tab has a variable linkage, which is adjustable from the cockpit. Movement
of the tab in one direction causes a deflection of the control surface in the opposite
direction. Most of the trim tabs installed on aircraft are mechanically operated from the
cockpit through an individual cable system.
3
Flight Controls
However, some aircraft have trim tabs that are operated by an electrical actuator. Trim
tabs are either controlled from the cockpit or adjusted on the ground before taking off.
Trim tabs are installed on elevators, rudders, and ailerons.
Servo Tabs
Servo tabs are very similar in operation and appearance to the trim tabs just discussed.
Servo tabs, sometimes referred to as flight tabs, are used primarily on the large main
control surfaces. Only the servo tab moves in response to movement of the cockpit
control. (The servo tab horn is free to pivot to the main control surface hinge axis.)
The force of the airflow on the servo tab then moves the primary control surface.
Balance Tabs
The linkage of a balance tab is designed in such a way that when the main control surface
is moved, the tab moves in the opposite direction. Thus, aerodynamic forces, acting on
the tab, assist in moving the main control surface.
Spring Tabs
Spring tabs are similar in appearance to trim tabs, but serve an entirely different purpose.
On some aircraft, a spring tab is hinged to the trailing edge of each aileron and is actuated
by a spring-loaded push-pull rod assembly, which is also linked to the aileron control
linkage.
The linkage is connected in such a way that movement of the aileron in one direction
causes the spring tab to be deflected in the opposite direction. This provides a balanced
condition, thus reducing the amount of force required to move the ailerons.
The deflection of the spring tabs is directly proportional to the aerodynamic load imposed
upon the aileron; therefore, at low speeds the spring tab remains in a neutral position and
the aileron is a direct manually controlled surface.
At high speeds, however, where the aerodynamic load is great, the tab functions as an aid
in moving the primary control surface.
4
Flight Controls
Flight Control Trim Tab Types
POWERED CONTROLS
Power-Assisted Controls
In this type of control part of the force needed to move the control surface is provided by a
power system and part by the physical effort of the pilot. The pilot's feel" is thus provided
by the control surface loads.
Initial movement of the pilot's controls produces (by mechanical connection) a small
movement of the control surface which operates a control valve causing the control jack
to follow-up, thus providing the bulk of the force to permit the movement of the control
surface. As the control surface reaches the position appropriate to the position of the
pilot's control, the valve is closed and the system comes to rest.
5
Flight Controls
In the event of power failure or faults in the power system, satisfactory control can be
maintained by manual means. A disconnecting mechanism is usually provided to prevent
interference from the power system when it is not in use.
The trim control of power-assisted control systems is usually provided by conventional

trailing-edge tabs, as for manually-operated flying control systems.
Power-Operated Controls
In this type of system the whole of the force needed to operate the control surfaces is
provided by power systems independent of each other but working in parallel.
Movement of the pilots control operates a valve control ling an appropriate mechanism,
which operates the control surfaces until they reach the position appropriate to that of the
pilot's control, when the valve is closed and the system comes to rest.
It is not inherent in the system that the pilot's feel should have any direct connection to
the force on the control surface, and this, together with the self-centering of the controls,
is achieved by artificial means. The two most common methods of providing feel are:
1. constant load for a given control position imposed by a spring strut and,
2. a variable loading related to airspeed and applied by a q system, i.e. a force
mathematically proportional to the square of the speed of the aircraft.
To provide for the event of power failure or faults in the power-operating mechanism,
manual reversion might be provided, or there may be two or more systems, each with its
own independent hydraulic system having additional pumps to safeguard against failure
of their own pressure sources.
In controls incorporating three power systems, where the servo unit is attached to the
main structure and the jack rams move to control the aerofoil surface, a seizure of the unit
selector valve could cause a hydraulic lock in the jack concerned. In this unlikely event
the combined pressure of the two other jacks is designed to cause a safety relief valve in
the defective unit to open, thus maintaining normal power control. The independent
systems may operate one at a time, requiring manual changeover if a fault develops, or
may be operating all the time in harmony, with a device to cut out (by manual selection or
automatically) the system which fails to operate correctly.
Since power-operated controls are irreversible, it is not usual to make use of the
conventional trailing-edge trim tab, and trim is often obtained by adjusting the zero
position of the artificial feel mechanism.
However, balance tabs are sometimes fitted to assist in maintaining hinge and servo
loads to within the design values.
6
Flight Controls
INSTALLATION OF FLYING CONTROLS
The flying controls must be installed in accordance with the requirements prescribed in
the relevant approved drawings and documents associated with the drawings, or with the
requirements of the relevant manual.
All parts used in the installation (e.g. electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic parts of the
system) must bear evidence of prior inspection and, where applicable, duplicate
inspection.
Stops
Adjustable and non-adjustable stops are used to limit the throw-range or travel movement
of the ailerons, elevators, and rudder.
Usually there are two sets of stops for each of the three main control surfaces, one set
being located at the control surface, either in the snubber cylinders or as structural stops,
and the other at the cockpit control. Either of these may serve as the actual limit stop.
However, those situated at the control surface usually perform this function. The other
stops do not normally contact each other, but are adjusted to a definite clearance when
the control surface is at the full extent of its travel.
These work as override stops to prevent stretching of cables and damage to the control
system during violent maneuvers. When rigging control systems, refer to the applicable
maintenance manual for the sequence of steps for adjusting these stops to limit the
control surface travel.
Adjustable Rudder Stops
7
Flight Controls
Control Surface Snubbers and Locking Devices
Various types of devices are in use to lock the control surfaces when the aircraft is parked
or moored. Locking devices prevent damage to the control surfaces and their linkages
from gusts and high-velocity winds. Common devices that are in use are the internal
locking brake (sector brake) spring-loaded plunger, and external control surface locks.
1. Internal locking devices
The internal locking device is used to secure the ai1erons, rudder, and elevator in their
neutral positions. The locking device is usually operated through a cable system by a
spring-loaded plunger (pin) that engages a hole in the control surface mechanical linkage
to lock the surface. A spring connected to the pin forces it back to the unlock position
when the cockpit control lever is placed in the unlock" position. An over-centre toggle
linkage is used on some other type aircraft to lock the control surfaces.
Control surface locking systems are usually so designed that the throttles cannot be
advanced until the control surfaces are unlocked. This prevents taking off with the control
surfaces in the locked position.
A typical control lock for small aircraft consists of a metal tube that is installed to lock the
control wheel and rudder pedals to an attachment in the cockpit. Such a system is
illustrated in the figure:
Typical Control Lock Assembly
8
Flight Controls
2. Control surface snubbers
Hydraulic booster units are used on some aircraft to move the control surfaces. The
surfaces are usually protected from wind gusts by snubbers incorporated into the booster
unit. On some aircraft an auxiliary snubber cylinder is connected directly to the surface to
provide protection. The snubbers hydraulically check or cushion control surface
movement when the aircraft is parked. This prevents wind gusts from slamming the
control surfaces into their stops and possibly causing damage.
3. External control surface locks
External control surface locks are in the form of channeled wood blocks. The channeled
wood blocks sIide into the openings between the ends of the movable surfaces and the
aircraft structure. This locks the surfaces in neutral. When not in use, these locks are
stowed within the aircraft.
TENSION REGULATORS
Cable tension regulators are used in some flight control systems because there is
considerable difference in temperature expansion of the aluminium aircraft structure and
the steel control cables. Some large aircraft incorporate tension regulators in the control
cable systems to automatically maintain a given cable tension.
The unit consists of a compression spring and a locking mechanism, which allows the
spring to make correction in the system only when the cable system is in neutral. The
following figure shows a typical rudder cable tension regulator.
Rudder Cable Tension Regulator

9
Flight Controls
RIGGING OF FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
In order for a control system to function properly, it must be correctly adjusted. Correctly
rigged control surfaces will move through a prescribed arc (surface-throw) and be
synchronized with the movement of the cockpit controls.
Rigging any system requires that the step-by-step procedures be followed as outlined in
the aircraft maintenance manual. Although the complete rigging procedure for most
aircraft is of a detailed nature that requires several adjustments, the basic method follows
three steps:
1. Lock the cockpit control, bellcranks, and the control surfaces in the neutral position.
2. Adjust the cable tension, maintaining the rudder, elevators, or ailerons in the neutral
position.
3. Adjust the control stops to limit the control surface travel to the dimensions given for
the aircraft being rigged.
The range of movement of the controls and control surfaces should be checked in both
directions from neutral.
The rigging of the trim tab systems is performed in a similar manner. The trim tab control
is set to the neutral (no trim) position, and the surface tab is usually adjusted to streamline
with the control surface. However, on some aircraft the trim tabs may be offset a degree
or two from streamline when in the neutral position. After the tab and tab control are in
the neutral position, adjust the control cable tension.
Pins, usually called rig pins, are sometimes used to simplify the setting of pulleys, levers,
bellcranks, etc., in their neutral positions. A rig pin is a small metallic pin or clip. When rig
pins are not provided, the neutral positions can be established by means of alignment
marks, by special templates, or by taking linear measurements.
If the final alignment and adjustment of a system are correct, it should be possible to
withdraw the rigging pins easily. Any undue tightness of the pins in the rigging holes
indicates incorrect tensioning or misalignment of the system.
After a system has been adjusted, the full and synchronized movement of the controls
should be checked. When checking the range of movement of the control surface, the
controls must be operated from the cockpit and not by moving the control surfaces.
During the checking of control surface travel, ensure that chains, cables, etc., have not
reached the limit of their travel when the controls are against their respective stops.
Where dual controls are installed, they must be synchronized and function satisfactorily
when operated from both positions.
10
Flight Controls
Trim tabs and other tabs should be checked in a manner similar to the main control
surfaces. The tab position indicator must be checked to see that it functions correctly.
If jackscrews are used to actuate the trim tab, check to see that they are not extended
beyond the specified limits when the tab is in its extreme positions.
After determining that the control system functions properly and is correctly rigged, it
should be thoroughly inspected to determine that the system is correctly assembled, and
will operate freely over the specified range of movement. Make certain that all
turnbuckles, rod ends, and attaching nuts and bolts are correctly safetied.
Manually Operated Controls
The manual operation of the system should be witnessed whilst the controls are operated
throughout their full range. This should be carried out in quiet conditions as some
mechanical defects can be detected by an unusual noise.
The primary systems should be checked for static friction, using a spring balance. The
forces on the control column or wheel and rudder pedals necessary to overcome static
friction should not exceed the values given in the following table.
In the case of systems incorporating cables, these conditions should be met with the
cables rigged at the stipulated tensions.
Maximum Static Force on

Maximum Weight
Control
Of Aeroplane
Elevator Aileron Rudder
10,000 Ib or less 4 Ib 2 Ib 6 Ib
50,000 Ib or more 10 Ib 8 Ib 10 Ib
With straight line variation

Between these weights
The full and synchronised movement of the controls should be checked to the relevant
rigging diagrams, and the limit stops adjusted as necessary to the relevant rigging
diagram requirements. The stops should be relocked. It is important that the pilot's
controls and control surfaces contact their stops in the correct sequence.
During the checking of settings it should be ensured that collective backlash in the system
does not exceed permitted limits and, when controls are in the "full-travel" position and
against their respective stops, that chains, cables, etc., have not reached the limit of their
travel.
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Flight Controls
Where dual control facilities are provided, it should be ensured that they are correctly
synchronised and function satisfactorily when operated from both positions.
Where components or control systems are interconnected it should be ensured that they
are correctly coordinated in accordance with drawing requirements.
Where friction devices are employed it should be ensured that the selected degree of
friction is applied to the controls throughout the range of movement.
Where spring devices are fitted in the control system, these should be checked for correct
tension, cleanliness and adequate lubrication.
Powered Controls
The rigging of powered controls varies with each type of aircraft. However, reference can
be made to the nature of the precautions, which should be taken when rigging such
systems.
It is of the utmost importance that each system should be correctly adjusted and all
means of adjustment correctly locked. Where cables are used in powered control
systems, it is essential that they are correctly tensioned to prevent mal-functioning of the
actuating units. The tensioning requirements, the type of tension meter to be used, and
the positions where readings are to be taken will be prescribed in the relevant manual for
the aircraft concerned.
To compensate for structural flexing and changes in temperature, cable-tension

compensator units are sometimes incorporated in the control circuit; these compensators
should be preset and the system adjusted as prescribed in the relevant manual. To
simplify the adjustment compensator units may be provided with scales or datum holes to
indicate when the adjustment is correct.
It is important during initial setting that jacks do not bottom unless designed to do so as
this may result in straining parts of the unit which could lead to failure in service.
To prevent damage to the control system if by error rigging pins were left in position, some
rigging pins are designed to have a maximum shear value. Only those designed for the
system concerned should be used, but in general, the accuracy of diameter and correct
fitting are the important considerations. Ground locking devices should never be used in
lieu of rigging pins.
All rigging pins or centralising devices must be removed immediately after the rigging
operation is completed and before operating the power systems, otherwise damage may
result. This precaution must be made part of the control system clearance procedure.
Similarly, precautions should be taken to ensure that all obstructions, such as trestles, are
out of the way of control surfaces.
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Flight Controls
When static friction tests are prescribed for the control circuits, these should be done with
a spring balance or suitable test rig in the manner prescribed and must not exceed the
limiting values permitted. In some power- assisted systems, excessive friction could
upset the feel of the system to the detriment of the handling qualities of the aircraft.
In some instances it may be necessary to disconnect the feel spring struts in order that
the true friction value can be obtained. It may also be necessary to check spring-strut
break-out forces following the static check.
The engagement and disengagement of control locks should be checked at the same
time as a check on the correct functioning of the applicable warning devices.
The range of movement of the controls and control surfaces should be checked in both
directions from the neutral position. If the range does not meet the rigging tolerances, the
necessary adjustments should be made and the duplicate inspection completed.
Where components in control systems are interconnected their operation should be

correctly coordinated in accordance with drawing requirements. Where friction devices
are employed, it should be ensured that the selected degree of friction is applied to the
controls throughout the range of movement.
RIGGING INSTRUMENTS
Tensiometer
To determine the amount of tension on a cable, a tensiometer is used. When properly

maintained, a tensiometer is 98% accurate.
Cable tension is determined by measuring the amount of force needed to make an offset
in the cable between two hardened steel blocks, called anvils. A riser or plunger is
pressed against the cable to form the offset.
Several manufacturers make a variety of tensiometers, each type designed for different
kinds of cable, cable sizes, and cable tensions.
One type of tensiometer is illustrated in the following figure. With the trigger lowered,
place the cable to be tested under the two anvils, then close the trigger (move it up).
Movement of the trigger pushes up the riser, which pushes the cable at right angles to the
two clamping points under the anvils. The force that is required to do this is indicated by
the dial pointer.
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Flight Controls
As the sample chart beneath the illustration shows, different numbered risers are used
with different size cables. Each riser has an identifying number and is easily inserted into
the tensiometer.
Tensiometer
Example
No.1 Riser No. 2 No. 3

Tension
Dia. 1/16 3/32 1/8 Lb. 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4
12 16 21 30 12 20
19 23 29 40 17 26
25 30 36 50 22 32
31 36 43 60 26 37
36 42 50 70 30 42
41 48 57 80 34 47
46 54 63 90 38 52
51 60 69 100 42 56
110 46 60
120 50 64
Tensiometer Chart
14
Flight Controls
In addition, each tensiometer has a calibration table, which is used to convert the dial
reading to pounds. The dial reading is converted to pounds of tension as follows.
Using a no.2 riser to measure the tension of a 5/32 in. diameter cable a reading of "30" is
obtained. The actual tension (see calibration table) of the cable is 70 lbs. Observing the
chart, also notice that a no.1 riser is used with 1/16-, 3/32-, and 1/8-in. cable. Since the
tensiometer is not designed for use in measuring 7/32- or 1/4-. cable, no values are
shown in the no.3 riser column of the chart.
When taking a reading, it may be difficult to see the dial. Therefore, a pointer lock is
present on the tensiometer. Push it in to lock the pointer. Then remove the tensiometer
from the cable and observe the reading. After observing the reading, pull the lock out and
the pointer will return to zero.
Cable rigging tension charts are graphic tools used to compensate for temperature
variations. They are used when establishing cable tensions in flight control systems,
landing gear systems, or any other cable-operated systems.
To use the chart, determine the size of the cable that is to be adjusted and the ambient air
temperature. For example, assume that the cable size is 1/8-in. in diameter, that it is a
7x19 cable, and the ambient air temperature is 85F, line upward to where it intersects the
curve for 1/8-in. cable. Extend a horizontal line from the point of intersection to the right
edge of the chart. The value at this point indicates the tension (rigging load in pounds) to
establish on the cable. The tension for this example is 70 lbs.
Typical Cable Rigging Chart

15
Flight Controls
Tools for Surface Travel Measurement
The tools for measuring surface travel primarily include protractors, rigging fixtures,
contour templates, and rulers. These tools are used when rigging flight control systems to
assure that the desired travel has been obtained.
Protractors are tools for measuring angles in degrees. Various types of protractors are
used to determine the travel of flight control surfaces.
One protractor that can be used to measure aileron, elevator, or wing flap travel is the
universal propeller protractor. Notice that this protractor (in the following figure) is made
up of a frame, a disk, a ring, and two spirit levels.
The disk and ring turn independently of each other and of the frame. (The corner spirit
level is used to position the frame vertically when measuring propeller blade angle.) The
centre spirit level is used to position the disk when measuring control surface travel. A
disk-to-ring lock is provided to secure the disk and ring together when the zero on the ring
vernier scale and the zero on the disk degree scale align. The ring-to-frame lock prevents
the ring from moving when the disk is moved.
Note that they start at the same point and advance in opposite directions. A double
10-part vernier is marked on the ring.
Universal Propeller Protractor
16
Flight Controls
DUPLICATE INSPECTION PROCEDURES
A duplicate inspection of the control system in the aircraft shall be made:
1. before the first flight of all aircraft after initial assembly,

2. before the first flight after the overhaul, replacement, repair, adjustment or
modification of the system.
The two parts of the duplicate inspection shall be the final operations, and as the purpose
of the inspection is to establish the integrity of the system, all work should have been
completed. If, after the duplicate inspection has been completed, the control system is
disturbed in any way before the first flight, that part of the system, which has been
disturbed, shall be inspected in duplicate before the aircraft flies.
In some instances it may not be possible after complete assembly of the aircraft to inspect
all parts of the system because some sections of the system may get progressively
"boxed in" and sealed during assembly operations. In such cases the condition and
security of any section which is liable to be sealed must be established before the section
is sealed and the related Inspection record endorsed accordingly.
NOTE : Inspection Records should be carefully prepared to ensure that any duplicate
inspection required at an early stage during assembly operations is clearly indicated, thus
avoiding unnecessary dismantling at later stages.
The correct functioning of control systems is at all times of vital importance to

airworthiness, and it is essential that suitably licensed aircraft engineers and members of
approved inspection organizations responsible for the inspection or duplicate inspection
should be thoroughly conversant with the systems concerned.
The inspection must be carried out systematically to ensure that each and every part of
the system is correctly assembled, and is able to operate freely over the specified range
of movement without risk of fouling. Also that it is correctly and adequately locked, clean
and correctly lubricated, and is working in the correct sense in relation to the movement of
the control by the crew.
FUNCTIONING CHECKS
The final functioning checks on control systems is of the greatest importance and it is
essential that they should be completed systematically. The checks should be carried out
after thorough cleaning and only when all other work on the system has been completed.
The functioning checks must include verification that full, free and correct movement of
the controls is obtained throughout the system relative to the movement of the crew
controls.
17
Flight Controls
A list of all controls and the salient checking points should be drawn up in a suitable
sequence and in duplicate.
A person competent to certify a duplicate inspection should operate the controls in the
cockpit, maintaining the sequence specified in the checking list. Another person
competent to certify the duplicate inspection should check on the control movements in
the same sequence. For the second part of the inspection the two persons should
exchange positions and repeat the checks in identical sequence.
The relative movements of the control surfaces in relation to the pilot1s controls should be
carefully checked to the manufacturer's instructions.
NOTE : Where "free operating control surfaces" are installed the relative movements of
controls are affected. For example, if the control column is moved back, the elevator does
not move at all, but the tab of the elevator moves downwards causing the elevator to
move upwards in flight. This type of control system requires a special checking technique
and the manufacturer's instructions must be closely followed.
The movement of the wing flaps should be checked for synchronisation and a check
should be made to ensure that the flap position indicator accurately registers the position
of the flaps throughout their range of movement.
A check should be made (where applicable) to ensure that the wing flap assymetrical
control device is functioning correctly.
Where wing flaps are interconnected with leading-edge flaps or slots, the installation
should be checked for correct operation during extension and retraction of the wing flaps.
Where spoilers/air brakes are interconnected with the aileron control system, their correct
operation in relation to the aileron should be checked.
Where an aerodynamic feel simulator unit is connected into the main control systems, its
correct operation should be checked with the aid of a pitot system test rig.
It should be ensured that when operational time limits are specified for certain controls,
e.g. flaps and dive brakes, these are within permitted limits.
AUTOMATIC PILOT INSTALLATIONS
The information in this paragraph does not apply to any particular type of installation of
automatic pilot but gives general guidance on essential points, which relate to the flying
control system.
18
Flight Controls
Any moving parts of the automatic pilot that constitute integral parts of the normal control
system, whether the automatic pilot is "in" or out, should be regarded as part of the flying
control system and should be inspected in accordance with the procedure given in this
chapter.
When the automatic controls are disengaged the normal controls should function
satisfactorily, e.g. the resistance offered by the automatic pilot motors, where applicable,
should not affect the control of the aircraft.
A check should be made on the means provided for disconnecting the automatic pilot
from the normal controls to ensure it is possible to do so at all positions of the controls and
that the manual override of the automatic pilot is satisfactory.
The interconnecting mechanism between the automatic pilot and the normal controls
should give the required range of travel and should be correctly aligned and smooth and
positive in operation. The clearance should be in accordance with drawing requirements.
Operating cables, where applicable, should be checked for tension in the manner
applicable to the particular installation.
GROUND TEST AFTER OVERHAUL OR MAJOR DISMANTLING
All rigging pins or retaining devices should have been removed from the controls. Where
control locks are not provided, it may be necessary to support the control surfaces until
the system is functioning. The control surfaces should be checked for freedom from
obstruction and the automatic pilot should be disengaged.
If anyone of the independent systems has been disturbed, a complete series of checks
required to test that system should be made. Where any rectification affects more than
one system or where there is any possibility of the functioning of all systems being
affected, then the complete series of checks to test all systems should be made.
PERIODIC INSPECTIONS
Periodic inspections on the complete flying control systems should be carried out in
accordance with the requirements of the Maintenance Schedule or constructor's Manual.
19
Landing Gear
INTRODUCTION
The functions of a landing gear are to support an aircraft during ground manoeuvres,
dampen vibration, and absorb landing shocks; when required, it also performs the
functions of steering and braking.
These objectives are achieved by many different designs, depending on the type of
aircraft to which the landing gear is fitted and the degree of sophistication required.
A landing gear usually takes the form of two or more main undercarriage units in the
wings or fuselage, and an auxiliary undercarriage unit at the nose or tail, which carries
only a small proportion of the total load and is used for steering purposes.
Many aircraft are equipped with a tricycle gear arrangement. This is almost universally
true of large aircraft, the few exceptions being older model aircraft.
Component parts of a tricycle gear arrangement are the nose gear and the main gears.
Nose gear equipped aircraft are protected at the fuselage tail section with a tail skid or
bumper.
The nose gear arrangement has at least three advantages:
1. It allows more forceful application of the brakes for higher landing speeds without
nosing over.
2. It permits better visibility for the pilot during landing and taxiing.
3. It tends to prevent aircraft ground-looping by moving the aircraft centre of gravity
forward of the main wheels. Forces acting on the centre of gravity tend to keep the
aircraft moving forward on a straight line rather than ground-looping.
The tricycle arrangement of the landing gear is made up of many assemblies and parts.
These consist of air/oil shock struts, main gear alignment units, support units, retraction
and safety devices, auxiliary gear protective devices, nose wheel steering system, aircraft
wheels, tyres, tubes, and aircraft brake systems.
Typical main gear and nose gear assemblies are shown in the following figures.
1
Landing Gear
Wing Landing Gear
The number and location of wheels on the main gear varies. Multiple wheels spread the
aircrafts weight over a larger area in addition to providing a safety margin if one tire
should fail.
2
Landing Gear
Typical Nose Landing Gear
Heavier aircraft may use four or more wheels. When more than two wheels are attached
to one strut, the attaching mechanism is referred to as a 'bogie'. The number of wheels
that are included in the bogie is determined by the gross design weight of the aircraft and
the surfaces on which the loaded aircraft may be required to land.
3
Landing Gear
With slow, light aircraft, and some larger aircraft on which simplicity is of prime importance,
a fixed (non-retractable) landing gear is often fitted, the reduced performance caused by
the drag of the landing gear during flight is offset by the simplicity, reduced maintenance
and low initial cost. With higher performance aircraft, drag becomes progressively more
important, and the landing gear is retracted into the wings or fuselage during flight. There
are, however, penalties of increased weight, greater complication and additional
maintenance.
The landing gear of an aircraft may receive harsh treatment throughout its installed life,
being subject to frequent landing shocks and in regular contact with spray, ice, dirt, and
abrasive grit. Regular washing, servicing and lubrication are required, therefore, to guard
against corrosion, seizure of mechanical parts and failure of electrical components.
FIXED LANDING GEAR
There are three main types of fixed landing gear; those, which have a spring steel leg,
those, which employ rubber cord to absorb shocks, and those, which have an
oleo-pneumatic strut to absorb specks. Others include aircraft with rubber in
compression, spring coil, and liquid spring struts.
Spring Steel Legs
Spring steel legs are usually employed at the main undercarriage positions. The leg
consists of a tube, or strip of tapered spring steel, the upper end being attached by bolts to
the fuselage and the lower end terminating in an axle on which the wheel and brake are
assembled.
Spring Steel Legs
4
Landing Gear
Spring steel undercarriages should be inspected regularly for damage and corrosion.
The aircraft should be jacked up periodically, so that all load is taken off the wheels, and
the security of each undercarriage checked by attempting to move it against the restraint
of its attachments to the airframe structure.
If there are signs of looseness, the bolts should be removed for detailed inspection and
the bolt holes should be checked for cracks or fretting. Axle fittings should be similarly
inspected, and all nuts and bolts should be tightened to the specified torque.
Rubber Cord
When rubber cord is used as a shock-absorber, the undercarriage is usually in the form of
tubular struts, designed and installed so that the landing force is directed against a
number of turns of rubber in the form of a grommet or loop.
Rubber cord is colour coded to indicate the date of manufacture and the specification to
which it conforms, by replacing some of the fibres in the outer cotton covering with
coloured threads wound in a spiral. Details concerning the significance of the colour
coding may be obtained from British Standards as appropriate.
Bungee Rubber Cord
The undercarriage should be examined for damage, corrosion, wear or cracks at the pivot
points, and bent pivot bolts, and should be lubricated as specified in the approved
Maintenance Schedule. The rubber cord should be inspected for chafing, necking, or
other deterioration, and it is advisable to replace it if it is more than five years old,
regardless of its external condition.
5
Landing Gear
Oleo-Pneumatic Struts
Some fixed main undercarriages, and most fixed nose undercarriages, are fitted with an
oleo-pneumatic shock-absorber strut. The design of individual struts varies considerably,
and reference should be made to the appropriate Maintenance Manual for a particular
type, but operation and maintenance procedures for a typical design are covered in the
following paragraphs.
Oleo-Pneumatic Strut
6
Landing Gear
1. Construction
Figure shows the construction of a simple oleo-pneumatic strut, in this instance a nose
undercarriage, which also includes a steering mechanism.
The outer cylinder is fixed rigidly to the airframe structure by two mounting brackets, and
houses an inner cylinder and a piston assembly, the interior space being partially filled
with hydraulic fluid and inflated with compressed gas (air or nitrogen). The inner cylinder
is free to rotate and move up and down within the outer cylinder, but these movements
are limited by the torque links, which connect the inner cylinder to the steering collar.
The steering collar arms are connected through spring struts to the rudder pedals, and a
shimmy damper is attached to the steering collar.
1. Operation
a. Under static conditions the weight of the aircraft is balanced by the strut gas
pressure and the inner cylinder takes up a position approximately midway up its
stroke.
b. Under compression (e.g. when landing), the strut shortens and fluid is forced
through the gap between the piston orifice and the metering rod, this restriction
limiting the speed of upward movement of the inner cylinder.
c. As the internal volume of the cylinders decreases, the gas pressure rises until it
balances the upward force.
d. As the upward force decreases, the gas pressure acts as a spring and extends the
inner cylinder. The speed of extension is limited by the restricted flow of fluid
through the orifice.
e. NOTE : On some struts an additional valve is fitted to the piston or inner cylinder, to
further restrict the flow of fluid during extension, and prevent violent extension of
the strut if upward force is suddenly released, such as when a bounce occurs.
f. Normal taxing bumps are cushioned by the gas pressure and dampened by the
limited flow of fluid through the orifice.
g. Movement of the rudder pedals turns the nose wheel to facilitate ground
manoeuvres, the spring struts being provided to allow for vertical movement of the
nose wheel, and prevent shocks from being transmitted through the rudder control
system.
7
Landing Gear
3. Maintenance
Oleo-pneumatic undercarriages should be subjected to inspections similar to those

recommended for spring leg and rubber cord types, such as examinations for cracks or
damage to mounting structure, corrosion, and wear at pivot points. In addition, the
following maintenance is necessary:
a. Machined surfaces of the strut inner cylinder should be wiped free of dust or dirt at
frequent intervals, to prevent damage to the lower cylinder seals. A lint-free cloth,
soaked in the fluid used in the strut, should be used for this purpose.
b. The extension of the inner cylinder, i.e. the length of the visible portion of the inner
cylinder, should be checked frequently against the centre of gravity/loading graphs
provided in the approved Maintenance Manual.
c. NOTE:Because of the tightness of the sealing glands in the strut, it may be
necessary to rock the aircraft to free the inner cylinder and obtain the true
extension.
d. The strut should be inspected frequently for fluid leaks. If leaks are due to faulty
glands the glands may be replaced, but if they are due to a scored inner cylinder,
the strut should be changed.
e. Torque links, steering arms, and damper attachments should be checked for
security, and for cracks, wear or any other damage.
f. All moving parts of the undercarriage should be lubricated on assembly and at the
intervals specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule.
4. Servicing Struts
When it becomes necessary to check the fluid level in a strut, the following procedure
should be carried out: -
a. Jack up aircraft to take the weight off the strut.

b. Remove inflation valve cap and release air pressure completely.
c. Remove valve housing
d. Compress strut and check fluid level is at bottom of filler hole not, top-up with the
approved fluid.
e. Extend and compress strut several times to expel any trapped air, then repeat
(item 4).
f. With strut compressed, replace valve housing and inflate strut to specified gas
pressure, checking that the leg extends completely.
NOTE : It is usually recommended that a new seal is fitted when replacing the
valve.
g. Lower aircraft and check that extension of the inner cylinder is in accordance with
the tables or graphs supplied by the manufacturer for the particular aircraft weight
and centre of gravity position.
8
Landing Gear
SHIMMY DAMPERS
Most nose and tail wheels are fitted with shimmy dampers to prevent rapid oscillation
during ground manoeuvres.
A simple damper consists of two friction discs, one connected to a fixed part of the
undercarriage and the other connected to the oscillating part. The discs are held in
contact by spring pressure and resist relative movement between the parts to which they
are connected.
A type of damper commonly found on light aircraft is illustrated in figure the piston rod is
connected to the steering collar and the cylinder attached to a fixed part of the strut. The
cylinder is completely filled with fluid, and small holes in the piston allow a restricted flow
of fluid when force is applied to the piston rod. Movement of the nose undercarriage is
therefore slowed down, and oscillations damped.
Damper Strut
Friction disc dampers should be inspected for security, damage, and wear of the friction
material. Piston type dampers will not operate satisfactorily if air is present in the cylinder,
and should be inspected frequently for oil leaks. They should be removed at the periods
specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule, and the oil level checked.
RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
The majority of modern transport aircraft, and an increasing number of Iight aircraft, are
fitted with a retractable landing gear, for the purpose of improving aircraft performance.
Retraction is normally effected by a hydraulic system, but pneumatic or electrical systems

are also used. In some instances power is used for retraction only, extension being
effected by gravity and slipstream.
9
Landing Gear
Retractable landing gear is also provided with mechanical locks to ensure that each
undercarriage is locked securely in the retracted and extended positions; devices to
indicate to the crew the position of each undercarriage; and means by which the landing
gear can be extended in the event of failure of the power source.
In addition, means are provided to prevent retraction with the aircraft on the ground, and
to guard against landing with the landing gear retracted. Undercarriage wells are
normally sealed by doors for aerodynamic reasons, but one particular aircraft type
employs inflatable rubber bags to seal the main undercarriage wells.
Retractable undercarriages normally consist of an oleo-pneumatic shock-absorber strut,

similar to the one shown in the previous figure but supported in a trunnion bearing, which
is fixed to a spar or strengthened box section in the wings or fuselage.
The strut is braced longitudinally by drag struts, and laterally by sidestays. In some
designs the drag strut or sidestay is in two parts, and hinges about the centre point to
provide a means of retraction, while in others the retraction jack operates on an extension
of the shock-absorber strut housing. Figure shows a typical retractable undercarriage
unit which is hydraulically operated in both directions and locked by means of a geometric
(over-centre) lock.
Typical Undercarriage Unit

10
Landing Gear
The main landing gear consists of several components that enable it to function. Typical
of these are the torque links, trunnion and bracket arrangements, drag strut linkages,
electrical and hydraulic gear-retraction devices, and gear indicators.
z Alignment
Torque links keep the landing gear pointed in a straight-ahead direction; one torque link
connects to the shock strut cylinder, while the other connects to the piston. The links are
hinged at the centre so that the piston can move up or down in the strut.
Torque Links
11
Landing Gear
z Support
To anchor the main gear to the aircraft structure, a trunnion and bracket arrangement is
usually employed. This arrangement is constructed to enable the strut to pivot or swing
forward or backward as necessary when the aircraft is being steered or the gear is being
retracted. To restrain this action during ground movement of the aircraft, various types of
linkages are used, one being the drag strut.
Trunnion and Bracket Arrangement
The upper end of the drag strut connects to the aircraft structure while the lower end
connects to the shock strut. The drag strut is hinged so that the landing gear can be
retracted.
12
Landing Gear
Drag Strut Linkage
HYDRAULIC RETRACTION SYSTEM
Devices used in a typical hydraulically operated landing gear retraction system include
actuating cylinders, selector valves, uplocks, downlocks, sequence valves, tubing, and
other conventional hydraulic components. These units are so interconnected that they
permit properly sequenced retraction and extension of the landing gear and the landing
gear doors.
The operation of a hydraulic landing gear retraction system is of such importance that it
must be covered in some detail. First, consider what happens when the landing gear is
retracted.
As the selector valve (in the following figure) is moved to the Up position, pressurized
fluid is directed into the gear up line. The fluid flows to the hydraulic units including the
sequence valves C and D, the three gear downlocks, the nose gear cylinder, and the two
main actuating cylinders.
Notice what happens to the fluid flowing to sequence valves C and D in the figure.
13
Landing Gear
Hydraulic Landing Gear Retraction System Schematic
14
Landing Gear
Since the sequence valves are closed, pressurized fluid cannot flow to the door cylinders
at this time. Thus, the doors cannot close. But the fluid entering the three downlock
cylinders is not delayed; therefore, the gear is unlocked.
At the same time, fluid also enters the up side of each gear-actuating cylinder and the
gears begin to retract. The nose gear completes retraction and engages its uplock first,
because of the small size of its actuating cylinder. Also, since the nose gear door is
operated solely by linkage from the nose gear, this door closes.
Meanwhile, the main landing gear is still retracting, forcing fluid to leave the downside of
each main gear cylinder. This fluid flows unrestricted through an orifice check valve,
opens the sequence check valve A or B, and flows through the landing-gear selector
valve into the hydraulic system return line.
Then, as the main gear reaches the fully retracted position and engages the
spring-loaded uplocks, gear linkage strikes the plungers of sequence valves C and D.
This opens the sequence check valves and allows pressurized fluid to flow into the door
cylinders, closing the landing gear doors.
WING LANDING GEAR OPERATION
A typical wing landing gear operating sequence is illustrated in the following figure. The
wing landing gear retracts or extends when hydraulic pressure is applied to the up or
down side of the gear actuator.
The gear actuator applies the force required to raise and lower the gear. The actuator
works in conjunction with a walking beam to apply force to the wing gear shock strut,
swinging it inboard and forward into the wheel well.
Both the actuator and the walking beam are connected to lugs on the landing gear
trunnion. The outboard ends of the actuator and walking beam pivot on a beam hanger,
which is attached to the aircraft structure.
A wing landing gear locking mechanism located on the outboard side of the wheel well
locks the gear in the up position.
Locking of the gear in the "down" position is accomplished by a downlock bungee, which
positions an upper and lower jury strut so that the upper and lower side struts will not fold.
15
Landing Gear
Wing Landing Gear Operating Sequence
16
Landing Gear
PNEUMATIC RETRACTION SYSTEM
Operation of a pneumatic retraction system is similar to that of a hydraulic system, except

that pressure in the return lines is exhausted to atmosphere through the selector valve.
Pressure is built up in a main storage cylinder by engine driven air pumps, and passes
through a pressure reducing valve to the landing gear selector valve. Operation of the
selector valve to the Up position directs pneumatic pressure through the up lines to the
retraction rams, and opens the down line to atmosphere.
Operation of the selector valve to the down' position directs pneumatic pressure through a
second pressure reducing valve and the down lines, to the up-Iock rams and retraction
rams. A simple pneumatic system is illustrated in the following figure.
NOTE : A low pressure is used for landing gear extension, for the same reason that
restrictor valves are used in hydraulic systems, which is to prevent damage occurring
through too-rapid extension of the undercarriage units.
Simple Pneumatic Retraction System
17
Landing Gear
Retraction rams are usually damped to prevent violent movement. The hollow piston rod
is filled with oil or grease, which is forced through the annular space between the inner
surface of the piston rod and a stationary damper piston whenever the ram extends or
retracts, thus slowing movement.
Up-locks and down-locks are similar to those used with hydraulic systems, the geometric
down-locks being imposed by over-centering of the drag strut at the end of retraction ram
stroke, and the up-locks by spring-ram operated locks. Down-locks are released by initial
movement of the retraction rams during retraction, and uplocks are released by
pneumatic pressure in the spring-rams during extension. Undercarriage doors are
operated mechanically, by linkage on the shock absorber housing.
ELECTRICAL RETRACTION SYSTEM
An electrical retraction system is often fitted to light aircraft, which do not otherwise
require the use of a high pressure fluid system. The main and nose undercarriage units
are similar to those used in fluid retraction systems, but push and pull forces on the
retraction mechanism are obtained by an electric motor and suitable gearing. The
following figure illustrates a typical system, in which a single reversible electric motor
provides the power to retract and extend the landing gear.
The motor operates a screw jack, which provides angular movement to a torque tube. A
push-pull rod from the torque tube acts on the drag strut of the nose undercarriage, and
cables and rods from the torque tube act on the main undercarriage sidestays, rubber
cord being used to assist extension of the main undercarriage units.
Simple Electrical Retraction System

18
Landing Gear
Down-locks are imposed by over-centering of the drag strut and sidestays during final
movement of the operating mechanism with the assistance of springs. Limit switches on
the drag strut and sidestays cut off electrical power and brake the motor when the
down-locks have engaged, while a limit switch on the torque tube stops and brakes the
motor when the landing gear is fully retracted.
Undercarriage doors are operated by linkage to the shock-absorber housings.
LANDING GEAR LOCKS
These ensure positive locking of the landing gear in either the up or down position. The
locks may be an integral part of the gear or a separate system.
z The Geometric Lock (Over-Centre Lock)
Use mainly for holding the landing gear in the down position, the geometric lock may be
incorporated in either the drag or side-strut linkages or in a jury-strut linkage. By allowing
the linkage to go slightly over-centre (past a straight line drawn between the pivot points)
a positive mechanical lock is obtained wh1ch is independent of the aircraft power system.
This has the advantage that with the aircraft on the ground, the aircraft weight acting on
the linkage tends to push it further over-centre ensuring positive action independent of the
hydraulics.
z Latch Locks
Latch locks are mounted on the structure of the aircraft and have "Latches" or hooks,
which engage a roller or pin attached to a movable member of the landing gear. They
may be mechanical or hydraulic in operation and are used for both up and down positions.
Latch Locks
19
Landing Gear
z Hydraulic Lock
Retention of the gear in the up position is accomplished by use of a hydraulic lock on

some light aircraft and early commercial transports. Instead of up latches, rubber pads
are used. The landing gear is held against these pads during flight by hydraulic pressure
trapped in the up lines.
EMERGENCY EXTENSION SYSTEMS
The emergency extension system lowers the landing gears if the main power system fails.
Some aircraft have an emergency release handle in the cockpit, which is connected
through a mechanical linkage to the gear uplocks. When the handle is operated, it
releases the uplocks and allows the gears to free-fall, or extend, under their own weight.
On other aircraft, release of the uplock is accomplished using compressed air, which is
directed to uplock release cylinders.
In some aircraft, design configurations make emergency extension of the landing gear by
gravity and airloads alone impossible or impractical. In such aircraft, provisions are
included for forceful gear extension in an emergency.
Some installations are designed so that either hydraulic fluid or compressed air provides
the necessary pressure; while others use a manual system for extending the landing
gears under emergency conditions.
Hydraulic pressure for emergency operation of the landing gear may be provided by an
auxiliary hand pump, an accumulator, or an electrically powered hydraulic pump,
depending upon the design of the aircraft.
Landing Gear Safety Devices
Accidental retraction of a landing gear may be prevented by such safety devices as

mechanical downlocks, safety switches, and ground locks. Mechanical downlocks are
built-in parts of a gear retraction system and are operated automatically by the
gear-retraction system. To prevent accidental operation of the downlocks, electrically
operated safety switches are installed.
z Safety Switch
A landing gear safety switch in the landing gear safety circuit is usually mounted in a
bracket on one of the main gear shock struts. This switch is actuated by a linkage through
the landing gear torque links. The torque links spread apart or move together as the
shock strut piston extends or retracts in its cylinder. When the strut is compressed
(aircraft on the ground), the torque links are close together, causing the adjusting links to
open the safety switch.
20
Landing Gear
During takeoff, as the weight of the aircraft leaves the struts, the struts and torque links
extend, causing the adjusting links to close the safety switch. As shown in the figure
below, a ground is completed when the safety switch closes. The solenoid then
energizes and unlocks the selector valve so that the gear handle can be positioned to
raise the gear.
Typical Landing Gear Safety Circuit
z Ground Locks
In addition to this safety device, most aircraft are equipped with additional safety devices
to prevent collapse of the gear when the aircraft is on the ground. These devices are
called ground locks.
One common type is a pin installed in aligned holes drilled in two or more units of the
landing gear support structure. Another type is a spring-loaded clip designed to fit around
and hold two or more units of the support structure together. All types of ground locks
usually have red streamers permanently attached to them to readily indicate whether or
not they are installed.
GEAR INDICATORS
To provide a visual indication of landing gear position, indicators are installed in the
cockpit or flight compartment.
Gear warning devices are incorporated on all retractable gear aircraft and usually consist
of a horn or some other rural device and a red warning light. The horn blows and the light
comes on when one or more throttles are retarded and the landing gear is in any position
other than down and locked.
21
Landing Gear
Several designs of gear position indicators are available. One type displays movable
miniature landing gears, which are electrically positioned by movement of the aircraft gear.
Another type consists of two or three green lights, which burn when the aircraft gear is
down and locked. A third type consists of tab-type indicators with markings up to
indicate that the gear is up and locked, a display of red and white diagonal stripes to show
when the gear is unlocked, or a silhouette of each gear to indicate when it locks in the
down" position.
A Typical Gear Position Indicator and Warning Light
22
Landing Gear
NOSEWHEEL CENTERING
Centering devices include such units as internal centering cams to center the nose wheel
as it retracts into the wheel well. If a centering unit were not included in the system, the
fuselage wheel well and nearby units could be damaged.
During retraction of the nose gear, the weight of the aircraft is not supported by the strut.
The strut is extended by means of gravity and air pressure within the strut. As the strut
extends, the raised area of the piston strut contacts the sloping area of the fixed centering
cam and slides along it. In so doing, it aligns itself with the centering cam and rotates the
nose gear piston into a straight-ahead direction.
The internal centering cam is a feature common to most large aircraft. However, other
centering devices are commonly found on small aircraft. Small aircraft characteristically
incorporate an external roller or guide pin on the strut. As the strut is folded into the wheel
well on retraction, the roller or guide pin will engage a ramp or track mounted to the wheel
well structure. The ramp/track guides the roller or pin in such a manner that the nose
wheel is straightened as it enters its well.
In either the internal cam or external track arrangement, once the gear is extended and
the weight of the aircraft is on the strut, the nose wheel may be turned for steering.
Cutaway View Of A Nose Gear Internal Centering Cam
23
Landing Gear
ROUTINE SERVICING
At the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule, the landing gear should
be lubricated and the relevant inspections carried out. The retraction mechanism should
be inspected for security, damage, wear of moving parts, fluid leaks and chafing of
pipelines and electrical cables.
Doors and wheel bays should be inspected for damage resulting from debris thrown up by
the wheels, or witness marks from the tyres indicating faulty adjustment or damaged
Iinkage.
Minor damage may usually be blended out and the part re-protected as appropriate, but
cracks, kinks in pipelines, or wear beyond the limits specified in the Maintenance Manual
are not acceptable.
Some leakage from the components of a pneumatic system is usually permissible, since
the operating medium is replaceable, but serious leaks could affect operation of the
system. Leakage from a hydraulic system may sometimes be corrected by cleaning and
re-making a connection, but a component with a persistent leak should be replaced.
COMPONENT INSTALLATION
Whenever a new component is installed in the retraction system, it should be carefully
adjusted to prevent physical damage and ensure correct operation.
A common method of adjusting components and linkage after installation is to jack-up the
aircraft, install ground locks on the undercarriages not being worked on, make the system
electrically safe, and operate the individual retraction jack using a hand pump rig. This
ensures slow, controlled operation, and allows individual adjustments to be made to the
mechanism in accordance with measurements quoted in the relevant Maintenance
Manual. After adjustment, the system should be reconnected and bled, and retraction
tests carried out.
RETRACTION TESTS
Retraction tests should be carried out following replacement of a faulty component,
whenever incorrect operation is reported or suspected, and after a hard or overweight
landing.
The sequence of operations will depend on the particular installation and type of
retraction system concerned, and full details should be obtained from the relevant
Maintenance Manual.
24
Landing Gear
The following procedure is applicable to most retractable landing gears:
1. Raise the aircraft so that the wheels are clear of the ground, and lock the lifting
jacks. Ensure that no ground equipment or personnel are in the vicinity of the
undercarriages and doors.
2. NOTE : In some aircraft the arc described by the wheels during retraction brings
them nearer to the ground, and additional ground clearance must be allowed in
these instances.
3. Connect electrical power and external hydraulic or pneumatic servicing equipment

as appropriate.
4. Carry out several retractions and extensions, initially at low power to ensure slow
operation, and using both the normal and emergency systems, and check the
following
a. Undercarriages for proper operation.
b. Doors for correct operation and fit.
c. Clearance in the wheel bays with the landing gear retracted, making due
allowance for the effects of centrifugal force on tyre diameter.
d. Linkage for correct operation and adjustment.
e. Locks, switches, warning devices and mechanical indicators for correct
operation.
f. Freedom from fouling during retraction or extension, especially flexible pipes.
g. General smooth operation of the mechanism.
NOTE : Retraction tests following initial assembly, replacement or significant
adjustments, should be carried out with the wheel doors disconnected from their
operating struts, and, if necessary, the sequence valves operated by hand; loose
operating rods should be guided clear of structure. This procedure will permit
direct inspection for clearance and alignment, and will also permit adjustment of
mechanical stops, sequence contact points, up and down locks, and over-centre
linkage.
5. Remove servicing equipment, lower aircraft and fit ground locks.
6. Finally tighten and lock any equipment installed immediately prior to the test.
NOSEWHEEL STEERING SYSTEM
Light Aircraft
Light aircraft are commonly provided with nosewheel steering capabilities through a
simple system of mechanical linkage hooked to the rudder pedals. Most common
applications utilize push-pull rods to connect the pedals to horns located on the pivotal
portion of the nosewheel strut.
25
Landing Gear
The push-pull rods usually incorporate a spring cartridge to reduce taxying shocks to the
rudder pedals. The upper torque link arm is attached to a collar, which is able to rotate
around the outer cylinder casing.
Aircraft fitted with retractable landing gear also have a means of disconnecting the nose
wheel steering linkage to reduce rudder pedal loads in flight.
Mechanical Nose Wheel Steering
26
Landing Gear
Heavy Aircraft
Large aircraft, with their larger mass and a need for positive control, utilize a power source
for nosewheel steering.
Even though large aircraft nosewheel steering system units differ in their construction
features, basically all of these systems work in approximately the same manner and
require the same sort of units.
For example, each steering system usually contains:
1. A cockpit control, such as a wheel, handle, lever, or switch to allow starting,

stopping, and to control the action of the system.
2. Mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic connections for transmitting cockpit control
movements to a steering control unit.
3. A control unit, which is usually a metering or control valve.
4. A source of power, which is, in most instances, the aircraft hydraulic system.
5. Tubing for carrying fluid to and from various parts of the system
6. One or more steering cylinders, together with the required for using pressurized
fluid to turn the nose gear.
7. A pressurizing assembly to keep fluid in each steering cylinder always under
pressure, thereby preventing shimmy.
8. A follow up mechanism, consisting of gears, cables, rods, drums, and/or bellcranks,
for returning the steering control unit to NEUTRAL and thus holding the nose gear
at the correct angle of turn.
9. Safety valves to allow the wheels to trail or swivel, in the event of hydraulic failure.
HYDRAULIC STEERING SYSTEM
Main operating pressure is derived from the undercarriage down line, and a limited
emergency supply is provided by a hydraulic accumulator.
In the system shown in the following figure, hydraulic pressure passes through a
changeover valve, which ensure that the steering system is only in operation when the
nose undercarriage is down.
27
Landing Gear
Hydraulic Steering System
Steering operation
Pressure is directed through the control valve to the steering jacks, which retract or
extend to rotate the nose shock-absorber strut within its housing. Movement of the
steering wheel is transmitted through mechanical linkage to the control valve, in
accordance with the amount and direction of turn required.
Follow-up linkage from the nose undercarriage gradually resets the control valve as the
nose wheel turns, and when the selected angle is reached a hydraulic lock is formed
between the control valve and the steering jacks, preventing further movement. When
the steering wheel is released, the control valve returns to neutral under the action of its
centering springs, and the nose wheel is free to castor.
An inner cylinder in each steering jack is connected to the landing gear up line and is
supplied with fluid under pressure when the landing gear is selected up. The steering
jacks extend equally to centralise the nose wheel before pressure is applied to the nose
retraction jack, and the by-pass valve allows fluid from the steering jacks to flow to the
return line.
28
Landing Gear
Castoring
Whenever the control valve is in its neutral position, fluid is free to flow between the
steering jacks, thus allowing the aircraft to be towed, or the nosewheel to return to the
central position after a turn has been initiated with the steering wheel.
Angular movement of the nosewheel during towing will be transmitted through the
follow-up Iinkage to the steering wheel.
Some form of quick-release pin is often provided to enable the steering jacks to be
disconnected so that the nosewheel may be turned through large angles during ground
servicing.
Damping
Restrictors in the pipelines between the control valve and the steering jacks, provide
damping for the nose undercarriage. .
Maintenance
The lubrication and inspection requirements of the steering system are broadly similar to
those for retractable landing gear. Installation and adjustment of the mechanical linkage,
and functional testing of the system are described in the following paragraphs.
1. Mechanical linkage
Proper adjustment of the mechanical linkage is most important, since slackness or faulty
installation could lead to incorrect operation of the steering system. To facilitate
installation of components, rigging pins are usually inserted through jig-drilled holes in the
steering wheel, drum assembly and follow-up linkage in order to fix their positions. The
nose wheel can then be cetralised, and the cables and rods fitted and adjusted,
accordingly.
Cables should be tensioned using a tensiometer, and rods adjusted so that the
connecting pins and bolts can be easily fitted. When new pulleys or cables are fitted, it is
usually recommended that they are 'bedded-in' by operating the steering wheel a number
of times over its full range of travel; cables should then be re-tensioned.
2. Functional test
The following test is applicable to the system illustrated in the figure above and contains
the basic essentials for tests on similar steering systems. The hydraulic installation on a
particular aircraft may necessitate additional operations, and these will be fully described
in the appropriate Maintenance Manual.
29
Landing Gear
i) Ensure that the shock strut is correctly serviced.
ii) Jack the aircraft so that the wheels are clear of the ground and ensure that no
ground equipment or personnel are in the vicinity of the landing gear.
iii) Depressurize the main hydraulic system and check that the nose wheel has
freedom of movement over the full castoring range.
iv) Connect a hydraulic test rig and ground electrical power, and set controls and
switches for normal hydraulic operation.
v) Operate the steering wheel over its full range, and check that the nose wheel
follows smoothly and stops at selected positions.
vi) Set the nose wheel a few degrees to one side and select the landing gear up,
checking that the nose wheel centres before the down-lock breaks.
vii) Lower landing gear and repeat operation (vi) with the nose wheel displaced in the
opposite direction.
viii) Carry out further retractions to check that the steering is only operative when the
nose undercarriage is down.
NOTE : Operation (vi), (vii), and (viii) could lead to extensive damage if malfunction
occurs, and should be performed with the test rig adjusted to give a slow rate of
operation of the retraction system.
ix) Check that the stand-by accumulator is correctly charged with air pressure and
operate the test rig to pressurise the accumulator.
x) Select stand-by steering and check that the nose wheel can be steered
satisfactorily. This check may involve a specified number of turns before the
accumulator is exhausted or the stand-by system low pressure warning lights
illuminate.
xi) Set the stand-by selector to off, and disconnect the test rig and external electrical
power.
xii) Lower the aircraft and finally lock any components installed prior to the test.
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Landing Gear
BOGIE UNDERCARRIAGES
On heavy aircraft, the need to spread the weight over a large area has resulted in the use
of multiple wheel undercarriages. A typical four-wheeled bogie is illustrated in the
following figure, but a larger number of wheels are used on some undercarriages.
Typical Bogie Undercarriage
The undercarriage unit normally consists of a shock-absorber strut, at the lower end of
which a bogie beam is pivoted, and the axles are attached to each end of the beam.
On some aircraft the rear pair of wheels swivels on the bogie beam, and castors when the
nose wheel is turned through a large angle. On others, the upper torque link member is
replaced by a pair of hydraulic jacks, which, when nose wheel steering is applied, rotates
the whole bogie. Castoring or steering prevents excessive torque on the undercarriage
leg and minimises tyre scrubbing during turns. For normal operation, the swivelling pair of
wheels is locked in line with the fixed pair.
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Landing Gear
Brake torque at each wheel is transmitted through compensating rods to the shock-
absorber strut, thus preventing excessive loads on the bogie beam.
On retractable landing gear a levelling strut or 'hop damper' provides a means of

positioning the bogie beam at suitable angles for retraction and landing. This strut is
usually connected into the hydraulic system to prevent retraction if the bogie is not at a
suitable angle, and combines the functions of hydraulic ram and damper unit.
Maintenance
In addition to the lubrication, testing and maintenance of landing gear described in

previous paragraphs, particular care and higher standards of workmanship are necessary
with bogie undercarriages. Since this type of undercarriage is fitted to heavy aircraft, the
materials used are of very high strength, and great care is taken in the manufacture, heat
treatment and finish of the components. However, these materials are usually more
susceptible to failure from scratches, indentations or corrosion, than materials of lower
strength.
All servicing functions should, therefore, be carried out with special care, particularly with
regard to lubrication, the lack of which could result in corrosion or hydrogen embrittlement.
If any surface damage is found during inspection, it should be repaired strictly in
accordance with the instructions and limitations specified in the manufacturer's manuals,
or, if no adequate guidance is given, in accordance with an approved repair scheme.
When changing wheel or brake assemblies, the axle should be fitted with a protective
sleeve to prevent damage, and the surface and threads should be inspected for damage
and corrosion before re-assembling the wheel or brake.
When carrying out retraction or steering tests, operation of the levelling strut and
locking/unlocking of the swivelling wheels should be checked in accordance with the
appropriate Maintenance Manual.
INTRODUCTLON TO TYRES
Aircraft tyres, tubeless or tube type, provide a cushion of air that helps absorb the shocks
and roughness of landings and takeoffs. They support the weight of the aircraft while on
the ground and provide the necessary traction for braking and stopping aircraft on landing.
Thus, aircraft tyres must be carefully maintained to meet the rigorous demands of their
basic job to accept a variety of static and dynamic stresses dependably in a wide range of
operating conditions.
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Landing Gear
AIRCRAFT TYRE CONSTRUCTION
Dissect an aircraft tyre and you'll find that it's one of the strongest and toughest pneumatic
tires made. It must withstand high speeds and very heavy static and dynamic loads.
For example, the main gear tyres of a four-engine jet transport are required to withstand
landing speeds up to 250 mph, as well as static and dynamic loads as high as 22 and 33
tons respectively. Typical construction is shown:
Typical Tyre Construction
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Landing Gear
Tread
Made of rubber compound for toughness and durability, the tread is patterned in
accordance with aircraft operational requirements. The circumferential ribbed pattern is
widely used today because it provides good traction under widely varying runway
conditions.
Tread reinforcement
One or more layers of reinforced nylon cord fabric strengthens the tread for high speed
operation. Used mainly for high speed tires.
Breakers
Not always used, these extra layers of reinforcing nylon cord fabric are placed under the
tread rubber to protect casing plies and strengthen tread area. They are considered an
integral part of the carcass construction.
Casing Plies/Cord Body
Diagonal layers of rubber-coated nylon cord fabric (running at opposite angles to one
another) provide the strength of a tire. Completely encompassing the tire body, the
carcass plies are folded around the wire beads and back against the tire sidewalls (the
"ply turnups).
Beads
Made of steel wires embedded in rubber and wrapped in fabric, the beads anchor the
carcass plies and provide firm mounting surfaces on the wheel.
Bead Fillers
These layers of fabric and rubber insulate the carcass from the bead wires and improve
the durability of the tire.
Chafers
Layers of fabric and rubber that protect the carcass from damage during mounting and
demounting. They insulate the carcass from brake heat and provide a good seal against
movement during dynamic operations.
Bead Toe
The inner bead edge closest to the tire centre line.
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Landing Gear
Bead Heel
The outer bead edge which fits against the wheel flange.
Innerliner
On tubeless tires, this inner layer of less permeable rubber acts as a built-in tube, it
prevents air from seeping through casing plies. For tube type tires, a thinner rubber liner
is used to prevent tube chafing against the inside ply.
Tread reinforcing ply
Rubber compound cushion between tread and casing plies, provides toughness and
durability. It adds protection against cutting and bruising throughout the life of the tread.
Sidewall
Sidewalls are primarily covers over the sides of the cord body to protect the cords from
injury and exposure. Little strength is imparted to the cord body by the sidewalls.
A special sidewall construction, the chine tire," is a nose wheel tire designed with built-in
deflector to divert runway water to the side, thus reducing water spray in the area of rear
mounted jet engines.
Apex strip
The apex strip is additional rubber formed around the bead to give a contour for anchoring
the ply turnups.
TUBED TYRES
Tubed aircraft tyres consist of two component parts, i.e. inner tubes and outer tyres. The
detailed construction varies considerably according to the manufacturer and the duties for
which the tyre is intended.
TUBELESS TYRES
Basically a tubeless tyre is identical to a tubed tyre except that the tube is replaced by an
air-retaining inner lining and the beads are designed to prevent air leakage at the rim of
the wheel. Some of the advantages derived from the use of tubeless tyres include about
71/2% saving in weight compared with using a tyre and tube, a reduction in permeability
losses, cooler running by about 10 degree C, less danger of deflation due to puncture,
and the elimination of tube troubles. Because it is necessary to keep the bead areas in
good condition, tubeless tyres are not fitted to well-base wheels.
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Landing Gear
HIGH PRESSURE TYRES
Some aircraft tyres are inflated to pressures of 1400 kN/m2 (200 lbf/in2) or more.
Because of their strength and rigidity, such tyres, whether tubed or tubeless, are normally
fitted only to divided or detachable-flange wheels. Special precautions are necessary to
protect personnel from injury during initial inflation.
TYRE VENTING
During manufacture all tubeless tyres are provided with vents by partially piercing the
rubber covering with an awl (of approximately 1.5 mm (0.0625) diameter) at several
places, usually around the tyre immediately outside the area of the wheel flanges, but, in
some instances, also on the crown and shoulder areas. These vents are provided as a
means of releasing air under pressure from the tyre casing, and are marked with a green
or grey spot. Such air may be residual air in the casing cords after manufacture, which is
compressed to a high pressure on inflation of the tyre, or air, which accumulates in the
casing by normal permeation through the inner lining.
If a free passage of air were not provided, the residual or permeating air could cause
looseness or lifting of rubber on the tread or sidewalls of the tyre. Aircraft tyres to which
tubes are fitted, are vented through the complete casing at the bead position in order to
allow air trapped between the tube and tyre to escape.
TREAD PATTERNS
The tread pattern on a tyre is usually designed to suit specific operating conditions,
aircraft weights, and aircraft take-off and landing speeds.
Ribbed (i.e. circumferentially grooved) tread tyres are probably used more than any
other types, and there are a number of variations on the basic pattern such as the
number of ribs and the width of grooves. A ribbed tread provides a good combination
of long tread wear, good traction, and directional stability, particularly on hard surfaced
runways.
Diamond pattern (or 'all-weather) tyres are also widely used and give good
performance on all types of surfaces. They are particularly suitable for unpaved (e.g.
turf or packed earth) airfields.
Plain tread was at one time very common, particularly on British aircraft, but has
gradually been replaced by ribbed and diamond pattern treads. It is, however, still
used on some light aircraft and helicopter tyres.
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Landing Gear
Some nosewheels are fitted with tyres having twin-contact tread, i.e. a tread
consisting of a large circumferential rib at each side of the crown, which is designed to
assist in preventing shimmy.
Some nosewheels tyres are also fitted with a water deflector (or 'chine' on the upper
sidewall, to deflect water away from rear-mounted engines. This deflector may be on
one side for twin-wheel installation or on both sides for single-wheel installations.
Water dispersing treads, which have many small holes incorporated in the crown and
shoulder rubber, are also fairly common as a means of helping to prevent
aquaplaning.
TYRE MARKINGS
Tyres have certain markings imprinted on their sidewalls for identification purposes.
These markings vary according to the manufacturer but usually include size, part number,
serial number, date of manufacture, tubed/tubeless, speed rating, ply rating, and the type
and number of retreads carried out. These markings are explained below.
Size
Tyres are identified for size in the following way:
Example: 26 x 10.00-18.
Tyre Dimensions
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Landing Gear
The first number (26) indicates the outside diameter (A in Figure) in inches. The second
number (10.00) indicates the width (C in Figure) in inches. The third number (18)
indicates the bead diameter (B in Figure) in inches. It will be found that some tyres do not
specify all three dimension. Some tyres of American manufacture may quote only the
outside diameter (e.g. 26) but otherwise the tyre width will always be stated, either
preceded by the outside diameter (e.g. 26 x 10.00) or followed by the bead diameter (e.g.
10.00-18).
NOTE : Dimensions (A) and (C) may, alternatively, be quoted in millimetres.
Part Number
The part number usually includes the manufacturer's identification, the drawing to which
the tyre is manufactured, and letters to indicate the tread type, and whether it is tubed or
tubeless. The part number is the only positive means of identifying a tyre, and size
markings alone should not be used for this purpose. Example: DR 7153 T.
Serial Number
The serial number is usually marked in conjunction with the date of manufacture, which
may be in the form of a code indicating the day, week or month, and the year.
Example is 2283 Nov 72 or 23202283.
Ply Rating
The term 'ply rating' is used to identify a tyre with its maximum recommended load and
pressure. It is the index of the tyre strength and does not necessarily represent the
number of cord plies used in its construction. The marking may be imprinted in full, e.g.
10 PLY RATING, or abbreviated, e.g. 10PR.
Speed Rating
Most high speed tyres (i.e. those which may be used at speeds over 160 mile/h) have the
speed rating imprinted on the tyre to indicate the maximum speed for which they are
designed, e.g. 200 mile/h.
Other markings
Other markings, which may be found on new tyres, include the following
i) Military Stores Reference Number.

ii) Green or grey spots indicating the positions of the awl vents.
iii) A red spot or triangle indicating the light part of the tyre.
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Landing Gear
Retreads
Retreaded tyres are usually marked in accordance with a system peculiar to each
manufacturer. The markings usually include the tyre part number, the name of the
retreader, the number and date of the last retread, and in the case of retreads in which the
sidewalls are covered with new rubber, the tyre serial number, manufacturer, speed, size
and ply rating.
FITTING TYRES
Fitting Tubed Tyres
The successful fitting of tyres is not difficult provided that a suitable procedure is
employed and the correct type of tool is used for each operation. However, careful
attention to detail is essential throughout the process, since visual inspection after the tyre
is fitted is obviously limited.
When a new tyre is required on those aircraft fitted with tubed tyres, it is advisable to fit a
new tube since any stretching or local thinning present in the original tube may result in
the formation of wrinkles during refitting, leading to early failure of the tube. If it is decided
to refit the original tube it should be carefully examined for signs of damage or defects
before refitting.
Care should be taken to ensure that the tyre and tube are of the correct size, and of types
authorised for use on the particular wheels of the particular aircraft. It is also important to
ensure that the correct type of valve cap is fitted, since an incorrect type of cap may foul
the airframe structure when the landing gear is retracted.
Tyre balance
The balance of tyres and tubes is checked and brought within specified limits by the tyre
manufacturer (often by the addition of a balancing patch). Where balance is not perfect
the lighter side of the tyre is marked with one or two circular or triangular spots above the
bead heel and the heavier side of the tube is marked with a red or yellow band
approximately 10 mm (0.375 in) wide.
Fitting the tyre and tube with these markings together will achieve the best state of
balance.
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Landing Gear
GENERAL FITTING PRECAUTIONS
When fitting tyres and tubes to any type of wheel, the following general precautions
should be observed:
i) Care must be taken to ensure that nothing is left inside the tyre, e.g. labels, paper
or tools, and that the rim of the wheel is clean free from oil and grease and from
damage which, apart from other considerations, might be harmful to the tyre or
affect its form.
ii) Wheels should be rested on rubber or felt mats to prevent damage during
assembly.
iii) The outer surface of the tube and the inner surface of the tyre should be dusted
with French chalk, any excess being shaken off.
iv) Tyre and tube balance marks should be aligned during assembly.
v) After fitting a tube into a tyre, the tube should be smoothed out with the hand to
remove any creases; this will help to prevent the trapping of air inside the tyre
during inflation.
vi) Care should be taken to ensure that valves of the correct part number are fitted.
The inflation valves for all high pressure tyres should have hexagonal valve caps
and should be fitted with cores having stainless steel springs.
vii) Water or an approved lubricant can be used to facilitate fitting.
FITTING TUBELESS TYRES
Prior to fitting the tyre, the wheel should be examined for scratches and other damage in
the flange, bead seat and rim areas. Any damage should be blended out within the limits
permitted by the relevant Maintenance or Overhaul Manual. The beads and inner liner of
the tyre should be checked for damage, and the wheel sealing ring should be checked for
defects such as deformation, permanent set and aging.
The seal spigot joint faces of divided wheels and seal register area, should be cleaned
and lightly lubricated with a preparation recommended by the manufacturer. The seal
should then be stretched evenly onto the wheel, ensuring that it is seating correctly in its
location groove.
The tyre bead and wheel bead seat areas should normally be kept dry, but some
manufacturers permit or recommend the use of a bead lubricant to facilitate mounting.
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Landing Gear
The tyre should be positioned on the wheel with the balance mark on the tyre in alignment
with the balance marks (if any) on the wheel. When the wheel has no balance marks, the
tyre balance mark should be aligned with the valve location.
NOTE : It is important that the tyre beads should not become contaminated with wheel
grease.
With divided wheels, the bolt threads should be lightly lubricated with a grease
recommended by the manufacturer and the bolts progressively tightened, in a sequence
similar to that shown in the following figure, to the recommended torque value. Wet
assembly of the bolts may be specified by the manufacturer.
Tightening Sequence
With the valve core removed to permit the maximum flow of air, the tyre should be inflated
as rapidly as possib1e to spread the tyre wa1ls unti1 the beads seat on the rim. Once this
condition has been achieved, inflation should be discontinued immediately. If inflation
cannot be effected, as a result of, for instance, tyre distortion caused by storage or transit,
the assembly should be stood vertically and a load applied to the crown.
When the beads are correctly seated, the valve core should be refitted, and the tyre
should be inflated and pressure tested as outlined in paragraphs below respectively.
INFLATION AFTER FITTING

After fitting, both tubed and tubeless tyres should be inflated to the test pressure specified
in the relevant manual.
A suitable supply of dry air or nitrogen should be connected to the valve; nitrogen is
preferred, but air may be used provided that the moisture content, measured in the
expanded condition, is less than 0.02 g/m3. A screw-on type of connector should be used
on tyres which are to be inflated to pressure in excess of 700 kN/m2 (100 lbf/in2), and the
tyre and wheel assembly should be contained within a safety cage to prevent injury to the
operator.
All tyres should be inflated slowly, and this is particularly important with tubed tyres. With
tubed tyres, inflation to 140 kN/m2 (20 lbf/in2) should take at least two minutes, and
further inflation to full test pressure should take at least another four minutes. This
procedure will reduce the possibility of trapping air between the tyre and tube.
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Landing Gear
TESTING
The testing of either tubed or tubeless tyres should normally be by means of a duration
pressure test, but an immersion test may sometimes be permitted on tubeless tyres when
insufficient time is available.
Pressure loss will occur on most tyres during a test, because of tyre stretch, and will be
most apparent during the first 12 hours; the figures quoted for the duration pressure test
take account of this loss.
Venting
With a tubeless tyre, venting from the awl vents occurs in three stages. The first stage of
venting results from residual air in the casing and may be fairly rapid, but virtually ceases
after 20 minutes. The second stage is a slow seepage of residual air from the casing and
may last for several hours. The third stage is a continuing process and results from
normal permeation through the inner lining. Tubeless tyres should, therefore, be tested
after the first stage of venting has ceased, or misleading results could be obtained.
Duration Pressure Test
This test should normally be carried out as follows:
i) The valve cap should be removed and the valve checked for leakage.
ii) The actual tyre pressure should be checked and recorded.
iii) The assembly should be left for 12 hours, and the pressure should again be
checked and recorded.
iv) If the loss in pressure from that originally recorded exceeds 10% the assembly
should be rejected. If the loss in pressure is less than 10% the tyre should be
re-inflated to the original pressure.
v) The assembly should be left for a further 12 hours, and the pressure again
checked and recorded.
vi) If the pressure loss is more than 21/2% the assembly should be rejected but if less
than 21/2% the assembly may be considered serviceable and returned to service.
NOTE : When recording tyre pressures allowance should be made for changes in
ambient temperature. A temperature change of 3C will result in approximately a
1% change in pressure, Application of the tyre pressure gauge will also result in a
slight loss of pressure.
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Landing Gear
Immersion Test
After the first stage of venting, i.e. 20 minutes after inflation, the wheel and tyre should be
mounted on a suitable bar and suspended in a tank of water so that the water covers the
lower cross-section of the tyre and valve, but does not reach the wheel bearings.
The wheel should then be slowly rotated and checked for leakage from the beads seats,
seal area, valve, fusible plugs and wheel hub. A continuous stream of bubbles from any
of these areas is cause for rejection. After testing, the wheel and tyre assembly should be
thoroughly dried, using a jet of compressed air.
After tests have been satisfactorily carried out, the pressure should be reduced to 20% of
unloaded inflation pressure for storage and transit, and the valve cap should be refitted
and tightened to the specified torque value.
TYRE CREEP
When wheels are first fitted to an aircraft, the tyres tend to move slightly as they settle
down on the rims the initial movement varying according to load, pressure, braking,
shimmy and outside diameter of the tyre in relation to rim diameter. After the settling
down period, circumferential movement may continue gradually and, if this extends
beyond a certain limit, the valve may be torn from the tube.
In order that creep may be detected, marks are moulded into the lower wall of most tyres.
The marks usually consist of two arrows, spaced 25 mm (1 in) apart on tyres up to 600
mm (24 in) nominal outside diameter and 38 mm (1.5 in) apart for all larger tyres. The
marks usually commence at the wheel rim and extend outward, the surface between
being knurled.
The knurled surface should be painted white, the paint mark being carried down on to the
rim. The width of this mark represents the maximum circumferential movement permitted
with tubed tyres. If the tyre creep mark becomes out of alignment with the mark on the
wheel by more than the width of the mark the wheel should be removed and the tyre and
tube taken off and reassembled; before re-assembly, the valve should be checked to
ensure that it is undamaged. In the case of tubeless tyres, creep is not considered to be
detrimental provided that bead condition is satisfactory and any pressure loss is within
limits.
When tyre replacements are made, the old marking on the wheel should be removed with
a suitable solvent and a new creep mark applied.
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Landing Gear
MAINTENANCE OF TYRES
Unsatisfactory tyre maintenance can significantly affect tyre performance and reliability,
and jeopardise aircraft safety. Serious accidents and incidents have occurred when
engine, airframe and aircraft systems have suffered damage as a result of neglected or
incorrect tyre maintenance. Various studies indicate that a significant number of tyre
failures and premature removals could have been prevented by careful attention to
recommended tyre maintenance procedures and practices.
NOTE : Where removal of a tyre is recommended in this paragraph, it should be

understood that this implies removal of the tyre and wheel assembly from the aircraft.
Tyre Pressures
The importance of keeping tyres inflated to the correct pressure cannot be overstated.
Under-inflated tyres may creep to such an extent that the valve could be torn out, causing
the tyre to deflate rapidly, whilst over-inflation can cause excessive vibration when taxying,
uneven tyre wear and high pressure bursts.
In addition, where two wheels and tyres are mounted on the same axle, unequal tyre
pressures will result in one tyre carrying a greater share of the load than the other, with
possible operation above its rated capacity; the undercarriage may also be subject to
additional stress.
Tyre manufacturers specify a rated inflation pressure for each tyre, which applies to a cold
tyre not carrying any load. The pressure to which a tyre should be inflated when it is
subject to aircraft weight, is determined by adding a pressure allowance (normally 4%) to
the rated inflation pressure. A tolerance of 5% to 10% above the loaded inflation pressure
is generally specified, and tyre pressures up to this maximum are permitted and may
benefit tyre reliability.
The loaded inflation pressures for the tyres on a particular aircraft may be specified in the
relevant Maintenance Manual as the maximum and minimum pressures permitted, or in
the form of a graph with pressure being a function of aircraft weight.
After an aircraft has landed, or has been subject to prolonged taxying, individual tyre
pressures may vary because of the absorption of energy by the tyre and heat transfer
from the brake units, and a pressure rise of up to 10% can be expected. This pressure
should not be reduced to normal working pressure as this could result in under-inflation at
normal temperatures.
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Landing Gear
Inflation Procedures
Dry air or nitrogen should be used for inflating all tyres, and the applicable precautions
should be observed. The particular gas specified by the aircraft manufacturer should
always be used, and should not be mixed with the alternative unless specifically
authorised.
If a dial-type gauge is used, the required inflation pressure should register in the centre of
the dial; all gauges should be checked for accuracy at frequent intervals. When using a
high-pressure storage bottle, a pressure reducing valve must be incorporated in the
delivery line.
The normal procedure for inflating a tyre is as follows:
i) Check the pressure required by reference to the aircraft Maintenance Manual.

ii) Remove the valve cap and connect the supply to the valve (ensuring that a
screw-on connector is used for pressures above 700 kN/sq.m. (100 lbf./sq.in.)
iii) Adjust the regulator on the inflation trolley to the required pressure.
iv) Slowly inflate the tyre to the required pressure.
v) Disconnect the supply, check the valve for leakage, then refit the valve cap.
Cold Tyres Pressure Check
When checking the pressure of tyres, which are at ambient temperature, any tyre which is
more than 10% below loaded inflation pressure should be rejected, together with the
companion tyre on the same axle.
Any tyre which is between 5% and 10% below loaded inflation pressure should be
re-inflated to the correct pressure and checked at the next daily check; if the pressure is
again more than 5% low the tyre should be rejected.
Hot tyres pressure check
It may often be necessary to check the pressures of tyres, which are still hot following a
landing. The pressure of each tyre should be checked and noted, and compared with the
pressures of the other tyres on the same undercarriage leg.
Any tyre with a pressure of 10% or more below the maximum recorded on the same leg
should be re-inflated to that maximum pressure but Should be rejected if a similar loss is
apparent at the next check.
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Landing Gear
EXAMINATION OF FITTED TYRES
A careful visual examination of tyres should be carried out prior to each flight, rotating the
wheels wherever possible to ensure that the whole surface of the tyre is checked.
Manufacturers prescribe limits of damage within which a tyre may be kept in service; tyres
damaged in excess of these limits should be removed from the aircraft and repaired or
scrapped as appropriate.
The following paragraphs summarise the actions, which should be carried out:
Embedded Stones, Flints And Glass
The outer surface of the tyre should be examined for embedded objects and any found
should be carefully removed.
Cuts And Scores
All cuts should be probed with a suitable blunt tool in order to assess the depth and extent
of any damage to the casing.
Minor damage may be defined as that which does not affect the casing cord; cuts in both
the tread and side rubber, providing they do not expose the casing cord, do not
appreciably weaken the tyre. Such defects should be filled with a tyre dough compound,
since continued exposure permits the entry of water and grit, which tends to cause
chafing and rotting. Tyres damaged beyond the limits described above should be
rejected.
Bulges
The presence of bulges may indicate a partial failure of the casing, and the tyre should be
removed for further examination. If it is obvious that the casing has filed, i.e. if the fabric is
fractured, the tyre should be rejected, but if not it should be returned to the manufacturer
for possible repair.
Wear
The extent to which tread has been removed from a tyre is not always easy to assess and
may be either general or local. Methods of indicating wear are shown in the following
figure.
Local wear may be in the form of a 'flat spot' caused by severe abrasion or skid burns and
these may occur as a result of excessive braking, hard touch-downs or aquaplaning. The
probability of aqua-planing increases as the depth of tread is reduced.
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Landing Gear
It is recommended that tyres be removed when wear has reached the limits defined
below:
i) Patterned tread tyres may be used until the tread is worn to the depth of the
pattern.
ii) Ribbed tyres with marker tie bars may be used until worn to the top of the tie bars.
iii) Ribbed tyres without marker tie bars may be used until worn to within 2 mm (0.080
in) of the bottom of the wear indicator grooves.
iv) Twin contact tyres may be used until the centre of the crown shows sign of having
been in contact with the ground.
v) Plain tread tyres may be used until either the grey cushion rubber is exposed (on
early tyres only), or when the shape of the casing cords can be seen through the
cushion rubber.
Indication of Tyre Wear
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Landing Gear
NOTE : On tyres with reinforced tread, several layers of fabric are moulded into the tread
rubber and will become visible during normal use; the threads so exposed should not be
confused with the casing cords. These tyres are provided with marker tie bars, which
should be used to assess the wear as in (ii).
Sponginess
Tyres which are only slightly affected by fuel, oil or glycol and which, after being wiped
and allowed to dry, show no appreciable signs of swelling or softening, may be
considered serviceable; tyres affected beyond this stage should be rejected.
Flat Spots On Nylon Tyres
Tyres having nylon casings may, due to their lack of elasticity, develop a temporary 'flat
spot'. This should not be confused with the flat worn on the tread as described in
paragraph above, but is caused by the local relief of tension in the cords at that section of
the tyre and is usually the result of the tyre being subjected to static load for a lengthy
period.
i) Stretch of the nylon cords is considerable and progressive, and when the load is
removed the cords do not immediately resume a tension equal to that of the cords
in the rest of the casing.
ii) Normally the flat spot works itself out during the period "of taxying before take-off,
but should this not be the case, the tyre will be out of balance and set up vibration
in the aircraft during take-off.
iii) Precautions against the occurrence of flat spots can, however, be taken; these
include occasionally moving aircraft, which are to be stationary for lengthy periods
in order to transfer the load to different sections of the tyres.
iv) If a flat spot has developed, it can normally be remedied by rolling or taxying the
aircraft for a short distance.
Heat Transmission
On aircraft main wheels, excessive braking may result in the transmission of heat to the
beads of the tyres. If this is evident from indications of excessive heat on the wheels
(such as discoloration, paint flaking or melting of fusible plugs) the tyres should be
carefully examined.
The results of overheating are indicated by 'tackiness of the tyre bead and, in severe
cases, a deposit from the tyre will adhere to the wheel flanges and bead seats. Tyres
affected in this manner should be rejected.
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Landing Gear
Deflated Tyres
Tyres, which have been under load while in a deflated condition, should be removed from
the aircraft.
If the aircraft has taxied with a tyre in this condition, the deflated tyre and its axle
companion should be scrapped, but if a single tyre deflates while static (except when
deflated for servicing purposes) it should be removed and inspected in accordance with
the relevant Maintenance Manua1.
If more than one of the tyres on a multi-wheel undercarriage are found to have been run in
a deflated condition, all the tyres on that undercarriage shou1d be scrapped.
Rejected Take-Offs
A rejected take-off at high energy levels may have resulted in the overstressing or
overheating of all the main wheel tyres, although no evidence of damage may be visible.
Reference should be made to the relevant Maintenance Manual for guidance on the
action to be taken.
Replacement Tyres
New and retreaded tyres have slight differences in external diameters, and replacement
tyre and wheel assemblies for twin or multi-wheel undercarriages should be selectively
fitted to ensure that both or all tyres take an equal share of the load.
PROTECTION
Tyres must be protected from excessive heat, dampness and bright light, and from fluids
such as oil, fuel, glycol and hydraulic fluid, since all of these have a harmful effect on the
rubber.
If the aircraft is to be parked for any length of time, or if any of the above-mentioned
systems are to be drained, an oilskin cover should be placed over the tyre. Any fluid
inadvertently spilt or allowed to drip on to the tyre should be wiped off immediately.
INSPECTION OF TYRES AND TUBES REMOVED FROM AIRCRAFT
The previous paragraph details the checks to be made on tyres during running
maintenance; at the periods specified in the Maintenance Schedule, the tyres should be
removed from the aircraft and examined as described in the manufacturers. Service
Manual Guidance on inspections and typical defects is given in this paragraph.
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Landing Gear
Tyres
1. Fractures
The inside of the tyre should be examined for fractures caused by fatigue or concussion.
The latter defect may be caused by heavy impact on a protrusion, e.g. striking a stone
during touch-down.
External detection of the fraction may be difficult, but a dark stain on the tyre, or a very
sIight smooth bulge, may be visible where the rubber is bruised.
i) If a fracture has occurred, internal inspection will reveal a diagonal line or a 'star',
dark in colour, at the point where the impact occured.
ii) The interior examination of a large tyre may be facilitated by rolling it along the floor
and observing closely the area which is flattened by contact with the ground, since
this tends to open the fracture.
iii) Tyres so damaged should be scrapped and labelled accordingly.
2. Bead failure
Tyres showing any signs of bead chafing or break-up of the bead should be returned to
the manufacturer for assessment of possible repair.
Tubes
The base of the tube, i.e. that part of the tube, which has been in contact with the tyre, on
the brake side, should be examined for evidence of thinning of the rubber caused by heat
generated during normal braking operations.
Tubes which have thinned at the base, are perished or cracked, have grown or stretched
unduly, or show bad creases, must be discarded.
Valve stems should be examined for bending, cracks or damaged threads, and, if
damaged beyond local repair, the tube should be rejected. Valve cores with bent pins or
damaged threads, or showing signs of corrosion, should be renewed.
Cuts in tubes may be repaired by a vulcanising process, except where they occur in the
region of the valve. Vulcanising is a specialised process and should only be done by
trained personnel using suitable equipment.
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Tubeless Tyres
The tyre should be thoroughly cleaned with clean water, and inspected for damage,
paying particu1ar attention to the inner lining and the entire bead area. It is essentia1 that
the beads shou1d be clean and free from grease.
STORAGE OF TYRES
Excessive light and heat will cause cracking and general deterioration of rubber, therefore
tyres and tubes should be stored in a darkened room having a dry temperature of from 10
to 27 (50 to 80F) and should be kept away from radiators, steam pipes, electric motors
or other sources of heat. It should be ascertained that the possibility of contamination
from oil or grease does not exist, since this would also cause rapid deterioration of the
rubber.
Tyres
Preferably, tyres should be stored vertically in special racks embodying support tubes, so
that each tyre is supported at two points. Two-thirds of the tyre should be above the
support tubes and one-third below. By this method, the weight of the tyre is taken by the
tread, and distortion is reduced to a minimum. The tyres should be turned to a new
position every two or three months.
Where space does not permit the use of the above method, tubed tyres may be stored
horizontally in stacks on a level floor. The height of stacks should be limited to four tyres
so that the weight does not cause distortion of sidewalls and tread on the lower tyres,
which could lead to failure in service. Staggering the tyres in piles tends to distort the
bead wires and casing. If possible a stack of tyres should be graded so that the largest
tyre is at the bottom and the smallest at the top. This method of storing should not be
used for tubeless tyres, as the beads could be pressed close together and make
mounting and inflation more difficult.
Where tyres are delivered in wrappers, the wrappers should be left on during storage.
Tubes
Tubes should preferably be stored in their original wrapping; if they cannot be stored in
this manner they should be slightly inflated and stored inside tyres of appropriate size.
Assembled Wheels
The tyres on assembled wheels not required for immediate use should be inflated to a
pressure of 140 to 210 kN/m (20 to 30 lbf/in) for storage and shipment.
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Shelf Life
Provided that the ideal storage conditions are maintained, tyres and tubes may be kept in
storage for up to seven years from the date of manufacture, without deterioration. It is
recommended, however, that stocks be limited to a quantity, which will ensure that a
storage life of four years is not exceeded. This will ensure that the most advantage is
taken of improvements in design and manufacturing techniques. After seven years in
storage, tyres should be returned to the manufacturer for assessment.
INTRODUCTION TO WHEELS
Aircraft wheels provide the mounting for tyres, which absorb shock on landing, support
the aircraft on the ground and assist in ground control during taxi, take-off and landing.
Wheels are usually made from either aluminium or magnesium alloy forgings or castings.
These materials provide a strong, light weight wheel requiring very little maintenance.
Light aircraft with fixed landing gear usually have small diameter wheels, which are
castings made in one piece with integral flanges and are known as well-base" wheels.
Well-Base Wheel
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Landing Gear
On heavier aircraft the wheels are often of divided construction being in two halves, which
are either bolted together or have detachable flanges of one piece or segmented
construction as shown:
Split Hub Wheel
Detachable Flange Wheel
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Nose and tail wheels are not usually fitted with brakes and therefore are generally of
simpler construction than main wheels. Magnesium alloy nose and tail wheels, which
conduct static discharges are often metallised with pure aluminium at the tyre seat to
provide maximum conductivity to the tyre. The tyres in some instances are manufactured
with treads of conducting compound to permit the earthing of static charges induced in the
aircraft.
Heat generated by braking action is dissipated by radiation and conduction through the
wheel and tyre, and every effort is made to keep heat transference to a minimum.
Wheels are designed to permit optimum ventilation, and cylindrical stainless steel heat
shields may be installed around the brake unit.
On some aircraft, an electric motor mounted within the axle, or a series of motors installed
in the brake housing, drive fans, which provide a forced draught through the wheel and
relieve the build-up of heat.
To prevent the danger of tyre explosion, the main wheels of many modern aircraft are
fitted with fusible plugs which melt at a predetermined temperature (approximately 150
C ), allowing a piston to be blown out of the plug bore and thus deflating the tyre.
Thermal Fuse
Some aircraft wheels are also fitted with a pressure relief valve, the purpose of which is to
prevent over-inflation of the tyre.
In general wheels are mounted on ball or roller bearings which fit directly on to the axle, or
on to a bearing sleeve which is keyed to the axle.
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Landing Gear
INSTALLATION AND REMOVAL OF WHEELS
Removal
Before removing a wheel, the aircraft must be prepared and jacked up in accordance with
the approved Maintenance Manual. These preparations may be very simple, such as
chocking the opposite wheels and lifting the wheel, which is to be removed by means of a
bottle jack. However, on large transport aircraft additional procedures, such as fitting
ground locks to the landing gear, landing gear doors and steering mechanism, may be
necessary.
In some cases one wheel of a twin wheel arrangement may be lifted clear of the ground
by running the other wheel up an inclined block.
On aircraft with multi-disc brakes it is usual to set the brakes on before removing the
wheel in order to keep the rotating discs in alignment with the driving keys in the wheel
hub. On aircraft with drum brakes, however, application of the brakes would prevent
removal of the wheel and they should be released.
A typical removal procedure is described below:
a. Prepare aircraft for jacking in accordance with the appropriate aircraft Maintenance
Manual.
b. Raise axle or bogie, as appropriate, until the tyre is clear of the ground.
c. Deflate tyre or reduce pressure to a low value.
NOTE : During release of tyre pressure, icing of the valve may occur and give a
false indication of complete deflation. Sufficient time must elapse after the air flow
has ceased to ensure that any ice has melted and that the tyre is sufficiently
deflated.
d. Where applicable, remove cooling fan or hubcap assembly.
e. Remove axle nut locking device.
f. Remove axle nut and install thread protector.
g. Position wheel trolley and remove wheel carefully so as not to damage the axle.
NOTE : On some aircraft it is recommended that an approved extractor is used
when removing the wheel.
h. Remove grease seals and bearings.
i. Install axle protector.
j. Fit protective cover over the brake assembly if the wheel is not to be re-fitted
immediately.
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Landing Gear
Installation
Before installing a wheel and tyre, the general condition of the wheel, tyre and bearings
should be checked. The axle should also be checked for corrosion, scores and other
damage, particularly in the bearing support area and, if an axle sleeve is fitted, this should
be checked for allowable wear at the bearing area and correct fit on the axle.
Bearings on new or replacement wheels may be packed with storage grease, and this
should be cleaned out and replaced by grease specified for service use.
A typical install procedure is described below:
a. Grease inner bearing and seal with the specified grease, and install on axle.
b. Slide wheel into position on axle, using the appropriate aligning fixture as
necessary to line up the brake disc driving keys in the wheel hub with the slots in
the rotating discs.
c. Grease and install the outer bearing and seal.
d. Remove thread protector and lubricate axle threads.
e. Install axle nut and tighten to the recommended initial torque, rotating the wheel as
the nut is tightened.
f. Slacken axle nut then, again rotating the wheel, tighten to the specified final torque
and fit the locking device.
g. Replace cooling fan or hub cap assembly.
h. Check tyre pressure and tyre growth clearance, retracting landing gear where
necessary to facilitate this check, then lower the aircraft and remove the ground
locks installed to prevent operation of the steering mechanism or landing gear
doors.
MAINTENANCE
A superficial inspection and minor repairs may be carried out with the wheel installed on
the aircraft. A more detailed inspection is made when the wheel is removed for tyre
replacement following operation with a deflated tyre (or with the companion tyre deflated
on a twin wheel arrangement), and at the intervals specified in the approved Maintenance
Schedule.
Installed Wheels
a. The wheel should be examined for crack, corrosion, distortion, dents and scores,
particular attention being given to the wheel flanges. Small dents on the outside
of the flanges may usually be blended within specified limits, but in general no
damage is permissible where the flange is in contact with the tyre.
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Landing Gear
When a dent or abrasion is blended out, the exposed metal should be closely
inspected for cracks and the protective treatment renewed. It is particularly
important to give prompt attention to protective treatments following repairs to
magnesium alloy wheels.
b. Wheel hub tie bolts and nuts, inflation valves, balance weights and, where visible,
the axle nut locking device, should be inspected for security and damage. If any
tie bolt is found defective, the wheel should be removed and the complete set
renewed.
c. The wheel, brake and tyre should be examined for signs of overheating, such as
blistered or discolored paint, distortion, and leakage of grease from the wheel
bearings.
NOTE : If a fusible plug is found to be blown out, the tyre should be scrapped and
all fusible plug seals renewed, but the wheel may be satisfactory subject to certain
checks.
d. Periodically the wheels should be raised clear of the ground in order to check for
free rotation and end float in the bearings.
Wheels Removed from Aircraft
a. The tyre must be completely deflated before any attempt is made to dismantle a
wheel or remove a tyre.
b. Dismantled wheels should be thoroughly cleaned in a suitable cleaning fluid and

then examined for cracks, corrosion, distortion or other damage.
c. Some manufacturers require that paint should be completely removed from wheels
before checking for cracks. Where chemical paint strippers are used it is essential
that the chemical is removed by thorough washing.
c. A careful examination should be made for cracks around bolt holes, in the radius at
the base of the wheel flange (tyre bead seat) and at other highly stressed points or
changes of section. These examinations are normally made using ultrasonic or
eddy current methods.
d. Light surface corrosion can be cleaned off, and damage blended out within
specified limits, but deep corrosion, scores, dents or cracks beyond these limits will
render the wheel unserviceable.
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Landing Gear
e. Brake drums should be examined for signs of distortion, wear, scores & cracking
and there should be no evidence of drum movement relative to the wheel.
With disc type brakes the drive blocks in which the discs are tensioned should be
checked for security, damage, wear and hammering.
g. Wheels should also be inspected for distortion and concentricity, by mounting the
wheel on a mandrel in vee-blocks and checking at the flange with a dial test
indicator. Distortion may also be checked using large calipers. After this check the
wheel should be statically balanced.
h. Wheels which may have been damaged by overheating but which are not found to
be distorted and are otherwise serviceable, may be required to be given a check
for material hardness.
When this check is specified, the method and the acceptable range of hardness
numbers will be found in the approved Maintenance Manual.
i. Bearings may sometimes be inspected in position, but they must often be removed
(using an extractor where necessary) in order that they may be thoroughly cleaned
and inspected.
They should be cleaned in a solvent such as white spirit and examined for
corrosion, brinelling of the races, chipped ball or rollers, retaining cage condition,
roughness and discolouration. If servicable, bearings should be packed with
approved grease immediately after inspection, and protected from dust and dirt.
j. Tie bolts, i.e. those used for clamping the two halves of a split hub, should be
checked for corrosion, distortion, cracks and condition of threads.
Any damage found on these bolts will necessitate their replacement. In some
instances, self-locking nuts, which are found to have a satisfactory locking torque
may be re-used, but the manufacturer may require all stiff nuts to be discarded
after disassembly.
k. Wheels should be painted and reassembled in accordance with the manufacturer's

recommendations, and particular care should be paid to the sequence of assembly
and torque tightening of the tie bolts. It is usually recommended that new seals
should be fitted during re-assembly
l. When a tyre is assembled on a wheel, the complete unit should be statically

balanced.
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Landing Gear
INTRODUCTION TO BRAKES
Proper functioning of the brakes is of utmost importance on aircraft. The brakes are used
for slowing, stopping, holding, or steering the aircraft. They must develop sufficient force
to stop the aircraft in a reasonable distance; brakes must hold the aircraft for normal
engine turn up; and brakes must permit steering of the aircraft on the ground.
Brakes are installed in each main landing wheel and they may be actuated independently
of each other. The right-hand landing wheel is controlled by applying toe pressure to the
right rudder pedal and the left-hand wheel is controlled by the left rudder pedal.
For the brakes to function efficiently, each component in the brake system must operate
properly, and each brake assembly on the aircraft must operate with equal effectiveness.
It is therefore important that the entire brake system be inspected frequently and an
ample supply of hydraulic fluid be maintained in the system. Each brake assembly must
be adjusted properly and friction surfaces kept free of grease and oil.
The action of a brake is to convert the aircraft's energy of motion into heat energy. This is
accomplished by applying pressure to the braking surfaces developing friction, which
slows down the moving surfaces and heats the rubbing surfaces. The resultant heat must
be dissipated before it can damage the tyres.
The effectiveness of a brake depends on:
i) Braking area and its ability to dissipate heat.

ii) The amount of force applied.
The maximum effectiveness of a brake is obtained just prior to the rubbing surfaces of the
brake locking. To prevent the wheels locking an anti-skid unit is often incorporated in the
brake system. This component senses the amount of deceleration and releases the
brake as necessary to maintain maximum effectiveness.
BRAKE ASSEMBLIES
Brake assemblies commonly used on aircraft are the drum brakes, single-disc brakes and
the multiple-disc brakes.
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Landing Gear
Drum Brake
Although used extensively on earlier aircraft, drum brakes have largely been superseded
by hydraulically operated disc brakes, on most modern high performance aircraft.
However, pneumatically operated drum brakes may still be found in service.
The main components of the brake unit are the back plate, brake drum, expander tube
(pressure bag) and brake linings.
Drum Brake
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Landing Gear
Back plate is cylindrical in shape and is attached to a flange on the axle. It houses the
expander tube, brake linings and pneumatic connections.
Expander tube is a circular, reinforced rubber tube of flat cross section, and is fitted
around the back plate. It has a pneumatic connection leading through the back plate to
the aircraft pneumatic system.
The complete brake lining assembly is made up of a number of segments of

heat-resisting friction material which form a ring around the expander tube and are
shaped to conform to the inside radius of the brake drum. Each segment is bonded or
riveted to a metal fitting, which protrudes through the back plate and is secured by a
spring clip.
Phosphor-bronze gauze separators are fitted between the ends of the brake lining
segments to reduce heat penetration to the expander tube and to exclude carbon
particles.
The brake drum is a heavy steel cylinder, attached to and rotating with the wheel, and
against which the brake lining segments expand to produce the braking action.
i) Operation
When the pilot's control is operated, air pressure is applied to the inside of the expander
tube, which expands and forces the brake linings against the brake drum. When air
pressure is released the expander tube collapses and the brake linings are withdrawn
from the brake drum by the action of the return springs.
ii) Maintenance
Brake segments should be examined for wear by measuring the thickness of the
remaining material, the minimum thickness permitted for replacing the linings being
stipulated in the approved Maintenance Manual.
During a pre-flight inspection the back plate and wheel should be examined for signs of
overheating, and the flexible pneumatic hose between the brake units and the landing
gear leg should be checked for damage, security or leaks.
Operation of the brakes may be checked by means of the brake pressure gauge and also
by checking that air is discharged from the brake relay valve when the brakes are
released.
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Landing Gear
Single-disc Brake
A simple single-disc brake unit is shown and is of a type found on many light aircraft. A
single operating cylinder is shown on the next page but two or three are often used for
increased braking performance, and larger aircraft may have brakes using five or six
cylinders.
The brake unit consists basically of a light alloy torque plate shaped for attachment to the
landing gear leg or axle flange, housing a caliper-type hydraulic jack unit and a pair of
friction pads. A steel disc is slotted into the wheel and rotates between the friction pads.
When the brakes are operated, fluid pressure is applied to the cylinder and forces the
operating piston towards the disc, thus squeezing the disc between the operating and
fixed friction pads and thus resisting wheel rotation. When the brakes are released the
disc is free to rotate between the friction pads.
The brake unit should be examined periodically for fluid leaks, damage or corrosion, the
friction pads for wear and the disc for scoring' or pick-up of surface plating. The single
discs used on light aircraft brakes are prone to corrosion and pitting during periods of
idleness, and this may lead to rapid wear of the friction pads. Discs in poor condition
should be replaced or machined to give a clean surface as appropriate. Replacement of
worn pads is normally a very simple procedure once the wheel has been removed, and
often does not necessitate breaking down the hydraulic system.
Single Disc Brake

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Landing Gear
Multi-disc Brake
Multi-disc brakes are designed to provide increased friction surfaces for braking purposes.
The general arrangement is basically similar to the single-disc brake, but the single disc is
replaced by a stack of alternate stationary and rotating discs, and a number of operating
cylinders are equally spaced around the torque plate.
The friction elements are normally in the form of pads attached to either side of the
stationary discs, but on some types the rotating discs have sintered surfaces or pads.
This type of brake is operated from the aircraft's main hydraulic system, through valves
connected to the pilot's rudder pedals.
i) Construction
Multi-Disc Brake
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Landing Gear
In this unit a torque plate and torque tube assembly fits over the axle and is bolted to a
flange on the axle. Alternative designs are often similarly mounted but prevented from
rotating by means of a torque arm attached to a suitable fixture on the landing gear leg or
bogie.
A number of cylinders are spaced around the torque plate, connected to the hydraulic
brake system and house pistons, which apply load to the pressure plate.
The disc pack (also known as the heat pack) contains alternate stationary and rotating
discs, the stationary discs being keyed to the torque tube and the rotating discs being
keyed to drive blocks in the wheel hub.
In this unit the stationary discs house the brake pads and the rotating discs are
segmented to prevent heat distortion and brake drag. Correct working clearance in the
disc pack is maintained by means of adjuster assemblies.
Pins attached to the pressure plate and protruding through the torque plate on this brake
unit, indicate the amount of wear, which has taken place in the disc pack.
i) Operation
When the brakes are selected on, hydraulic pressure is admitted to the cylinders and
moves the operating pistons against the pressure plate. The disc pack is clamped
between the pressure plate and thrust plate, and the friction loads generated between the
stationary and rotating members provide the required braking action.
When the brakes are released, springs in the adjuster assemblies move the pressure
plate back to maintain a working clearance in the disc pack and permit free rotation of the
wheel.
ii) Maintenance
Contamination of the friction surfaces of a brake unit by fluids used in aircraft servicing
operations is highly detrimental to brake operation. It is essential, therefore, to protect
brakes from contamination by fuel, oil, grease, paint remover, de-icing fluid, etc. When
operations involving their use are undertaken, and the condition of the brake units should
subsequently be confirmed by inspection.
Installed disc brakes may be inspected for signs of fluid leakage, external damage,
corrosion, disc pack wear and overheating, and the associated hydraulic pipes for
security, distortion, chafing or leaks. Brake disc pack wear can be checked by measuring
wear pin protrusion, the limits being specified in the approved Maintenance Manual.
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Landing Gear
At the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule the brake unit should be
removed for inspection and overhaul. The wheel should first be removed and the
hydraulic pipe couplings should be disconnected at the brake and fitted with suitable
blanks.
In some cases fluid will drain from these pipes and bleeding will be necessary after
re-connection, but in other cases connection is by self-sealing couplings which isolate the
hydraulic system from the brake unit.
The brake unit attachment bolts (and, where fitted, the torque link) should then be
removed and the unit carefully withdrawn.
Following its removal, the brake unit should be dismantled, cleaned and inspected.
i) Rotating discs should be checked for excessive scoring, corrosion, distortion and
wear on the friction surfaces and driving slots.
Light surface damage which would not cause excessive wear of the friction pads
may be acceptable, but deep scores or corrosion should be ground out within
prescribed limits.
Heat damage may cause surface cracking and if present, must be within limits
specified by the manufacturer for the disc to be re-used.
ii) Brake friction pads should be inspected for excessive wear (normally checked by
measuring individual pad thickness and weighing the complete pack), burning,
flaking, cracking, security of attachment to the stationary disc and contamination
by oil or grease.
It is normally specified that, if any pad is damaged or worn beyond limits, or

contaminated with oil or grease, the complete set should be changed.
When re-installing the brake unit on the axle, care must be taken not to spill fluid on the
disc pack. Jointing, sealing or anti-seize compounds should be used where specified,
and all fasteners and pipe connections should be torque loaded and locked to the
manufacturer's requirements.
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Landing Gear
Adjuster Assemblies
Adjuster Assembly
At least two adjuster assemblies are fitted to the majority of disc brakes, their purpose
being to maintain a suitable running clearance in the brake pack.
In a single-disc brake the retraction pins are often attached directly to the operating
pistons but on multi-disc brakes they are usually attached to the pressure plate.
In operation, movement of the piston or pressure plate is transmitted via the retraction pin
and friction bush to compress the adjuster spring and move the guide until it abuts the
torque plate. When the brakes are released the adjuster spring pulls the guide back until
it contacts the spring housing, the clearance between the guide and torque plate being
the designed running clearance. As wear takes place in the discs the pressure plate has
to move further forward, thus pulling the retraction pin through the friction bush by an
amount equal to disc wear, but maintaining the design clearance when brakes are
released.
On some brake units wear may be assessed by measuring the protrusion of the retraction
pin.
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Landing Gear
On initial assembly of the adjuster a special tool is used to position the retraction pin at the
position of maximum protrusion through the friction bush. The pin takes up its initial
operating position when the brakes are first pressurized.
On some types of disc brakes a conical friction bush is used, and friction is adjusted by
torque loading the retaining nut to a specified value, whilst on others, provision is made
for manual adjustment of the working clearance.
Correct operation of the adjuster assemblies must be checked whenever the brakes are
tested, and should result in free rotation of the wheel when brakes are released.
BRAKE SYSTEMS
Low Pressure Brake Systems
Most light aircraft are fitted with an independent hydraulic system for each brake, similar
to that shown in figure.
Simple Low-Pressure Brake System
On some aircraft a handbrake system is connected to each brake through a shuttle valve,
while on others a parking brake control applies a mechanical lock to the footbrake linkage
when brakes are applied. The main components in each system are a fluid reservoir and
master cylinder, connected mechanically to the brake pedals and hydraulically to the
brake operating cylinder.
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Landing Gear
i) Operation
As the brake pedal is pressed, a piston in the master cylinder forces fluid through the
pipelines to the brake operating cylinder, the braking force depending on the force
exerted on the brake pedal.
When the pedal is released, a return spring in the master cylinder returns the piston to its
original position, and pressure is relieved.
Handbrake operation is similar except that the shuttle valve moves to allow pressure to
the brake unit and close off the port from the footbrake master cylinder; brakes are held
on by a ratchet device in the handbrake mounting.
With the alternative parking brake system, the brake should be set by applying pressure
with the footbrake, then the parking brake operated to lock the footbrake linkage;
subsequent footbrake application will release the locking catch.
ii) Maintenance
Little maintenance is required with this type of brake system except for ensuring that the
reservoir is kept topped up to the required level with the specified fluid.
Spongy operation of the brakes may be caused by air in the system, which should be bled
as described. Fluid bled from the brakes should not be replaced in the system.
Loss of brake pressure, or inability to hold the brakes on, may be due to faulty or worn
seals in the master cylinder or shuttle valve.
High Pressure Brake Systems
High pressure braking systems use the normal aircraft hydraulic system to provide fluid,
under pressure, to the brake units.
A brake system accumulator stores energy in the brake system for use in the event of
normal system pressure not being available, and an emergency pneumatic system is
frequently included to safeguard brake operation in the event of complete hydraulic failure.
A simplified system is shown in the following figure.
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Landing Gear
Simple High-Pressure Brake System
Operation of the brakes can be controlled from either pilot's position, by brake pedals
attached to the rudder bar. Application of left or right pedals at either pilot's station
causes operation of the associated left or right brakes.
The brake pedals are linked through a system of levers and cables, or a hydraulic servo
system, to a control valve (normally located adjacent to the main wheel bays to minimise
the length of pipe run), which controls hydraulic pressure according to the position of the
brake pedals. This pressure is often reduced through a pressure reducing valve, and
modulated by an anti-skid valve, before being applied to the brake cylinders.
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Landing Gear
The accurate setting-up of the mechanical linkage between the rudder pedals and control
valve is very important since it controls the brake pressure in relation to pedal movement
and must be identical in both left and right braking systems.
In a normal system, levers and bellcranks are locked in position by the insertion of rigging
pins and the connecting rods and cables adjusted to fit these fixed locations.
The main items of maintenance common to all modern aircraft with high pressure braking
systems are the checking of fluid levels and accumulator gas pressures, followed by
replenishment as necessary.
BLEEDING THE BRAKES
The presence of air in the hydraulic brake system will degrade the performance of the
brakes, and must be removed after initial installation and whenever brake response
becomes sluggish.
The exact method of bleeding the brakes will depend to a large extent on the particular
aircraft system, and reference should be made to the approved Maintenance Manual for
the aircraft concerned.
However, the normal method of bleeding is to pressurize the brake system and open the
bleed screws fitted to the brake units, allowing hydraulic fluid to flow through the system
until bubble-free fluid is discharged; the bleed screws are then closed and brake
operation tested. Bleed fluid should be piped to a suitable container, and must not be
allowed to come into contact with the disc pack.
a. On low pressure systems fluid is forced through the brake unit by slowly pumping
the appropriate brake pedal. Care must be taken to ensure that the reservoir is
kept topped up during this operation, since further air might be introduced if the
fluid level is allowed to fall too low.
b. On high pressure systems the associated hydraulic accumulator is pressurized,

and as the brake pedal is depressed, fluid is forced out of the bleed screws under
pressure.
In this type of system it is sometimes recommended that only a specified quantity

of fluid is discharged, and it may be necessary to bleed other parts of the system
such as, where fitted, the servo system from the brake pedals to the control valves,
or the normal and emergency accumulators, before bleeding the brakes. After
bleeding, the appropriate reservoir should be topped up as necessary.
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Landing Gear
TESTING THE BRAKES
Brakes are normally tested after overhaul, and after installation on an aircraft, while the
aircraft is still jacked up. The brakes should be applied several times then released; there
should be no leakage and the brakes should restrain wheel movement when pressurized
and permit wheel rotation when released (free rotation is important, because binding
brakes can cause over-heating and increase take-off ground-run distance).
Operation of the emergency and parking brake controls should be checked and, on
completion, a full brake sense check should be carried out in a manner which will ensure
correct brake operation for any brake application.
Special care should be taken to ensure that the hydraulic systems are correctly
connected and in particular that the main system, and not the emergency system, is
connected through the anti-skid device.
BRAKE TEMPERATURE MONITORING SYSTEM

On some aircraft, in order to inform the pilot of excessive build-up of heat in the wheel
brakes, a brake temperature monitoring system is fitted.
A typical system includes a temperature sensor at each wheel, which supplies information
to a central monitor and warning unit on the flight deck. The monitor contains a
temperature gauge and a selection button for each wheel. The gauge normally records
the temperature at the hottest brake, and a button illuminates when the associated brake
temperature exceeds a predetermined amount. When any button is pressed, the gauge
records the temperature at the associated brake.
For testing purposes, operation of a test switch on the control unit will cause all buttons to
illuminate and the gauge to read within a test signal range when all circuits are
serviceable.
OVERHEATED BRAKES
The action of braking converts kinetic energy into heat and the temperature of brake units
will, therefore, rise during use. There is a limit to the amount of heat, which can be
absorbed and dissipated by a brake and wheel unit. Excessive use of the brakes, such as
during a rejected take-off or prolonged periods of taxying, can lead to overheating and
combustion and, in extreme cases, result in rupture of a wheel assembly.
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Landing Gear
One of the main problems associated with overheated brakes or brake fires, is how to
cool the wheel without inducing uneven contraction of the metal. This could cause
fracture of the wheel and explosive release of the air in the tyre. Serious, and sometimes
fatal, accidents have been known to occur as the result of the application of an incorrect
extinguishant to a brake fire.
A small fire, due perhaps to combustion of grease on the wheel, would probably cause
less damage in burning itself out than might be caused by attempting to extinguish it. A
short period should be allowed, therefore, to check the progress of the fire before
attempting to put it out. In some cases however, such as when the fire is fed by leaking
hydraulic fluid, immediate action will be necessary; some aircraft wheels are made from
magnesium alloys which, once ignited, burn fiercely and are difficult to extinguish.
Tests have shown that the safest extinguishant to use is a dry chemical agent, and this
must be used whenever possible. It should be applied by an operator standing in line with
the tyres rolling path and at a safe distance. An overheated wheel should never be
approached in line with the axle.
If a wheel fire has to be extinguished and no dry chemical is available, C02 or foam may
be used but extreme caution is necessary. The extinguishant should be applied as lightly
as possible from a distance of at least 20' to reduce the likelihood of uneven cooling, and
the area should be kept clear after the fire has gone out, until such time as the wheel and
brake are completely cooled.
ANTI-SKID SYSTEM
The braking systems of most modern aircraft are provided with a means of preventing the
wheels from skidding on wet or icy surfaces and of ensuring that optimum braking effect
can be obtained under all conditions, by modulating the hydraulic pressure to the brakes.
Anti-skid units sense the rate of change of wheel deceleration, decreasing the hydraulic
pressure applied to the brakes when a high rate of increase in deceleration {i.e. consistent
with an impending skid) occurs, and restoring it as the wheel accelerates again.
A modulator is often fitted in conjunction with the anti-skid unit, to restrict the flow of fluid
to the brakes after initial brake application and to conserve main system pressure.
The skid contra system performs four functions:
i) Normal skid control,

ii) Locked wheel skid control,
iii) Touchdown protection, and
iv) Fail-safe protection
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Landing Gear
The main components of the system consist of two skid control generators, a skid control
box, two skid control valves, a skid control switch, a warning lamp, and an electrical
control harness with a connection to the squat switch.
Normal Skid Control
Normal skid control comes into play when wheel rotation slows down but has not come to
a stop. When this slowing down happens, the wheel sliding action has just begun but has
not yet reached a full scale slide. In this situation the skid control valve removes some of
the hydraulic pressure to the wheel. This permits the wheel to rotate a little faster and
stop its sliding.
The more intense the skid is, the more braking pressure is removed. The skid detection
and control of each wheel is completely independent of the others. The wheel skid
intensity is measured by the amount of wheel slow-down.
a. Skid Control Generator
The skid control generator is the unit that measures the wheel rotational speed. It also
senses any changes in the speed.
It is a small electrical generator, one for each wheel mounted in the wheel axle. The
generator armature is coupled to and driven by the main wheel through the drive cap in
the wheel. As it rotates, the generator develops a voltage and current signal. The signal
strength indicates the wheel rotational speed. This signal is fed to the skid control box
through the harness.
b. Skid Control Box
The box reads the signal from the generator and senses change in signal strength. It can
interpret these as developing skids, locked wheels, brake applications, and brake
releases. It analyses all it reads, then sends appropriate signals to solenoids in the skid
control valves.
c. Skid Control Valves
The two skid control valves mounted on the brake control valve are solenoid operated.
Electric signals from the skid control box actuate the solenoids If there is no signal
(because there is no wheel skidding) the skid control valve will have no effect on brake
operation.
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Landing Gear
But, if a skid develops, either slight or serious, a signal is sent to the skid control valve
solenoid. This solenoids action lowers the metered pressure in the line between the
metering valve and the brake cylinders. It does so by dumping fluid into the reservoir
return line whenever the solenoid is energized. Naturally, this immediately relaxes the
brake application. The pressure flow into the brake lines from the metering valves
continues as long as the pilot depresses the brake pedals. But the flow and pressure is
rerouted to the reservoir instead of to the wheel brakes.
The utility system pressure enters the brake control valve where it is metered to the wheel
brakes in proportion to the force applied on the pilots foot pedal. However, before it can
go to the brakes, it must pass through a skid control valve. There, if the solenoid is
actuated, a port is opened in the line between the brake control valve and the brake. This
port vents the brake application pressure to the utility system return line. This reduces the
brake application, and the wheel rotates faster again.
The system is designed to apply enough force to operate just below the skid point. This
gives the most effective braking.
d. Pilot Control
The pilot can turn off the operation of the anti-skid system by a switch in the cockpit. A
warning lamp lights when the system is turned off or if there is a system failure.
Locked Wheel Skid Control
The locked wheel skid control causes the brake to be fully released when its wheel locks.
A locked wheel easily occurs on a patch of ice due to lack of tire friction with the surface.
It will occur if the normal skid control does not prevent the wheel from reaching a full skid.
To relieve a locked wheel skid, the pressure is bled off longer than in normal skid function.
This is to give the wheel time to regain speed. The locked wheel skid control is out of
action during aircraft speeds of less than 15 - 20 mph.
Touchdown Protection
The touchdown protection circuit prevents the brakes from being applied during the
landing approach even if the brake pedals are depressed. This prevents the wheels from
being locked when they contact the runway. The wheels have a chance to begin rotating
before they carry the full weight of the aircraft.
Two conditions must exist before the skid control valves permit brake application.
Without them the skid control box will not send the proper signal to the valve solenoids.
The first is that the squat switch must signal that the weight of the aircraft is on the wheels.
The second is that the wheel generators sense a wheel speed of over 15-20 mph.
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Landing Gear
Fail-Safe Protection
The fail-safe protection circuit monitors operation of the skid control system. It
automatically returns the brake system to full manual in case of system failure. It also
turns on a warning light.
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GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The purpose of the potable water system is to supply cold water to the galleys and hot and
cold water to the lavatories for use by the passengers and crew.
Major components of this system are:
1. Water tank for storing the potable water.

2. Air pressure system to force the water from the tank up to the galleys and
lavatories.
3. Distribution lines to deliver the water to the galleys and lavatories.
4. Filling system for the tank through an exterior service panel.
5. Indicating system for water quantity in the tank.
6. Valves to drain the potable water system.
Water System Location
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The water tank is filled with potable water from a ground cart through an external service
panel. The tank is pressurized by one of two sources of air pressure: engine bleed air line
or the pneumatic manifold.
Once pressurized, the water is forced from the tank through distribution lines to the
galleys and lavatories. In the lavatories, some of the water is diverted through an electric
hot water heater. The rest of the water goes to the cold water faucets.
A tank quantity transmitter signals the water quantity to two indicators: one is located on
the attendants panel and the other on the external service panel.
The tank and water distribution lines can be drained through valves located adjacent to
the tank and in the lavatories.
Potable Water System
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AIR PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM
The water tank pressurization system provides air to maintain 25 psi air pressure in the
water tank to force water up to the distribution line. The pressurized air is provided from
two sources. Either source is capable of providing sufficient tank pressure. The two
sources are:
1. Bleed air line from Engine No.1.

2. Left pneumatic manifold, which is in turn pressurized by: either or both engines, the
APU, or a ground pneumatic cart.
The air pressure supply passes through the following components before entering the
tank:
1. Filter which uses replaceable paper element.

2. Pressure regulator, which reduces and controls air pressure in the tank at 25 psig.
3. Pressure relief valve, which prevents tank pressure from exceeding 50 psig.
All of these components are located above the tank in the area behind the side wall or
bulkhead of the lower cargo compartment. Access to them is through the access panel
inside the cargo compartment.
Water Tank Pressurization System
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During ground maintenance work, an alternate way of pressurizing the water tank is by
connecting a ground air pressure source to the air valve on the water service panel.
FILLING THE TANK
An exterior water service panel contains the connections and controls to service the tank.
1. A fill connector and line provides a means of connecting the ground cart containing
the potable water supply to the tank.
2. An overflow outlet and line provides a means of visually determining that the tank is
full. This outlet fitting is always uncapped.
3. A fill and overflow valve control handle provides a means of controlling the fill and
overflow valve, which is in the two lines discussed above.
When the valve control handle is placed in CLOSED position:

i) Valve closes off lines to the service panel connectors and prevents tank air
pressure loss, and
ii) Control handle moves to a position to allow the service panel access door to
be closed.
When the valve control handle is placed in OPEN position:
i) Valve opens lines to allow water flow through fill line to the tank and any
overflow of air or water out of the tank through the overflow outlet, and
ii) Control handle moves to a position that will not allow the service panel
access door to be closed.
4. A water tank quantity indicator, which consists of 5 lights to indicate approximate

water level in tank.
5. An air valve that can be used to pressurize the tank from a ground air source during
service work
6. A drain valve control handle, which controls the tank drain valve. This control
handle and valve will be discussed in the draining function.
To fill (or service) the tank, the following procedure is followed:
1. Connect the ground cart containing the potable water supply (and a means of
pumping the water) to the fill connector.
2. Place the fill and overflow control handle in OPEN position.
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Water & Waste
3. Pump the water supply into the tank from the ground cart.
4. As water fills the tank, air in the tank will exhaust out the overflow outlet. When the
water level in the tank reaches the bottom of tile overflow line standpipe in the tank,
no air can exhaust. Only water will pass out the overflow outlet. This is a visual
indication to the ground service personnel that the tank is full. The standpipe is at the
20 U.S. gallon level.
5. Place the fill and overflow control handle in CLOSED position.
Water System Schematic
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PRESSURIZING THE TANK
Normally, the air pressure source is from the higher air pressure source. When engine
No.1 is not running, then the air pressure source will be from the left pneumatic manifold.
The air will be controlled as follows:
1. First passes through an air filter

2. Then passes through a pressure regulator, which reduces its pressure to 25 psig.
3. A pressure relief valve prevents overpressurization of the tank. It opens at 50 psig
and will reset at 37 psig minimum.
DISTRIBUTION TO GALLEYS AND LAVATORIES

The main water distribution line from the tank is routed up to the aft passenger cabin
ceiling area. From there, it is routed forward above the ceiling panels to the front end of
the passenger cabin. Supply lines go from this main distribution line to the lavatories and
the galleys.
The distribution lines are flexible tubing enclosed in an aluminum tube shroud. This
shroud prevents a leaking water line from dripping onto the ceiling panel. The shroud will
conduct leaking water to the lower fuselage area where it can drain out the fuselage
drains.
Galley supply is through disconnect fitting located in the ceiling above each galley. Each
galley will have its own distribution lines installed in it by the galley vendor.
Lavatory supply from the main distribution line is routed down inside one of the lavatory
walls to the area under the wash basin counter. Here it divides to supply:
1. Cold water faucet.

2. Hot water faucet - water passes through a hot water heater and then to the hot water
faucet. Heater is electrically heated.
For draining purpose, drain valve and vent valves are installed in these lines under the
counter. These valves will be discussed later in the draining function.
MONITORING WATER QUANTITY IN TANK
Two quantity indicators provide means for the flight crew and the ground servicing crew to
monitor the tank quantity. They are located:
1. One on the external servicing panel, and

2. One on the attendant panel, which is located over the aft service, door.
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DRAINING TANK AND DISTRIBUTION LINES
A two position drain valve is located below the tank for draining it and the distribution line
above the ceiling. Normally, this valve is in the CLOSED position to shut if off.
During draining operation, this valve is placed in the OPEN position. Control handle for
the valve is in the exterior water service panel. In OPEN position, the water in the tank
and in the main distribution line will drain out through an opening in the lower fuselage
skin onto the ground. When the control handle is in the OPEN position, it will prevent
closing the water service panel door.
The lavatory distribution lines are drained through the drain and vent valves in the
lavatories. These valves function as follows:
Drain valve
It is a three position valve:
1. ON - Normal position.
Allows water from main distribution line to pass through to the heater and the cold
water faucet.
2. DRAIN - Position for draining system.

Allows water from the lavatory lines to drain overboard. Water will pass through a
drain outlet fitting in the lower fuselage skin under the lavatory. Water from the
main distribution line in the cabin ceiling area will also be drained out this valve.
3. OFF - Position for Shutting-Off

Shut off water supply from the main distribution line to the lavatory components.
Used during maintenance work, such as replacing the water heater or a faucet.
Vent valve
It is a two position valve:
1. OFF - Normal position.

Is in the shutoff position.
2. ON - Position for draining the system.

Opens valve. Provides an air passage to prevent vapor lock in faucet lines.
Faucets are not self-venting.
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COMPONENTS
Water Tank
The tank is welded titanium construction with a total volume of 34 U.S. gallons. The
standpipe on the overflow outlet line limits filling to 20 U.S. gallons. The tank is installed in
a cradle support with bolts attaching it at four places. The tank is completely enclosed in
an insulating blanket.
A probe type quantity transmitter is installed through the top of the tank. It is threaded into
a boss, which is welded to the top of the tank. An access hole in the end of the tank
provides a means of removing the transmitter and to clean the inside of the tank.
Water Quantity Indicating System
Provides means for monitoring the water quantity in the tank by the flight crew and the
ground service crew.
Water Tank and Quantity Indicating System
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System consists of two indicators and one transmitter. System is powered by 28V DC.
Indicators are located on:
1. Exterior water service panel for ground service crew use.

2. Attendants panel over aft service door for flight crew use.
Each indicator has five lights, which illuminate to indicate water quantity in the tank.
Lights will illuminate when a red button on the indicator is pushed. There is a light for
each of the following indications: Empty tank, 1/4 full tank, 1/2full thank, 3/4 full tank, and
full tank.
The transmitter is a probe inside the tank. A circular float is installed around the probe
and will move up or down on the probe, following the water level. Inside the float inner
diameter are three magnets. Inside the probe are reed switches.
As the float moves up on the probe, the float magnets will close the reed switches that it
passes by. As the float moves down on the probes, the magnets will open the reed
switches that they pass by.
These reed switches are connected to the indicators lights so that:
i) An empty tank will always turn on the EMPTY light only.

ii) A 1/4 full tank will turn on the EMPTY and 1/4 lights.
iii) A 1/3 full tank will turn on the EMPTY, 1/4, and, 1/2 lights.
iv) A 3/4 full tank will turn on the EMPTY, 1/4, 1/2, and 3/4 lights.
v) A full tank will turn on all lights.
If the red indicator button is pushed and no lights illuminate (not even the EMPTY light),
then there is no electrical power to the circuit.
Removal or the transmitter requires rotating the tank in order to pull the long probe out of
the tank. Basic steps for removal are:
1. Drain tank.
2. Remove access plate on end of tank.
3. Remove cotter pin and washer on lower end of probe.
4. Float will drop off probe now.
5. Remove four bolts holding tank in its cradle.
6. Rotate tank so that probe top will go aft.
7. Remove probe from tank.
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WASTE WATER SYSTEM
The waste water system disposes of all waste water from the lavatory and galley
compartments. The system consists of plumbing necessary to drain the waste water into
the toilet tank or overboard through the drain masts as applicable.
Lavatory Sink
The lavatory sinks are made of stainless steel. Sink fixtures consist of spring-loaded hot
and cold water valves with a common outlet, an overflow outlet, and a lever-operated
stopper. The stopper is spring loaded to the closed position to reduce cabin pressure loss
through the drain line.
Lavatory Floor Drain
In some airplanes a lavatory floor drain, located under the toilet tank in the lavatory, is
provided for draining condensation and seepage from the lavatory area.
It consists of a floor drain fitting, strainer, a check valve and hose. The check valve allows
moisture to drain into the toilet drain tube, but prevents objectionable odors and waste
from entering the lavatory compartment.
Waste Water Plumbing
Waste water plumbing in the lavatory compartments is made of flexible plastic boss.
Waste Water Drain Masts
The forward drain mast is on the underside of the fuselage in the left air conditioning
fairing. The train masts are designed to draw waste water out of the system while the
airplane is in flight. The mast is normally anti-iced by warm cabin air from the toilet vent
fittings and supplemented by electrical wrapped around the inner drain must tube.
LAVATORY INSTALLATION
The potable water system components in each lavatory are identical and are located
under the sink.
The water supply line enters from the ceiling and is routed inside a wall down to the under
sink compartment. The supply then divides with one line routed to the cold water faucet
and the other line to a hot water heater and the hot water faucet.
Each lavatory is provided with a drain valve and a vent valve, which are used for draining
the water from the lavatory plumbing. The drain valve has 3 positions: OFF, DRAIN and
ON.
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Water & Waste
In the ON position (normal position) the water is supplied to the faucets and the drain line
is closed. In the OFF position, all lines are completely closed to allow maintenance work
on the lavatory plumbing. In the DRAIN position, all lines are open to allow water to drain
overboard from the plumbing.
A vent valve is provided in each lavatory to vent the passenger water system plumbing
while water is draining. It is a two way valve with an OPEN and a CLOSED position.
Normally, the valve is in the CLOSED position, which is the shutoff position. It is placed in
the ON position only for draining. It prevents a vapor lock in the plumbing.
The waste water from the wash basin drains into the toilet tank. The sink overflow line
combines with the sink drain 'line to flow into the toilet tank. Venting to atmosphere is
done through a muffler.
Sink Cabinet
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WATER HEATER
A water heater is installed under each lavatory counter in the supply plumbing to the hot
Water faucet. The heater tank has a one and one half quart capacity and uses electrical
heating elements.
Water is heated by one 400-watt heater consisting of three probes inserted in the bottom
of the heater tank. A heater control switch and an amber light, which is illuminated during
normal operation are mounted on the outside wall of the heater tank. A cycling thermal
switch inserted in the bottom of the heater tank regulates the water temperature to
approximately 125F. An overheat switch attached to the top of the water heater tank
limits the case temperature to approximately 125F.
If overheat occurs, the switch interrupts power to the heater and the light. The light will
not illuminate only if the control switch is OFF or the overheat switch is open. If an
overheat occurs, the overheat switch must be manually reset. The overheat switch is
reached by removing the cover at the .top of the water heater. The overheat switch is
reset by pressing the bubble in the center of the rubber cover over the overheat switch
after a sufficient cooling period.
A pressure relief valve installed in the side of the water heater is designed to relieve at
approximately 140 psig. The primary purpose of the relief valve is to relieve excessive
pressure when the heater overheats due to a mal function of the cycling and overheat
switch and the water heater is isolated from the water system by the lavatory drain valve.
A cover is bolted to the top of the heater tank to protect the electrical connection.
Water Heater Circuit

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WATER TANK DRAIN VALVE
The water tank drain valve is a two-port valve located below the water tank. The valve
controls draining of the water tank and the main distribution line. A drain valve control
handle is accessible on the water service panel below the aft entry door. With the control
handle in the OPEN (or drain) position, the service panel door cannot be closed.
Water Tank Drainage
WATER SYSTEM SERVICING

System servicing (or tank filling) is accomplished through the exterior water service panel,
which is located in the lower aft, left side of the fuselage. Briefly, the procedure is as
follows:
1. Connect the ground cart supply to tl1e fill connector.

2. Position the fill & overflow control handle to OPEN position.
3. Pump the water from the ground cart into the tank.
4. When the tank is full, water will come out of the overflow outlet.
5. Position the fill & overflow control handle in CLOSED position.
6. Disconnect the ground cart and cap the fill connector.
The quantity indicator on the service panel can be used to check the tank quantity.
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Water & Waste
The system may require draining if the aircraft is to be parked in freezing weather or the
system needs to be cleaned. Briefly, these points were as follows:
1. The tank and much of the main distribution line in the ceiling area are drained
through the tank drain valve. Its control handle is on the exterior water service
panel. When the control handle is placed in the OPEN position, water will drain out
through a flush type out let in the lower fuselage skin.
2. Water in the lavatory lines is drained through the drain valve, which is located in the
lavatory under the counter. This valve is placed in the DRAIN position and water
will drain out through a flush type outlet in the lower fuselage under the lavatory.
Also, the vent valve in the lavatory must be placed in the OPEN position for
draining.
3. Water in the galley area is drained into the galley waste bin.
TOILET
Each toilet consists of a waste tank and flushing equipment. There are toilet vents
leading to external vent nozzles. Servicing is accomplished externally through service
panels.
Toilet Compartment Equipment Location
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Water & Waste
The toilet waste tank is located under a shroud in each lavatory. This shroud hides the
tank and contains the toilet seat and its cover. Each waste tank consists of a fiberglass
tank with a laminated stainless steel/fiberglass tank top. Fittings for flushing equipment,
the toilet bowl, and a vent line are part of the tank top.
Flushing equipment for the toilet bowl includes a flush handle, timer, motor and pump,
filter and related tubing. All these items, except the flush handle and timer, are attached
to the top of the waste tank. The flush handle and timer are located on the cabinet above
the toilet. A stainless steel toilet bowl is attached to the tank top. The bowl is fitted with a
hinged separator between the bottom of the bowl and the tank.
The waste tank has a perforated flush line inside for washing out the tank during ground
service work.
The tank is held in position by three tiedown rods. It is positioned over a drain hole in the
floor and connected to an exterior drain line.
Typical Toilet Tank
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TOILET FLUSHING
Initially, each toilet tank is filled with three U.S. gallons of water, which had a solution
added containing a deodorant, a dye, and a disinfectant. When the flush control is
activated, the motor begins to rotate. It operates a pump inside the tank that pumps the
water into the bowl flush ring to clean and flush the bowl.
At the same time the motor drives a filter drive pinion shaft which rotates a filter basket.
The basket surrounds the pump inlet to prevent large solid objects entering the pump inlet.
A fixed wiper blade on the outer diameter of the filter basket keeps the outer surface of the
basket clean. A timer circuit in the flush circuit runs the motor for 10 seconds and then
turns it off. A reversing circuit in the flush circuit will operate the motor in one direction for
one flush and then reverse the motor rotation for the next; flush cycle.
Toilet System Schematic
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Water & Waste
A separator at the bottom of the toilet bowl hides the waste in the tank from the
passengers view. The flushing operation keeps the separator clean. If the flush circuit
should malfunction, the cab in attendant will push this hinged separator down, out of the
way. During ground service operation, this separator must be checked to see that it is in
the up (or normal position). If it is not, then a check should be made of the flush operation
and the separator pulled back to normal position.
Replacement of the toilet flush motor requires removing the motor pump, and filter basket
as a unit.
GROUND SERVICING
Each toilet tank must be drained, flushed with clean water, and then 3 U.S. gallons of
water with the solution added pumped in this is the procedure:
1. Connect the ground cart drain hose to the exterior service panel drain fitting.
2. Pull the safety valve out of the drain fitting.

NOTE : A special "Y" fitting is part of the ground equipment for this operation.
3. Pull the drain valve control cable handle to open the drain valve in the bottom of the
toilet tank. Turn the handle to lock it in the open position.
4. When the toilet tank is completely drained, flush the toilet tank with clean water
from a ground cart source. This is done by connecting the water line to the ground
flush line connection on the exterior service panel. About 5 U.S. gallons of water
should he used.
5. Close the drain valve in the toilet tank by releasing the drain valve control cable
handle.
6. Pump into the toilet tank 3 U.S. gallons of water with the solution of deodorant, dye,
and disinfectant added. Use the ground flush line connection for this operation.
7. Reinstall the safety valve and the drain outlet cap.
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Toilet Flushing Circuit
The toilet flushing motor is powered by a 115 volt 3 phase ac supply. The C phase is used
to power the timer and relays.
When the flushing switch is pushed, a circuit is completed to energize a relay and provide
power to the flush motor for the timed interval. Reversing of the flush motor is
accomplished with the energizing of the other relay to reverse phases A and B.
COMPONENTS
There are separate exterior toilet service panels for each of the toilets or toilets group.
Each toilet service panel includes a single four-inch drain outlet, a ground flush line fitting
and a drain valve control cable handle for each waste tank. A four-inch tube connects the
waste tank to the toilet service panel. The toilet drain outlet is a standard plug type
assembly with a safety valve inside and a hinged cap on the outside.
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Toilet Servicing Panels
VACUUM TOILET
The vacuum toilet is another common type of the toilet waste system that uses a vacuum
system to collect, transport and store toilet waste.
The toilet waste system has several waste tanks and associated vacuum system
components located in the aft or bulk cargo compartment.
Lavatories are located on the cabin deck. In each of the lavatories there is a toilet that is
connected to the waste tanks by lines.
The toilet servicing panel is centralised and located on the centreline of the airplane
underneath the cargo compartment.
19
Water & Waste
Vacuum Toilet System
SYSTEM OPERATION
The flushing cycle for a toilet is controlled by a flush control unit. The unit controls the
rinse water and flush valves. Waste and flushing water from the toilets are transported
through lines, to the waste tanks.
The toilet system operates using a vacuum system. The vacuum system uses differential
cabin pressure or, alternatively, vacuum blowers. The vacuum blowers operate
automatically on the ground and at low altitudes (below 16,000 feet). The vacuum
blowers are controlled by altitude pressure switches sensing airplane altitude.
Waste tank capacity is sensed by level sensors in each tank. When the sensors indicate
that a waste tank is full, flushing is terminated at the toilets connected to the full waste
tank. Additionally, LAV. INOP lights will illuminated on an attendants panel in the
passenger cabin to indicate which lavatories are no longer useable.
Servicing of the toilet waste system is performed through the waste service panel by
draining and rinsing the waste tanks. A wet precharge can also be performed for each
tank.
20
Water & Waste
Toilet Waste System Components and Operation
TOILET ASSEMBLY
The toilet assembly consists of toilet waste system components located in the lavatory
beneath the toilet shroud. The toilet assembly provides the means for collecting waste.
The toilet assembly includes the stainless steel toilet bowl, anti-siphon valve, rinse water
valve, flush control unit, the rinse water header, and flush valve. One toilet assembly is
located in each toilet.
Flush Control Unit
The flush control unit is located under the toilet shroud next to the base of the toilet bowl.
The unit controls the sequence and timing of the flush cycle. It is activated by the flush
switch and controls the rinse water valve, flush valve and vacuum blower relay.
Rinse Waster Valve
The rinse water valve is located under the toilet shroud and behind the toilet bowl. The
solenoid operated valve is normally closed. It is controlled by the flush control unit. The
valve opens to allow flushing water to enter the rinse water header. The rinse valve
opens one second after the flushing switch is activated and remains open for one second
allowing six ounces of water to enter the rinse water header.
21
Water & Waste
Anti-Siphon Valve
The anti-siphon valve prevents backflow of water from the toilet bowl rinse header into the
potable water system. The valve is located on top of the rinse water valve. When water
pressure at the valve is greater than cabin pressure the valve opens. The valve is spring
loaded closed when water pressure decreases below cabin pressure.
Rinse Water Valve
The rinse water header is around the top of the toilet bowl and acts as a flushing ring.
Access to the rinse water head is by removing the toilet shroud. Water from the rinse
valve enters the header and goes through three nozzles to rinse the toilet bowl.
Flush Valve
The flush valve is located at the base of the toilet bowl under the toilet shroud. The motor
operated valve is normally closed. The valve is controlled by the flush control unit. The
flush valve opens two seconds after the flush switch is activated and remains open for
four seconds. When the flush valve is opens, the contents of the toilet bowl, along with
the rinse water, exit the bowl into lines connected to the waste tanks.
Toilet Assembly
22
Water & Waste
Should the flush valve fail in the open position, it can be manually closed by pulling on the
manual handle. Access to the manual handle is through a cutout below the toilet shroud.
In order to reset the valve, the manual handle must be pushed in and the flush handle
activated.
WASTE TANKS
Toilet waste is stored in several tanks located in the bulk or aft cargo compartment behind
the sidewall lining. The waste tanks are made from spun fiberglass over a stainless steel
liner.
The waste tanks are attached to the structure of the airplane by cradle support and
channels.
Waste Tanks
23
Water & Waste
Toilet Drain Lines
The two inches diameter lines are connected from the toilets to the waste tanks. The lines
are made of titanium to withstand the pressure differential and reduce corrosion.
The toilet drain line fittings on the waste tanks incorporate a deflector to prevent waste
entering the tanks at high velocities from damaging the walls of the tanks or
contaminating the waste level sensors.
Waste Line Coupling Assembly
Segments of the vacuum toilet waste lines are connected with coupling assemblies. The
couplings consist of a male and female end fitting swaged to the tubing ends. An O-ring
seal is installed on the male fitting. A clamshell closure holds the assembly together. The
closure locks automatically when the hinged halves are snapped together. To unlock the
closure, the three latch pawls must be lifted simultaneously.
Waste Line Coupling Assembly
24
Water & Waste
Liquid Separator
A liquid separator is located at the top of each waste tank. The separator removes
moisture and waste particles from the waste tank air before venting the air overboard.
The air passes through a polypropelyne mesh demister filter.
Outer bowl and shroud are lowered into position through tank opening. The filter and
upper screen are placed inside of the outer bowl and shroud. O-rings, tank cap and
clamp are then installed.
Liquid Seperator
Vacuum Blower
Vacuum blowers are located in the overboard vent line coming from the waste tanks. The
blowers are mounted on shelves with shock mounts and are connected to the waste tanks
by rubber hoses.
The vacuum blower provides a vacuum to the waste system when the airplane is on the
ground or at a low altitude (below 16,000 feet).
25
Water & Waste
Vacuum blower shutoff valve
The vacuum blower shutoff valve (blower protect valve) the vacuum blower when the
blower is not operating. The purposes of the valve is to prevent air from entering the
vacuum blower when it is not operating. The vacuum blower shutoff valve is a motor
operated valve that will open whenever the vacuum blower circuit is activated. The valve
is located in the air line between the waste tanks and the vacuum blower.
Altitude Pressure Switch
The altitude pressure switch is located aft of the aft pressure bulkhead on the right side. It
is used to allow vacuum blower activation whenever the airplane is at low altitude (below
16,000 feet).
WASTE TANK LEVEL SENSING

Waste tank level sensing is performed by waste tank level sensors (capacitance type),
waste tank level transmitters (pressure diaphragm type) and sensor control module.
Waste tank level sensors are located at the Full position of the waste tank to provide
signals to inhibit the flushing cycle of the corresponding waste toilet, while level
transmitter at the bottom just provides the waste level signal.
Waste Tank Level Sensing
26
Water & Waste
Should a waste tank sensor become contaminated, erroneous waste tank full indications
could occur. To minimize these erroneous tank full indications the sensors monitor
themselves for contamination (fouling). Moreover, Full condition should be agreed by
both waste tank level sensors of the same waste tank.
When the waste tank level sensing determines that a tank is full, a white LAV. INOP.
light illuminates on an attendants panel. Illumination indicates that lavatories are no
longer usable because the toilet flush system is inoperable due to a full waste tank. It is
the responsibility of the attendants to lock the lavatories associated with a full waste tank.
TOILET WASTE SYSTEM SERVICING
The waste servicing panel is for draining the toilet waste system. Inside the panel recess
are components consisting of rinse fittings and waste valve actuating handles (one for
each tank), and one common waste drain fitting.
The waste drain cap is opened, ground support equipment connected and the secondary
seal release is pushed.
The drain valve handle is pulled down to open the drain valve and allow the drain valve
handle. Drain each tank individually in sequence. Each waste tank has its own drain
valve and drain valve handle.
The rinse fittings are opened and ground flush lines are connected. With the drain valves
open (drain valve handle down), a sufficient amount of flushing liquid must be pumped
into each waste tank. Flushing liquid must drain from each tank.
After the waste tanks have drained, the drain valves are closed by pushing up on the drain
valve handles. Ground equipment for tank drainage is disconnected and the waste drain
cap closed.
A wet or dry precharge must be used in each waste tank. If a wet precharge is used,
several gallons of precharge liquid should be added to each tank. Ground flush lines are
disconnected and rinse fittings closed. The service panel door can be closed after all
handles, cap and fittings are closed.
If a dry precharge is used, it is flushed into the waste tank form the corresponding toilet.
27
Water & Waste
Waste Service Panel
Waste Tank Drain Valve
A waste tank drain valve is located in the tank drain line of each waste tank under the bulk
cargo compartment floor.
Each waste tank has on drain valve that is used during servicing to drain the waste tanks.
The valve is normally closed. Pulling on the appropriate drain valve actuating handle at
the toilet service panel opens the appropriate drain valve. When the vale is open the toilet
waste can drain through the tank drain line and out the service panel. When the drain
valve is open, the attached proximity switch will open, cutting off power to the vacuum
blower. This prevents the vacuum blower from operating during servicing.
28
Water & Waste
Waste Drain Fitting and Cap
Waste drain fitting and cap is located on the waste service panel.
Each waste tank drains through a common drain fitting. The drain fitting is covered by a
drain cap to prevent leakage from the tank drain lines and tank. The drain cap
incorporates an integral secondary seal. This precludes the need for a donut plug. The
drain cap handle must be in the locked closed position to allow the service panel door to
be closed and latched.
29
Equipment & Furnishings
PARTITIONING
Partitions are fitted to aircraft cabins to provide:
1. Screening of galley areas,

2. Screening of toilet cubicles,
3. Weather protection at doorways,
4. Separate cabin areas for the different travelling classes of passenger,
5. Division of cargo and passenger areas.
A typical example of partitioning is shown:
General Arrangement of Cabin Partitioning
In most cases the partitions are shaped to the contour of the fuselage, with the inner
edges vertical at the aisle. Partitions that are placed in front of seats normally have a
shaped lower portion to allow for adequate leg room for the passengers in the adjacent
seats.
1
Partitions and compartment panels are constructed from a fire resistant honeycomb core
for lightness, which is covered with a fiberglass face to ensure rigidity. A vinyl covering on
the fiberglass face is normally used for decorative purpose.
Where possible, advantage is taken of the floor seat tracks to secure partitions to the
aircraft structure.
Typical Partition Floor Mount
The upper part of a partition is attached to the aircraft structure by means of brackets and
tie rods, utilizing existing hat rack attachments.
Windscreen partitions are installed in cabin areas to provide protection from the weather
at entry doorways. This then protects the seated passengers from inclement weather
conditions while the entry door is open.
2
Another partition configuration is used where the cabin is divided for a mixed passenger
and cargo role. As well as providing an artificial wall between the two compartments, the
partition must also ensure a fume tight division between the cargo and the passenger
areas.
Passenger/Cargo Partition
Attachment is by seat track mounts and structurally mounted brackets within the cabin
area.
3
Toilet and galley are generally of modular design, the outer walls acting as partition.
These single units are assembled as small units within the cabin structure. Structure
brackets and seat track mountings ensure secure attachment to the airframe.
Galley and Toilet Partitioning
Because of the fluids, water,coffee,disinfectants, etc., associated with galley and toilet
partitions, it is essential that there is adequate sealing at the floor joints of the partition
walls. In most cases gutters are contained in the flooring around the partitions and they
allow spilt fluids to be vented overboard. Where partitions are subjected to heavy wear,
kick strips are fitted on their lower portions.
Partition Floor Structure

4
CABIN CARPETS
In most home carpets make an attractive decoration to the room. The same can be said
to an aircraft cabin. The sight of a carpet tends to relax passengers and make them feel
at home! However, aircraft carpets serve two functions. They:
1. Make the cabin environment more attractive and pleasing to the eye,
2. Act as a soundproofing material on the floor and in some cases on the side wall panel.
Carpets must be made of fire resistant material, and also should be non-toxic when
subjected to heat.
There may be several carpets and underlay pads required to cover the passenger seating
is provided. The padding on the underside of the carpet is specifically for the
soundproofing of the cabin area.
Carpet edges and ends are retained by double-backed tape. In some cases, especially
where the carpets are subjected to heavy use, Velcro tape may be used.
Carpet Attachment
5
Where carpets are fitted next to seat tracks, extruded plastic seat track covers are
snapped into seat tracks between the seats.
Carpet Installation at Seat Tracks
CURTAINS
The use of curtains is fairly limited in passenger cabin areas. Normally they will only be
fitted at galley partitions to close off the galley once the meal preparation has been
completed. They may also be used to shut off cabin staff areas from the passenger area.
If curtains are fitted they must be of fire resistant woolen material.
PASSENGER SEATS
Passenger seats are attached to seat tracks in the cabin floor and may be arranged for
different passenger configurations by moving the seats forward or after on the seat tracks.
The seat tracks consist of beams of special cross section and are bolted to the floor
structure. The seat tracks are provided with circular cut-out for the seat studs and lock
pins to be fitted into.
Passengers seats can be anything from single to quadruple in arrangement, and contain
within the back of the seat facilities for table attachment and literature pockets. Carry-on
luggage to prevent this luggage moving about the cabin floor when positive or negative
G loads are experienced.
6
Typical Passenger Seat Arrangement
Arm rests are provided for comfort. However, included in the design are ashtrays, in-flight
entertainment channel selector, and in some cases, chime calls for flight attendants.
Depending upon the type of configuration of the aircraft seating arrangement, seat angle
adjustment facilities may be included.
SAFETY (ESCAPE) REQUIREMENTS
In the pursuit of aesthetic cabin furnishings, aircraft manufacturers and operators must
consider one major and important factor when choosing upholstery materials. They must
be fireproof and the materials must be prevented from emitting toxic gases.
Recent experiments have shown that incapacitation of passengers has resulted from
inhalation of toxic gases rather than post crash impact. Legislation is now in progress to
ensure that seats and cabin furnishings meet certain FAA and CAA standards with
respect to passenger seats.
7
Most seat squabs and back supports are manufactured from a foam type material. When
heat is applied to this material cyanide gas is produced during the burning of the material.
As a means of slowing down this action, the seats internal parts are covered with a fire
blocking material, which is designed to prevent the foam from burning, and consequently
allow the occupants a better chance of vacating the aircraft in the event of a cabin fire.
Because of the problem of smoke and the inability of passengers to see in smoke
conditions, legislation is in progress to incorporate some means of an exit indicating
system that is close to the floor level. This legislation is applicable to all transport
(passenger) aircraft over 5700 kg MTWA for which a type certificate was issued after 1st
January 1958.
How the emergency escape path lighting will be achieved has to be decided by the
aircraft operators or manufacturers. The most popular method is to include small aisle
lights in the seat assemblies, which will allow aisle lighting under certain conditions.
The height of the escape path lighting system must not be greater than 4 ft. The escape
path system is designed to indicate to passengers the direction in which to go in the event
of smoke conditions, and at the same time indicate the areas that contain emergency exit.
Escape path lights will be white; red lights will be used to indicate the emergency exit
doors.
Although fire blocking materials is to be used in upholstery, the actual covers are also
treated with a fire resistant substance. One important point to consider however, is that
the fire resistant qualities are gradually reduced when the seat covers are dry cleaned. In
most cases, manufacturers indicate a maximum number of times that the covers may be
dry cleaned before the fire resistant treatment has to be reapplied. The number of dry
cleans will depend only upon the manufacturers recommendations.
There are a number of seats in addition to passenger seats, which are located throughout
the cabin compartment for use by cabin staff during landing and take off. These seats are
normally the folded type which fold away after use, thus allowing more space in the cabin
area.
8
Typical Cabin Staff Seat Arrangement
The seat bottoms are normally cushioned and attached with quick attach-detach pins to
allow the seat bottom to become an individual flotation device in the event of the aircraft
ditching in the sea. Attached to the seat assembly is seat harness for use by the seat
occupant.
SAFETY BELTS & HARNESSES
The AN(HK)O requires a safety harness for every pilot's seat and for any seat situated
alongside a pilots seat, and a safety belt for every seat in use.
The purpose of a safety belt or harness is to restrain the wearer against the effect of
acceleration loads sustained during flight, crash landing or ditching and to permit rapid
release when required.
9
Periodic Inspections
a. All parts of safety belt or harness installations must be carefully examined. The
webbing must be inspected for defects such as broken stitches, cuts, tears, chafing
and for any signs of contamination due to acid, oil, sea water, etc.
b. Safety belt and harness anchorage end-fittings must be inspected for security of
locking and for excessive wear and elongation of the attachment holes. A check
must also be made to ensure that the attachment fittings do not tend to cut into the
webbing.
c. A check must be made to ensure that the full range of adjustment provided could
be obtained and excessive force should not be required to effect the adjustment.
d. The release mechanism and adjusting mechanism must not slip under load, and
the release mechanism must release the belt or harness with a minimum of effort
against a moderate load.
e. The cables and straps of shoulder forward release mechanisms (e.g. inertia reels)
must be inspected for evidence of kinks, entanglement, fraying and corrosion.
Control lock mechanisms must be carefully examined for security, wear, freedom
of movement and functioning and must be lubricated as specified.
f. When not in use, belts and harnesses must be properly stowed. This is particularly
important where loose straps could interfere with controls.
g. All operating instructions must be checked for legibility.
LIFEJACKETS
The AN(HK)O requires a lifejacket equipped with a whistle and water-proof torch for each
person on board. (Provided that lifejackets constructed and carried solely for use by
children under 3 years of age need not be equipped with a whistle).
Lifejackets are designed as lightweight items of equipment and as such must be treated
with care. Lifejackets are normally packed in specially made fabric valises or containers
for ease of handling, and these also protect the lifejacket. They also help to keep the
lifejacket correctly folded, to facilitate donning. However, care must be taken not to drop
a packed lifejacket or to place loads upon it.
It is often recommended that a lifejacket, which has been subjected to such abuse or has
been immersed in sea water, must be rejected for further operational use.
10
The necessary instructions for fitting lifejackets are displayed in the aircraft and, in many
instances, these instructions are repeated in safety pamphlets for distribution to individual
passengers. Similar information may also be given on the lifejacket by means of special
adhesive labels or stenciling on the surface of the lifejacket.
Normally, lifejackets are stowed under passengers' seats and in easily accessible
positions for crew members. Stowages must be kept clean and dry, and the stowage
retaining device must be checked periodically for security and ease of release.
Lifejackets, which have been used for demonstration by crew members, must be returned
for inspection as if they were time expired. To ensure that this is always done, the
demonstration lifejackets must be kept out of the normal stowage and a suitable warning
label must be attached.
There are several types of lifejackets in use, and all are basically similar. Buoyancy is
obtained by inflating the Jacket with CO2 gas, which is stored under pressure in a small
cylinder and released by means of a manually operated mechanism. A standby mouth
inflation valve is also provided in case the CO2 if it is necessary to 'top-up' the pressure
after a long period of immersion.
Most lifejackets are of the single inflation chamber type, but there are others, which have
more than one chamber, gas cylinder and mouth inflation facility; some aircraft may also
carry baby flotation survival cots.
The material used for fabricating lifejackets is usually either rubberised cotton or
polyurethane coated nylon, (coated on either one or both sides), the panels being joined
by the use of an adhesive or by welding.
A light unit is attached to a lifejacket in such a way as to ensure that, when lifejacket is in
use, the lamp assembly will be in a prominent position. The bulb is connected by means
of a plastic covered lead to a battery, which is usually water activated and located below
the water line. Operation of the battery is achieved by the ingress of water into the cell.
The operating mechanism into which the CO2 cylinder is fitted consists of a housing
containing a piercing pin which, when pushed forward by a cam-type operating lever,
pierces a sealing disc in the neck of the cylinder, allowing gas to flow past a non-return
valve into the lifejacket.
The piercing pin is actuated by pulling a red knob or tag, which is attached by a cord or
chain to the operating lever.
11
Periodic Inspections of Lifejackets
The appropriate manufacturers publication will stipulate the periods at which inspections
and related tests are required and will also give full details of the inspection and test
operations involved. It may stipulate inspection after every six months of service life, with
a more comprehensive inspection after every 18 months, or it may stipulate a yearly
inspection only.
a. All instructions stencilled or labelled on the lifejacket must be examined for

legibility.
b. Proofed fabric must be inspected for s its, tears, holes, adhesion of seams and
general deterioration.
c. Webbings, elastics and cordages must be inspected for discoloration, deterioration
and security of attachment.
d. Metal and plastics components must be inspected for cleanliness, damage or
deteriorate ion and security.
e. The battery must be inspected for any signs of damage or deterioration, or for
signs of chemical reaction indicated by the presence of a white powdery deposit or
bulging of the battery case.
f. The CO2 cylinder must be carefully inspected for any signs of damage such as
dents, scores or corrosion, which would weaken the cylinder and render it
unserviceable and possibly dangerous, The cylinder threads must also be checked
for obvious signs of damage.
g. The CO2 cylinder must be checked for correct gas charge by weighing.
h. All CO2 cylinders are 'lifed' and must be returned to the manufacturer for inspection
and test when their life has expired. A code representing the date of manufacture,
or the actual date of manufacture of a cylinder, is stamped on its base, and this
must be checked during inspection.
ESCAPE SLIDES
The AN(HK)O states that where the height of the door sill of an aircraft used for the public
transport of passengers is more than 6 ft (1.82 m) from the ground under any
undercarriage configuration, devices which will enable passengers to reach the ground
safely in an emergency are required. These devices nowadays normally take the form of
inflatable escape slides, which are required to inflate automatically when the exit doors
are opened in the emergency mode.
Emergency escape slides are usually installed in containers mounted on the inboard side
of each passenger entry door compartment and the actuation and deployment of the
slides are control led by a girt bar arming system.
12
Each assembly basically consists of an inflatable slide assembly and an inflation cylinder
and system. The inflation cylinder and system consists of an inflation cylinder, aspirators,
relief valves, hoses, an inflation actuating device, and a manual inflation handle. Gas
from the cylinder provides the primary supply through the hoses to the aspirators, which
entrain ambient air to fill the slide assembly.
Periodic Inspection of Escape Slides
a. Check gas cylinder pressure, which must be around 3,000 psig at 70'F.
b. Check the fabric and seams of the tubes and floor of the inflatable slide assembly
for cuts, tears, punctures and abrasion.
c. Check the velcro and snap fasteners, mounting patches and attachments for
general condition and function.
d. Check relief and topping-off valves for leaks.
e. Check hoses for cuts and abrasions.
f. Check aspirators for general condition and function.
g. Pressure test the slide.
LIFERAFTS
The AN(HK)O requires liferafts are to be carried on aircraft flying for the purpose of public
transport and when flying over water. The liferafts must be sufficient to accommodate all
persons on board the aircraft with the following equipment:
a. Means for maintaining buoyancy;

b. A sea anchor;
c. Life lines, and means of attaching one liferaft to another;
d. Paddles or other means of propulsion;
e. Means of protecting the occupants from the elements;
f. A waterproof torch;
g. Marine type pyrotechnically distress signals;
h. Means of making sea water drinkable, unless the full quantity of fresh water is
carried;
i). For each 4 or proportion of 4 persons the liferaft is designed to carry,
i) 100 grammes of glucose toffee tablets,
ii) 1/2 litre of fresh water in durable containers.
j. First aid equipment.
Stowage for liferafts are usually located near exit doors. Deployment and inflation of
liferafts are manually operated. Each liferaft is basically composed of two structurally
joined pneumatically independent urethane coated nylon tube assemblies and is circular
in shape. A non-inflatable fabric floor is suspended between the top and bottom tubes.
13
Initiation of the inflation sequence is accomplished by pulling the gas release lanyard
handle. The lanyard opens the raft carrying case closure and actuates the storage
cylinder discharge valves.
Compressed gas flows through high pressure flexible hoses to jet pumps mounted on
each main floatation tube. The jet pumps introduce and mix ambient air with the
compressed air to achieve rapid inflation.
Periodic Inspection of liferafts
a. Check cylinder/valve components

b. Check raft cylinder pressure, which is normally 3,000 psig at 70'F.
c. Check fabric/seams of tubes and floor of the raft for cuts, tears, punctures,
abrasion, etc.
d. Check raft attachments for general condition.
e. Check raft accessories in accordance with relevant manual
f. Check survival kit.
g. Pressure test the raft for leaks.
14
Fire Protection
INTRODUCTION
Because fire is one of the most dangerous threats to an aircraft, the potential fire zones of
an aircraft are protected by a fire detection and a fire extinguishing system. In a modern
aircraft, detection systems may include engine and APU fire detection, cargo fire and
smoke detection, wheel well and pneumatic duct overheat detection systems. Fire
extinguishing systems may include engine fire, APU and cargo fire extinguishing systems
and portable fire extinguisher bottles. Typical fire protection provisions in an aircraft are
shown in figure.
Fire Protection System
FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Airworthiness requirements prescribe the conditions under which fire and overheat
detection equipment should be fitted to aircraft. Fire detectors must be fitted in the
Designated Fire zones of all power plants except those of low-powered piston engined
aircraft with a maximum authorised weight of 12500 lb or less.
NOTE : A designated Fire zone is a region where a potential fire risk may exist following
failure or leakage of any component, equipment or part of the power plant.
1
Fire Protection
Detection systems must be capable of providing rapid detection of a localised fire or

overheat condition and indication of the area in which some corrective action is required.
Detectors must not automatically operate main power unit extinguishers although they
may, in certain circumstances, be used to shut down an auxiliary power unit
The design of a fire detection system must be such that:
1. immediate indication of a fire

2. continuous indication for duration of a fire
3. accurate indication that a fire is out
4. indication that a fire has re-ignited.
5. the failure of any component is more likely to make the system inoperative
than to cause it to function spontaneously.
6. the functioning of any associated electrical circuit may be checked by the
flight crew.
Engines are protected by fire warning and extinguishing systems. APU are protected by
similar systems, but the warning system may also operate the auto-shutdown system to
stop the APU in the event of a fire or overheat condition on the ground.
Other areas which are potentially dangerous for overheating are fitted with overheat
warning system, but not necessary fire extinguishing systems. Overheating as a result of
the leakage of hot gases may not cause fire, but may cause other damage to the engine
bay or airframe structure.
The presence of smoke or hydraulic mist in equipment bays or cargo compartments is

indicated by smoke detector.
Signals received from any of these detectors are used to illuminate appropriate warning
lamps on the flight deck. An alarm bell or other audible warning device may also be
activated. Audible alarm system may be cut off manually and reset automatically when
the warning signal has ceased.
TYPES OF DETECTORS
Both 'unit' and 'continuous' type detectors are in use, the 'unit' type being situated at the
points most likely to be affected by fire, whilst the 'continuous' type are routed to provide
maximum coverage in the fire zone. Detectors of either type may be used separately, or
together in a combined fire warning and engine overheat system. Detectors or control
units of anyone type may have alternative temperature settings and the part number
marked on the case is the only positive means of identification of the warning
temperature.
2
Fire Protection
Unit Type Detectors
These include the following types, although some are now fitted only on older types of
aircraft and are not considered further in this chapter.
(i) Melting-link Switches
These switches consist of a pair of contacts held apart by a mechanism, which is released
when a fusible compound melts. At a predetermined temperature the compound melts,
allowing the contacts to come together and complete the circuit to a warning lamp.
(ii) Thermo-couple Detectors
These units are used to operate a sensitive relay or electronic circuit when a
predetermined temperature is exceeded.
(iii) Differential Expansion Switch
This type of unit detector is often used in engine installations and combustion heater
zones. The switches operate on the principle of the difference in the coefficients of
expansion of dissimilar metals, and reset automatically when the ambient temperature is
reduced below the warning level.
Differential Expansion Switch
Continuous-loop Detector
A continuous-loop detector or sensing system permits more complete coverage of a fire

hazard area than any type of spot-type temperature detectors. Continuous-loop systems
are versions of the thermal switch system. They are overheat systems, heat-sensitive
units that complete electrical circuits at a certain temperature. There is no
rate-of-heat-rise sensitivity in a continuous-loop system.
3
Fire Protection
(i) Continuous-Loop Wire Type Detector
These detectors operate on either of two principles, the mode of operation depending on
the type of control unit fitted to the system. Detector elements are manufactured in
various lengths and may be joined together to form a continuous detector loop which is
routed round the installation as required. An element consists of a stainless steel or
inconel tube, with one or two centre electrodes insulated from the tube by a temperature
sensitive material. In certain circumstances elements are enclosed in a perforated
armoured sheath which gives protection from random damage.
In the case of wire-type continuous-loop detector with two central electrodes, one central
electrode is grounded to the case at each end and acts as an internal ground. The other
central electrode is a hot 1ead (above ground potential) that provide a current signal.
(i) One central Electrode (ii) Two Central Electrodes
Continuous-Loop Wire-Type Detectors

Resistance Type
The resistance of the insulating material decreases with an increase in temperature until,
at the warning temperature, sufficient current passes to operate a warning circuit. The
element is fed with a current, which is passed through a control box for operation of the
warning system.
Capacitance Type
The element forms a capacitor, the capacitance of which increases with increased
temperature. The central electrode is fed with half wave alternating current, which it
stores and returns to a control unit during the second half of the cycle. The stored charge
increases with the temperature and, when the warning temperature is reached, the back
current is sufficient to operate a relay in the warning circuit. The main advantage of the
capacitance system is that a short circuit grounding the element or wiring does not result
in a false fire warning.
4
Fire Protection
Resistive Type Continuous Loop Fire Detection System
Capacitive Type Continuous Loop Fire Detection System
5
Fire Protection
The following figure shows a typical continuous-loop (wire resistance type) detector
system used in a turbo-fan engine.
If an engine fire occurs, the heat would impinge on at least one sensing element will
actuate both visual and aural fire warning system.
Typical Continuous-Loop (Wire-Resistance Type) Fire Detector
(ii) Liquid Type Detector
This detector consists of a tube and expansion chamber filled with liquid. If a short length
of the tube undergoes a sudden rise in temperature, the liquid expands and builds up a
pressure differential across an orifice leading to the expansion chamber. A Bourdon tube
is thereby deflected to close a pair of electrical contacts.
6
Fire Protection
(iii) Pressure Type Element
Consists of gas filled close tube and a pressure switch. When the element is heated, the
gas inside expands and actuates the alarm switch. The resistance is bypassed and
triggers the warning. In case of intense heating in a small portion, gas is released from
the core, which will also increase the gas pressure and trigger the switch.
If the element is broken, gas pressure is lost and the integrity switch is released. No
output signal will resulted in fault warning.
Pressure Type Element
THERMAL SWITCH FIRE DETECTION SYSTEM
The thermal switch system uses a bimetallic thermostat switch. Each detector unit
consists of a bimetallic thermoswitch.
A thermal switch system consists of one or more lights energized by the aircraft power
system and thermal switches that control operation of the light(s). These thermal
switches are heat-sensitive units that complete electrical circuits at a certain temperature.
They are connected in parallel with each other but in series with the indicator lights
(figure). If the temperature rises above a set value in anyone section of the circuit, the
thermal switch will close, completing the light circuit to indicate the presence of a fire or
overheat condition.
7
Fire Protection
Thermal Switch Fire Detection Circuit
The circuit includes a test relay. With the relay contact in the position shown, there are
two possible paths for current flow from the switches to the light. This is an additional
safety feature. Energizing the test relay completes a series circuit and checks all the
wiring and the light bulb.
Also included in the circuit is a dimming relay. By energizing the dimming relay, the circuit
is altered to include a resistor in series with the light, and all the warning lights may be
dimmed at the same time.
THERMOCOUPLE FIRE DETECTION SYSTEM
The thermocouple fire warning system operates on an entirely different principle than the
thermal switch system. A thermocouple depends upon the rate of temperature rise and
will not give a warning when an engine slowly overheats or a short circuit develops. The
system consists of a relay box, warning lights, and thermocouples. The wiring system of
these units may be divided into the following circuits (figure):
(1) The detector circuit,

(2) The alarm circuit, and
(3) The test circuit.
8
Fire Protection
Thermocouple Fire Warning Circuit
The relay box contains two relays, the sensitive relay and the slave relay, and the thermal
test unit. Such a box may contain from one to eight identical circuits, depending on the
number of potential fire zones. The relays control the warning lights. In turn, the
thermocouples control the operation of the relays. The circuit 'consists of several
thermocouples in series with each other and with the sensitive relay.
The thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metals such as chromel and

constantan. The point where these metals are joined will be exposed to the heat of a fire
and is called a hot junction. There is also a reference junction enclosed in a dead air
space between two insulation blocks. A metal cage surrounds the thermocouple to give
mechanical protection without hindering the free movement of air to the hot junction.
If the temperature rises rapidly, the thermocouple produces a voltage because of the
temperature difference between the reference junction and the hot junction. If both
junctions are heated at the same rate, no voltage will result and no warning signal is
given.
If there is a fire, however, the hot junction will heat more rapidly than the reference
junction. The ensuing voltage causes a current to flow within the detector circuit. Any
time the current is greater than 4 milliamperes (0.004 ampere), the sensitive relay will
close. This will complete a circuit from the aircraft power system to the coil of the slave
relay, which closes and completes the circuit to the fire-warning light.
The total number of thermocouples used in individual detector circuits depends on the
size of the fire zone and the total circuit resistance. The total resistance usually does not
exceed 5 ohms. As shown in the figure, the circuit has two resistors. The resistor
connected across the terminals of the slave relay absorbs the coil's self-induced voltage.
This is to prevent arcing across the points of the sensitive relay, since the contacts of the
sensitive relay are so fragile they burn or weld if arcing were permitted.
9
Fire Protection
When the sensitive relay opens, the circuit to the slave relay is interrupted and the
magnetic field around its coil collapses. When this happens, the coil gets a voltage
through self-induction, but with the resistor across the coil terminals, there is a path for
any current flow as a result of this voltage. Thus, arcing at the sensitive relay contacts is
eliminated.
CARBON MONOXIDE DETECTORS
The CO detectors, which detect concentrations of carbon monoxide gas, are rarely used
to monitor cargo and baggage compartments. However, they have gained widespread
use in conducting tests for the presence of carbon monoxide gas in aircraft cabins and
cockpits.
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-irritating gas. It is the byproduct

of incomplete combustion, and is found in varying degrees in all smoke and fumes from
burning carbonaceous substances. Exceedingly small amounts of the gas are dangerous.
A concentration of 0.02% (2 parts in 10,000) may produce headache & mental dullness,
within a few hours.
There are several types of portable testers (sniffers) in use. One type has a replaceable
indicator tube which contains a yellow silica gel, impregnated with a complex
silico-molybdate compound and is catalyzed using palladium sulfate.
In use, a sample of air is drawn through the detector tube. When the air sample contains
carbon monoxide, the yellow silica gel turns to a shade of green. The intensity of the
green color is proportional to the concentration of carbon monoxide in the air sample at
the time and location of the tests.
Another type indicator may be worn as a badge or installed on the instrument panel or
cockpit wall. It is a button using a tablet, which changes from a normal tan color to
progressively darker shades of gray to black. The transition time required is relative to the
concentration of CO. At a concentration of 50 ppm CO (0.005%), the indication will be
apparent within 15 to 30 minutes. A concentration of 100 ppm CO (0.01%) will change
color of the tablet from tan to gray in 2-5 minutes, from tan to dark gray in 15 to 20
minutes.
PHOTOELECTRIC SMOKE DETECTORS

This type of detector consists of a photoelectric cell, a beacon lamp, a test lamp, and a
light trap, all mounted on a labyrinth. An accumulation of 10% smoke in the air causes the
photoelectric cell to conduct electric current. Figure shows the details of the smoke
detector, and indicates how the smoke particles refract the light to the photoelectric cell.
When activated by smoke, the detector supplies a signal to the smoke detector amplifier.
The amplifier signal activates a warning light and bell.
10
Fire Protection
PHOTOELECTRIC SMOKE DETECTOR
A test switch (figure) permits checking the operation of the smoke detector. Closing the
switch connects 28 v.d.c. to the test relay. When the test relay energizes, voltage is
applied through the beacon lamp in series to ground. A fire indication will be observed
only .if the beacon and test lamp, the photoelectric cell, the smoke detector amplifier, and
associated circuits are operable. A functional check of the detector should be made after
installation, and at frequent intervals thereafter.
11
Fire Protection
Smoke Detector Test Circuit
VISUAL SMOKE DETECTORS
On a few aircraft visual smoke detectors provide the only means of smoke detection.
Indication is provided by drawing smoke through a line into the indicator, using either a
suitable suction device or cabin pressurization.
When smoke is present a lamp within the indicator is illuminated automatically by the
smoke detector. The light is scattered so that the smoke is rendered visible in the
appropriate window of the indicator. If no smoke is present the lamp will not be
illuminated. A switch is provided to illuminate the lamp for test purposes. A device is also
provided in the indicator to show that the necessary airflow is passing through the
indicator.
12
Fire Protection
Visual Smoke Detector System

A well-rounded inspection and maintenance program for all types of continuous-loop
systems should include the following visual checks. These procedures are provided as
examples and shou1d not be used to replace approved local maintenance directives or
the applicable manufacturer's instructions.
Sensing elements should be inspected for:
1. Cracked or broken sections caused by crushing or squeezing between inspection

plates, cowl panels, or engine components.
2. Abrasion caused by rubbing of element on cowling, accessories, or structural

members.
3. Pieces of safety wire or other metal particles, which may short the unit detector
terminals.
13
Fire Protection
4. Condition of rubber grommets in mounting clamps, which may be softened from

exposure to oils, or hardened from excessive heat.
5. Dents and kinks in sensing element sections. Limits on the element diameter,
acceptable dents or kinks, and degree of smoothness of tubing contour are
specified by manufacturers. No attempt should be made to straighten any
acceptable dent or kink, since stresses may be set up that could cause tubing
failure.
Sensing Element Defects
6. Loose nuts or broken safety wire at the end of the sensing elements. Loose nuts
should be re-torqued to the value specified in the manufacturer's instructions.
Some types of sensing element connections require the use of copper crush
gaskets. These gaskets should be replaced any time a connection is separated.
14
Fire Protection
7. Broken or frayed flexible leads, if used. The flexible lead is made up" of many fine
metal strands woven into a protective covering surrounding the inner insulated wire.
Continuous bending of the cable or rough treatment can break these fine wires,
especially those near the connectors. Broken strands can also protrude into the
insulated gasket and short the centre electrode.
8. Proper sensing element routing and clamping (figure). Long unsupported sections
may permit excessive vibration, which can cause breakage. The distance between
clamps on straight runs is usually about 8 to 10 in., and is specified by each
manufacturer. At end connectors, the first support clamp is usually located about 4
to 6 in. from the end connector fittings. In most cases, a straight run of 1 in. is
maintained from all connectors before a bend is started, and an optimum bend
radius of 3 in. is normally adhered to.
Rubbing Interference
9. Rubbing between a cowl brace and a sensing element (previous figure). This
interference, in combination with loose rivets holding the clamps to skin, may
cause wear and short the sensing element.
10. Correct grommet installation. The grommets are installed on the sensing element
to prevent the element from chafing on the clamp. The slit end of the grommet
should face the outside of the nearest bend. Clamps and grommets (figure) should
fit the element snugly.
15
Fire Protection
Typical Fire Detector Loop Clamp
11. Thermocouple detector mounting brackets should be repaired or replaced when

cracked, corroded, or damaged. When replacing a thermocouple detector, note
which wire is connected to the identified plus terminal of the defective unit and
connect the replacement in the same way.
12. Test the fire detection system for proper operation by turning on the power supply
and placing the fire detection test switch in the "TEST" position. The red warning
light should flash on within the time period estab11shed for the system. On some
aircraft an audible alarm will also sound.
13. After repair or replacement of a unit in a fire detection system, resistance and
continuity tests should be carried out on the system
FALSE FIRE WARNINGS
Investigations into the incidence of false fire warnings have emphasised the need for
correct installation and proper maintenance. Some of the probable causes of false
warnings or failure to operate on test are:
(i) Ingress of Moisture
(a) Incorrect assembly of sealing washers or glands on detectors or associated

wiring accessories.
(b) Premature removal of connectors (a torque loading is usually specified).
(c) Inadequate tightening of connectors (a torque loading is usually specified).
(d) Failure to fit new crushed metal sealing washers (if fitted) when fitting a
replacement unit.
(e) Cracked or chafed elements.
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Fire Protection
(ii) Faulty Installation
(a) Detection elements too close to heat shields or other surface which may attain a
temperature high enough to operate the detector.
(b) Short circuiting of electrical wiring by chafing against structure.
(c) Damage to detection components through carelessness during routine
maintenance of adjacent unrelated equipment.
(d) Inadequate support, core particularly of continuous element detectors, with
consequent damage from chafing or fracture through vibration.
(e) Clip bushes of material unsuitable for the environment, resulting in damage to a
continuous element at clipping positions.
(f) Incorrect racking of printed circuit cards in fire detection modules, possibly
resulting in spurious warnings.
(iii) Lack of Cleanliness
(a) Dirt, swarf or other foreign matter in electrical connections causing short or
open circuit.
(b) Oil or other fluids penetrating connections, either prior to tightening or through
incorrect torque loading, and resulting in failure of the insulation.
Continuous Element Detector Systems
Except for the types, which are enclosed within an armoured sheath, continuous
elements are vulnerable to rough handling and it is essential that every precaution is
taken to maintain the integrity of the system and to check its function at frequent internals.
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Fire Protection
STORAGE
Components should be stored on shelves, which allow free circulation of air, shielded
from direct sunlight and protected from moisture or corrosive fumes.
With the exception of certain types of control units, all components in fire and smoke
detection systems may be stored indefinitely provided that adequate precautions are
taken to prevent the ingress of moisture. Sealing caps must be fitted to the end
connections of all detector elements, and all equipment should be wrapped in
greaseproof paper and packed inside suitably padded cartons. Heat sealed polythene
bags should be added in tropical climates. Smoke detectors should preferably be
retained in the packaging supplied by the manufacturers so that the photo-electric cells
are not subjected to light during the storage period. "A label should be attached" to each
component showing details of type, serial number, date of last overhaul, hours flown,
reason for removal, etc. as applicable in each case.
FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

The extinguishing systems in general use are the fixed system, the portable system and
the mixed system. The term fixed' refers to a permanently installed system of
extinguishant containers, distribution pipes and controls provided for the protection of
power plants and, where applicable, auxiliary power units. In some types of aircraft, fixed
systems may also be provided for the protection of landing gear wheel bays and baggage
compartments.
A portable system refers to the several hand-operated fire extinguishers provided to

combat any outbreaks of fire in flight crew compartments and passenger cabins.
A mixed system is one used in some aircraft for the protection of baggage and service
compartments. The distribution pipeline and system is fixed in the appropriate
compartment and is coupled to adaptor points to which a hand-operated extinguisher may
be plugged in.
TYPES OF EXTINGUISHANT
The extinguishants in general use are described in the following paragraphs.
a. Methyl Bromide (M.B.)
This extinguishant boils at 4.6 and is commonly used in fixed systems,

particularly for the protection of power plants. Because of its toxicity. Methyl
Bromide should not be used in confined spaces, flight crew compartments or
passenger cabins. The effects of breathing the vapors may not be immediately
apparent but serious or even fatal after-effects may be sustained at a later stage.
18
Fire Protection
b. Bromochlorodifluoromethane (B.C.F.)
This semi-toxic extinguishant is particularly effective against electrical and

flammable liquid fires. It is used in power plant systems, and for the protection of
auxiliary power units in some aircraft; it is also used in certain types of portable
extinguisher. It becomes gaseous at normal temperatures and condenses to liquid
at-4 (25F), and can be stored and discharged at moderate pressures. It has
little or no corrosive effect, although halogen acids will be formed if its products
which have been decomposed by fire come into contact with water, e.g.
condensation caused by fire. In contact with fire, B.C.F. volatilises instant1y,
giving rapid flame extinction with 1ittle or no deleterious effect on metallic, wooden,
plastic or fabric materials.
c. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
This gas extinguishant is also effective against electrical and flammable liquid fires
and is used principally in portable fire extinguishers. It is non-corrosive and if the
concentration needed to extinguish a fire is excessive it can have appreciable toxic
effects. When discharged in a confined space, the vapour cloud can reduce
visibility temporarily.
d. Water
In many aircraft, certain of the portable fire extinguishers in passenger cabins are
of the water type, designed for combating fires involving ordinary combustible
material such as paper, fabric, etc., where the quenching and cooling effects of
water are of prime importance. These extinguishers are not suitable against
electrical fires. An anti-freezing agent is normally included to permit operation at
temperatures as low as -20. Typical examples are the water/glycol extinguisher
with 38 per cent of inhibited ethylene glycol, and the 'wet-water' extinguisher with
glycol, wetting agents to reduce surface tension, and inhibitors to impart
anti-corrosive characteristics.
e. Bromotrifluoromethane (B.T.M.)
This semi-toxic extinguishant is used in fixed systems for the protection of power
plant and auxiliary power units. It is also widely used in cargo compartment fire
suppression systems of some types of aircraft.
19
Fire Protection
f. Dry Chemical
Dry chemical extinguishant takes the form of a non-toxic powder, e.g. potassium
bicarbonate, and is used in portable fire extinguishers fitted in certain types of
aircraft. It is very effective against fires involving flammable liquids and
free-burning material such as wood, fabrics and paper.
Use of the extinguishant against fires in electrical equipment is not recommended,

since it could render contactors and switches unserviceable which may otherwise
be functioning correctly in adjacent equipment. It does not have a quenching effect
and thereby the dangers of distortion or explosion when used on hot surfaces,
such as overheated wheel brakes, are minimised. Some dry chemical powders
have a corrosive effect on some metals (including aluminium) which may require
special attention when cleaning-up after the discharge of an extinguisher.
Dry chemical extinguishers should not be used in flight crew compartment or

passenger cabins where visibility would be seriously affected both during the
discharge of powder and also as a result of its deposition on transparencies and
instruments.
TYPICAL FIXED SYSTEMS
In the types of aircraft for which fixed fire extinguisher systems are specified, it is usual for
the extinguishant to be stored in the containers under pressure and to be discharged by
electrically firing cartridge units within the extinguisher discharge heads. The firing
circuits are controlled by switches or fire control handles in the flight crew compartment; in
some types of aircraft control may also be automatic in the event of a crash landing.
The typical fire extinguishing portion of a complete fire protection system includes a
cylinder or container of extinguishing agent for each engine and nacelle area. One type of
installation provides for a container in each of four pylons on a multi-engine aircraft. This
type of system uses an extinguishing agent container similar to the type shown in the
following figure. This type of container is equipped with two discharge valves, which are
operated by electrically discharged cartridges. These two valves are the main and the
reserve controls, which release and route the agent to the pod and pylon in which the
container is located or to the other engine on the same wing. This type of two-shot,
crossfeed configuration permits the release of a second charge of fire extinguishing agent
to the same engine if another fire breaks out, without providing two containers for each
engine area.
20
Fire Protection
Fire Extinguisher System for A Multi-Engine Aircraft
Another type of four-engine installation uses two independent fire extinguisher systems.
The two engines on one side of the aircraft are equipped with two fire extinguisher
containers, but they are located together in the inboard pylon (figure).
A pressure gage, a discharge plug, and a safety discharge connection are provided for
each container. The discharge plug is sealed with a breakable disk combined with an
explosive charge, which is electrically detonated to discharge the contents of the bot tie.
The safety discharge connection is capped at the inboard side of the strut with a red
indicating disk. If the temperature rises beyond a predetermined safe value, the disk will
rupture, dumping the agent overboard, and the discharge will be indicated in the cockpit.
21
Fire Protection
The manifold connecting the two containers of the dual installation includes a double
check valve and a tee-fitting from which tubing connects to the discharge indicator. This
indicator is capped at the inboard side of the strut with a yellow disk, which is blown out
when the manifold is pressurized from either container. The discharge line has two
branches, a short line to the inboard engine and a long one extending along the wing
leading edge to the outboard engine. Both of the branches terminate in a tee-fitting near
the forward engine mount.
Dual Container Installation and Fittings
Discharge tube configuration may vary with the type and size of turbine engine
installations. In the figure below, a semicircular discharge tube with Y-outlet terminations
encircles the top forward area of both the forward and aft engine compartments. Diffuser
orifices are spaced along the diffuser tubes. A pylon discharge tube is incorporated in the
inlet line to discharge the fire extinguishing agent into the pylon area.
22
Fire Protection
Fire Extinguisher Discharge Tubes
Another type of fire extinguisher discharge configuration is shown in the following figure.
The inlet discharge line terminates in a discharge nozzle, which is a tee-fitting near the
forward engine mount. The tee-fitting contains diffuser holes, which allow the fire
extinguish1ng agent to be released along the top of the engine and travel downward
along both sides of the engine.
Fire Extinguisher Discharge Nozzle Location
When any section of the continuous-loop circuit is exposed to an overheat condition or fire,
the detector warning lights in the cockpit illuminate and the fire warning bell sounds. The
warning light may be located in the fire-pull T-handle, or in some installations the fire
switch may incorporate the associated fire warning light for a particular engine under a
translucent plastic cover, as shown in the next figure.
23
Fire Protection
In this system, a transfer switch is provided for the left and right fire extinguisher system.
Each transfer switch has two positions: "TRANS and NORMAL. If a fire occurs in the
No.4 engine, the warning Iight in the No.4 fire switch will illuminate; and with the transfer
switch in the NORMAL position, the No.4 fire switch is pulled and the tio.4 push button
discharge switch located directly under the fire switch will be accessible. Activating the
discharge switch will discharge a container of fire extinguishing agent into the No.4
engine area.
If more than one shot of the agent is required, the transfer switch is placed in the TRANS"
position so that the second container can be discharged into the same engine.
An alarm bell control permits anyone of the engine fire detection circuits to energize the
common alarm bell. After the alarm bell sounds, it can be silenced by activating the bell
cutout switch. The bell can still respond to a fire signal from any of the other circuits.
Most fire protection systems for turbine engine aircraft also include a test switch and
circuitry, which permit the entire detection system to be tested at one time. The test
switch is located in the center of the panel in the figure'.
Fire Detection System and Fire Switches
Extinguishers
Extinguishers vary in construction but are normally comprised of two main components:
(i) The steel or copper container and

(ii) The discharge or operating head.
Bromochloromethane and freon extinguishing agents are stored in steel spherical

containers. There are four sizes in common use today ranging from 224 cu. in. (small) to
945 cu. in. (large).
24
Fire Protection
The large containers weigh about 33 1bs. The small spheres have two openings, one for
the bonnet assembly (sometimes called an operating head), and the other for the fusible
safety plug.
Single Bonnet Sphere Assembly
The larger containers are usually equipped with two firing bonnets and a two-way check
valve as shown in figure.
Typical Double Bonnet Extinguisher Assembly
25
Fire Protection
The containers are charged with dry nitrogen in addition to a specified weight of the
extinguishing agent. The nitrogen charge provides sufficient pressure for complete
discharge of the agent. The bonnet assembly contains an electrically ignited power
cartridge, which breaks the disk allowing the extinguishing agent to be forced out of the
sphere by the nitrogen charge.
A single bonnet sphere assembly is illustrated in the previous figure. The function of the
parts shown, other than those described in the preceding paragraph, are as follows:
1. The strainer prevents pieces of the broken disk from entering the system,
2. The fusible safety plug melts and releases the liquid when the temperature is
between 208and 220F., and
3. The gage shows the pressure in the container. In this type of design there is no
need for siphon tubes.
In some installations the safety plug is connected to a discharge indicator mounted in the
fuselage skin.
The gage on the container should be checked for an indication of the specified pressure
as given in the applicable aircraft maintenance manual. In addition make certain that the
indicator glass is unbroken and that the bottle is securely mounted.
Directional Flow Valves
These valves are a special form of non-return valve designed for use in two-shot systems
to allow the contents of one or several extinguishers to be directed into anyone power
plant.
Pipelines
Extinguishants are discharged through a pipeline system which, in general, is comprised

of light-alloy pipes outside fire zones and stainless steel rings inside fire zones, which are
perforated to provide a spray of extinguishant in the relevant zones. In some cases,
extinguishant may be discharged through nozzles instead of spray rings. Flexible
fireproof hoses are also used, e.g. between a nacelle firewall and spray rings secured to
an engine.
PORTABLE EXTINGUISHERS
The portable extinguishers in common use are of the CO2 type and the water type.
Extinguishers containing extinguishant B.C.F. are also used in some aircraft. The type of
extinguisher installed in a particular location is chosen to be appropriate to the nature of
the possible fires in the compartment in which it is installed. Extinguishers are located in
accessible positions and installed in suitable attachment brackets with quick-release
metal straps. Brief descriptions of their construction and operation are given in the
following paragraphs for general guidance.
26
Fire Protection
CO2 Extinguishers
A typical extinguisher comprises a steel cylinder and an operating head incorporating a

pistol-type firing mechanism, check valve assembly and discharge horn which
characterises CO2 extinguishers generally.
Typical Portable CO2 Extinguisher
When the trigger is pressed, a lockwire and seal are broken and the spindle of the check
valve assembly is forced downward, thereby removing the valve from its seat. This allows
the extinguishant to flow up the siphon tube, through the centre of a safety disc, to
discharge from the discharge horn. Releasing of the trigger allows the valve to reseat and
seal off the flow. The purpose of the safety disc is to permit the release of extinguishant in
the event of excessive internal pressures. When a safety disc bursts, the trigger of the
firing mechanism springs downward and exposes the instruction 'REPLACE DISC'
engraved on the side of the trigger.
27
Fire Protection
To operate:
1. Lift the discharge horn 90

2. Hold upright and aim at the base of fire
3. Pull the trigger (which will break wire & seal). Do not touch the horn or tube during
use.
Water Extinguishers
A typical extinguisher incorporating an anti-freeze agent is shown in figure. It comprises a

cylinder and a valve body, which houses a lever-operated, check valve assembly and a
nozzle. A cartridge holder containing a cartridge of CO2 is secured to the valve body, and
in addition to its main operating function, serves as a hand-grip. When the cartridge
holder is twisted the cartridge is punctured causing the CO2 to be released into the
cylinder, thereby pressurising it. Depression of the check valve assembly lever moves
the valve from its seating at the top of a syphon tube, allowing the extinguishant to be
forced up the tube and to discharge through the nozzle. When the lever is released, the
valve is returned to its seating under the action of a spring, and the flow of extinguishant is
sealed off.
Typical Water Extinguisher

28
Fire Protection
To operate:
1. Screw handle in fully breaking the lockwire. This punctures a small gas cylinder
inside the handle and releases the gas to charge the extinguisher.
2. Hold upright and aim at the base of the fire
3. Press the trigger to discharge.
MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION OF FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM

Regular maintenance of fire extinguisher systems typically includes such items as the
inspection and servicing of fire extinguisher bottles (containers), removal and
re-installation of cartridge and discharge valves, testing of discharge tubing for leakage,
and electrical wiring continuity tests. The following paragraphs contain details of some of
the most typical maintenance procedures, and are included to provide an understanding
of the operations involved.
Fire extinguisher system maintenance procedures vary widely according to the design
and construction of the particular unit being serviced. The detailed procedures outlined
by the airframe or system manufacturer should always be followed when performing
maintenance.
Extinguisher Pressure Check
A pressure check of fire extinguisher containers is made periodically to determine that the
pressure is between the minimum and maximum limits prescribed by the manufacturer.
Changes of pressure with ambient pressure must also fall within prescribed Iimits. The
graph shown in the following figure is typical of the pressure /temperature curve graphs
that provide maximum and minimum gage readings. If the pressure does not fall within
the graph limits, the extinguisher container should be replaced.
Extinguisher Weight Check
The fully charged weight of an extinguisher should be checked at the periods specified in
the approved Maintenance Schedule, and before installation, to verify that no loss of
extinguishant has occurred. The weight, including blanking caps and washers, but
excluding cartridge units, is indicated on the container or operating head. For an
extinguisher embodying a discharge indicator switch, the weight of the switch cable
assembly is also excluded.
NOTE : The provision of discharge indicators in fixed extinguisher system does not alter
the requirement for periodic weighing which is normally related to calendar time.
The date of weighing and the weight should, where specified, be recorded on record
cards made out for each type of extinguisher, and also on labels for attachment to
extinguishers. If the weight of an extinguisher is below the indicated value the
extinguisher must be withdrawn from service for recharging.
29
Fire Protection
General Inspections
1. Containers should be inspected for signs of leakage, dents, corrosion, scoring and
chafing. If one or more of these faults exist, or there is any other condition
indicating weakness of a container, the extinguisher must not be installed.
2. Pin-type discharge indicators should be checked to ensure that they are flush with
the cap of the operating head junction box.
3. Before securing cartridge units to extinguishers, they should be inspected for signs
of distortion, corrosion, chafing or other damage. The date of manufacture
stamped on a unit should be checked to ensure that the cartridge life has not
exceeded that specified in the appropriate Maintenance Manual. Checks on the
insulation resistance, continuity and resistance of the fuse element should also be
carried out.
4. When installing extinguishers, it must be ensured that they are properly positioned
in their support brackets and secured by straps or mounting bolts as appropriate to
the type of extinguisher. Where locking pins are necessary, e.g. on securing
straps, a check must be made to ensure that they are in a serviceable condition
and correctly assembled to the straps.
5. For portable fire extinguisher, lockwire and seals should be checked to ensure that
they are intact. If the wire and seal of an extinguisher have been broken it must be
withdrawn from service for a weight check.
6. They expiry dates of extinguishers should be checked against the date of
manufacture to ensure that they are within the specified service life. Extinguishers
having expendable containers should be fitted with new containers at the time of
expired date. Other extinguishers should be removed for re-charging and replaced
by serviceable units.
7. Dates of manufacture are given on some types of extinguishers in the form of a
code. For example, months are represented by letter A to M (excluding I) years are
indicated by the last figure of the year number and weeks are given by figures 1-5
beneath the month and year codes.
E 3
8. Thus marked on an extinguisher would indicate that it was manufactured in
2
the second week of May 1973 and, assuming a life of five years, the expiry date of
the extinguisher would be May 1978.
STORAGE OF EXTINGUISHERS AND CARTRIDGES
Extinguishers should be shielded from direct sunlight, stored in an atmosphere free from
moisture and corrosive fumes and be located on shelves which allow free circulation of air.
Transit caps, sealing plates and transit pins, where appropriate, must remain fitted during
storage.
The weights of extinguishers should be checked annually during storage, which, in

general, is limited to five years from the date of manufacture or last overhaul. At the end
of this period, extinguishers must be withdrawn for overhaul.
30
Fire Protection
NOTE : The storage limiting period may vary between types of extinguishers. Reference
must, therefore, always be made to the relevant manuals.
Cartridge units must be stored in sealed polythene bags in a moisture-free atmosphere

and kept away from sources of heat. A label quoting the Iife expiry date, which, in general,
is five years from the date of manufacture of last overhaul, should be attached to each
bag. If a cartridge unit is removed from its bag, the Iife expiry date is two years from the
date of removal, provided the expiry is within the normal five year period.
Defective or time-expired cartridge units must be disposed of in accordance with

regulations relating to the handling of gunpowder.
31
HKAR66 Module 11 - Aeroplane Systems
Fuel Systems
INTRODUCTION
The aircraft fuel system stores fuel and delivers the proper amount of clean fuel at the
right pressure to meet the demands of the engine.
A well-designed fuel system ensures positive and reliable fuel flow throughout all phases
of flight, which include changes in altitude, violent maneuvers and sudden acceleration
and deceleration.
Furthermore, the system must be reasonably free from tendency to vapor lock, which can
result from changes in ground and in-flight climatic conditions. Such indicators as fuel
pressure gages, warning signals, and tank quantity gages are provided to give continuous
indications of how the system is functioning.
The simplest type of fuel system is the gravity feed, which is still in use on many
low-powered airplanes. A gravity feed system is shown:
Gravity Feed Fuel System
1
Fuel Systems
The fuel tanks are mounted above the carburetor, with gravity causing the fuel to flow
from the tanks to the carburetor. A selector valve is provided to stop the fuel flow or to
select a particular tank in the system from which to draw fuel. A strainer filters the fuel
before it reaches the carburetor. A drain is provided for removing water and sediment
trapped at the strainer. A primer furnishes the additional fuel required for engine starting.
Airplanes equipped with a high-output engine require a fuel system that supplies fuel to
the carburetor at a positive pressure. The basic source for this pressure is an
engine-driven fuel pump, but auxiliary fuel pumps or booster pumps are required in every
pressure feed system to:
1. Supply fuel pressure for starting the engine,

2. Supply fuel to the primer system,
3. To serve as an emergency pump in case the engine-driven pump fails.
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The basic components of a fuel system include tanks, lines, valves, pumps, filtering units,
gages, warning signal, and primer.
Some systems will include central refueling provisions, fuel dump valves, and a means for
transferring fuel. In order to clarify the operating principles of complex aircraft fuel
systems, the various units are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Fuel Tanks
The location, size, shape, and construction of fuel tanks vary with the type and intended
use of the aircraft. In some aircraft, the fuel tanks are integral with the wing or other
structural portions of the aircraft.
Fuel tanks are made of materials that will not react chemically with any aviation fuel.
Aluminum ally is widely used, and synthetic rubber bladder-type fuel cells are used in
some installations.
2
Fuel Systems
Usually a sump and a drain are provided at the lowest point in the tank as shown:
A Typical Metal Fuel Tank
When a sump or low point is provided in the tank, the main fuel supply is not drawn from
the bottom of the sump, but from a higher point in the tank.
The top of each tank is vented to the outside air in order to maintain atmospheric pressure
within the tank. Air vents are designed to minimize the possibility of their stoppage by dirt
and ice formation. In order to permit rapid changes in internal air pressure, the size of the
vent is proportional to the size of the tank, thus preventing the collapse of the tank in a
steep dive or glide.
All except the very smallest of tanks are fitted with internal baffles to resist fuel surging
caused by changes in the attitude of the aircraft. Usually an expansion space is provided
in fuel tanks to allow for an increase in fuel volume due to expansion.
The filler neck and cap are usually located in a recessed well, equipped with a scupper
and drain. The scupper is designed to prevent over flowing fuel from entering the wing or
fuselage structure. Fuel caps have provisions for locking devices to prevent accidental
loss during flight. Filler openings are clearly marked with the word "FUEL", the tank
capacity, and the type of fuel to be used. Information concerning the capacity of each
tank is usually posted near the fuel selector valves, as well as on the tank filler caps.
3
Fuel Systems
Some fuel tanks are equipped with dump valves that make it possible to jettison fuel
during flight in order to reduce the weight of the aircraft to its specified maximum landing
weight. In aircraft equipped with dump valves, the operating control is located within
reach of the pilot, copilot, or flight engineer. Dump valves are designed and installed to
afford safe, rapid discharge of fuel.
Fuel Cells
Present day aircraft may be equipped with one or more of the following types of fuel cells:
the bladder-type fuel cell and the integral fuel cell.
i) Bladder Type Fuel Cell
The bladder type fuel cell is a non-self-sealing cell that is used to reduce weight. It
depends entirely upon the structure of the cavity in which it sits to support the weight of
the fuel within it. For this reason, the cell is made slightly larger than the cavity. The
bladder cells in use are made either of rubber or of nylon.
ii) Integral Fuel Cells
Since integral fuel cells are usually built into the wings of the aircraft structure, they are
not removable. An integral cell is a part of the aircraft structure, which has been so built
that after the seams, structural fasteners, and access doors have been properly sealed,
the cell will hold fuel without leaking. This type of construction is usually referred to as a
"wet wing."
Fuel Lines and Fittings
In an aircraft fuel system, the various tanks and other components are usually joined
together by fuel lines made of metal tubing connected, where flexibility is necessary, by
lengths of flexible hose. The metal tubing usually is made of aluminum alloy, and the
flexible hose is made of synthetic rubber or Teflon. The diameter of the tubing is
governed by the fuel flow requirements of the engine.
Each fuel line is identified by a color-coded band near each end. Except for short lines
between flexible connections, tubing should be properly supported by clamping to
structural members of the aircraft.
A special heat-resistant hose is used where the flexible lines will be subjected to intense
heat. For all flexible fuel lines located forward of the firewall, fire-resistant hose is used.
In many installations, the fuel lines are designed to be located within the tanks. Therefore
minor leaks occurring within the tank are classified as internal leaks and will not cause fire
hazards.
4
Fuel Systems
Fuel Strainers
Strainers are installed in the tank outlets and frequently in the tank filler necks. These are
of fairly coarse mesh and prevent only the larger particles from entering the fuel system.
Other, fine-mesh, strainers are provided in the carburetor fuel inlets and in the fuel lines.
The function of the main strainer is important: it not only prevents foreign matter from
entering the carburetor, but also, because of its location at the low point of the fuel system,
traps any small amount of water that may be present in the system. In multiengine aircraft,
one main strainer is usually installed in each engine nacelle.
A main fuel strainer for a light airplane is shown on the right.
Main Fuel Strainer for Light Aircraft
It consists of a cast metal top, a screen, and a glass bowl. The bowl is attached to the
cover by a clamp and thumb nut. Fuel enters the unit through the inlet port, filters through
the screen, and exits through the outlet port. At regular intervals the glass bowl is drained,
and the screen is removed for inspection and cleaning.
5
Fuel Systems
The main fuel strainer shown in the following figure is so installed that the fuel flows
through it reaching the engine-driven pump. It is located at the lowest point in the fuel
system.
The shape and construction of the fine-mesh screen provides a large screening surface
encased in a compact housing. Reinforcing the screen is a coarse, heavy-wire mesh.
Main Fuel Strainer
Auxiliary Fuel Pumps
It supplies fuel under pressure to the inlet of the engine-driven fuel pump. This type of
pump is an essential part of the fuel system, particularly at high altitudes, to keep the
pressure on the suction side of the engine-driven pump from becoming low enough to
permit the fuel to boil.
This booster pump is also used to transfer fuel from one tank to another to supply fuel
under pressure for priming when starting the engine, and, as an emergency unit, to supply
fuel to the carburetor in case the engine-driven pump fails.
6
Fuel Systems
To increase the capacity of the pump under emergency conditions, many pumps are
equipped with a two-speed or variable-speed control so that the recommended fuel inlet
pressure to the carburetor can he maintained. As a precautionary measure, the booster
pump is always turned on during takeoffs and landings to ensure a positive supply of fuel.
An electrically driven centrifugal booster pump is shown in figure:
Centrifugal Fuel Booster Pump
The booster pump is mounted at the tank outlet within a detachable sump or is
submerged in fuel at the bottom of the fuel tank. The seals between the impeller and the
power section of the pump prevent leakage of fuel or fumes into the motor. If any liquid or
vapor should leak past the seal, it is vented overboard through a drain. As an added
precaution in non-submerged type pumps, air is allowed to circulate around the motor to
remove dangerous fuel vapor.
7
Fuel Systems
As fuel enters the pump from the tank, a high speed impeller throws the fuel outward in all
directions at high velocity. The high rotational speed swirls the fuel and produces a
centrifuge action that separates air and vapor from the fuel before it enters the fuel line to
the carburetor. This results in practically vapor-free fuel delivery to the carburetor and
permits the separated vapors to rise through the fuel tank and escape through the tank
vents.
Since a centrifugal-type pump is not a positive-displacement pump, no relief valve is

necessary.
Although the centrifugal type is the most common type of booster pump, there are still a
few sliding vane type booster pumps in service. This type, too, is driven by an electric
motor. Unlike the centrifugal type, it does not have the advantage of the, centrifuge action
to separate the vapor from the fuel. Since it is a positive displacement type pump. It must
have a relief valve to prevent excessive pressure. Its construction and operation are
identical to the engine-driven pump.
Hand Pump
The hand, or 'Wobble, pump is frequently used on light aircraft. It is generally, located
near other fuel system components and operated from the cockpit by suitable controls. A
diagram of a wobble pump is shown.
When the handle attached to the central blade is operated, the low pressure created on
the chamber below the upward moving blade, permits the incoming fuel pressure to lift the
lower flapper and allows fuel to flow into this chamber.
At the same time fuel flows through a drilled passageway to fill the chamber above the
downward moving blade. As the blade moves downward, the lower flapper closes,
preventing fuel from escaping back into the inlet line. The fuel below the downward
moving blade flows through a passageway into another chamber and is discharged
through an outlet flapper valve to the carburetor.
The cycle is repeated each time the handle is moved in either direction.
8
Fuel Systems
A Wobble Pump
Engine-Driven Fuel Pump
The Purpose of the engine-driven fuel pump is to deliver a continuous supply of fuel at the
proper pressure at all times during engine operation. The pump widely used at the
present time is the positive-displacement, rotary-vane-type pump.
A schematic diagram of a typical engine-driven pump (vane-type) is shown. Regardless

of variations in design, the operating principle of all vane-type fuel pumps is the same.
The engine-driven pump is usually mounted on the accessory section of the engine. The
rotor with its sliding vanes is driven by the crankshaft through the accessory gearing.
Note how the vanes carry fuel from the inlet to the outlet as the rotor turns in the direction
indicated. A seal prevents leakage at the point where the drive shaft enters the pump
body, and a drain carries away any fuel that leaks past the seal. Since the fuel provides
enough lubrication for the pump, no special lubrication is necessary.
9
Fuel Systems
Engine-Driven Fuel Pump (Pressure Delivery)
Since the engine-driven fuel pump normally discharges more fuel than the engine
requires, there must be some way of relieving excess fuel to prevent excessive fuel
pressures at the fuel inlet of the carburetor. This is accomplished through the use of a
spring-loaded relief valve that can be adjusted to deliver fuel at the recommended
pressure for a particular carburetor.
Figure above shows the pressure relief valve in operation, by-passing excess fuel back to
the inlet side of the pump. Adjustment is made by increasing or decreasing the tension of
the spring.
The relief valve of the engine-driven pump is designed to open at the set pressure
regardless of the pressure of the fuel entering the pump. To maintain the proper relation
between fuel pressure and carburetor inlet air pressure, the chamber above the fuel pump
relief valve is vented either to the atmosphere or through a balance line to carburetor air
inlet pressure. The combined pressures of spring tension and either atmospheric or
carburetor inlet air pressure determine the absolute pressure at which the relief valve
opens.
10
Fuel Systems
This balanced-type relief valve has certain objectionable features that must he
investigated when encountering fuel system troubles. A syphon or diaphragm failure will
allow air to enter the fuel on the inlet side of the pump if the pump inlet pressure is less
than atmospheric. Conversely, if the pump inlet pressure is above atmospheric pressure,
fuel will be discharged from the vent.
For proper altitude compensation the vent must be open. If it should become clogged by
ice or foreign matter while at altitude, the fuel pressure will decrease during descent. If
the vent becomes clogged during ascent, the fuel pressure will increase as the altitude is
increased. In addition to the relief valve, the fuel pump has a bypass valve that permits
fuel to flow around the pump rotor whenever the pump is inoperative. This valve is shown
in figure.
Engine-Driven Fuel Pump (Bypass Flow)
It consists of a disk that is lightly spring-loaded against a series of ports in the relief valve
head. When fuel is needed for starting the engine, or in the event of engine-driven pump
failure, fuel at booster-pump pressure is delivered to the fuel pump inlet. When the
pressure is great enough to move the bypass disk from its seat, fuel is allowed to enter the
carburetor for priming or metering.
When the engine-driven pump is in operation, the pressure built up on the outlet side of
the pump, together with the pressure of the bypass spring, holds the disk on its scat and
prevents fuel flow through the ports.
11
Fuel Systems
Valves
Selector valves are installed in the fuel system to provide a means for shutting off the fuel
flow, for tank and engine selection, for crossfeed, and for fuel transfer.
The size and number of ports (openings) vary with the type of installation. For example, a
single-engine aircraft with two fuel tanks and a reserve fuel supply requires a valve with
four ports-three inlets from the tanks and a common outlet.
The valve must accommodate the full flow capacity of the fuel line, must not leak, and
must operate freely with a definite "feel" or "click" when it is in the correct position.
Selector valves may be operated either manually or electrically.
A tube, rod, or cable is attached to a manually operated valve so that it can be operated
from the cockpit. Electrically operated valves have an actuator, or motor. The three main
types of selector valves are the:
1. Poppet,
2. Cone
3. Disk.
The poppet-type selector valve has an individual poppet valve at each inlet port. A cam
and yoke on the same shaft act to open the selected poppet valve as the yoke is turned.
The following figure shows how the cam lifts the upper poppet valve from its seat when
the control handle is set to the "number 2" tank. This opens the passage from the
"number 2" tank to the engine. At the same time, a raised portion of the index plate drops
into a notch in the side of the cam. (See the detail of the index mechanism.) This
produces the "feel" that indicates the valve is in the wide open position.
The control handle should always be set by "feel" rather than by the marking on the
indicator dial. The index mechanism also keeps the valve in the desired position and
prevents creeping caused by vibration. Some valves have more than one raised portion
on the cam to allow two or more ports to be opened at the same time.
12
Fuel Systems
Poppet-Type Selector Valve
The cone-type selector valve has either an all metal or a cork-faced aluminum housing.
The cone, which fits into the housing, is rotated by means of a cockpit control. To supply
fuel from the desired tank, the cockpit control is turned until the passages in the cone align
with the correct ports in the housing.
An indexing mechanism aids in obtaining the desired setting and also holds the cone in
the selected position. Some cone-type valves have a friction release mechanism that
reduces the amount of turning torque required to make a tank selection and that can be
adjusted to prevent leakage.
The rotor of the disk-type selector valve fits into a cylindrical hole in the valve body. A
disk-type valve is shown in figure.
Disk-Type Selector Valve
13
Fuel Systems
Note that the rotor has one open port and several scaling disks, one for each port in the
housing. To select a tank, the rotor is turned until the open port aligns with the port from
which fuel flow is desired. At this time, all other ports are closed by the scaling disks. In
this position, fuel will flow from the desired tank to the selector valve and out through the
engine-feed port at the bottom of the valve.
To ensure positive port alignment for full fuel flow, the indexing mechanism (shown in the
center of figure) forces a spring-loaded ball into a ratchet ring. When the selector valve is
placed in the closed position, the open port in the rotor is opposite a blank in the valve
body, while each scaling disk covers a tank port.
Fuel tank shutoff valves have two positions, open and closed. They are installed in the
system to prevent fuel loss when a fuel system component is being removed or when a
part of the system is damaged.
In some installations they are used to control the fuel flow during fuel transfer. They are
operated either manually or electrically. An electrically operated fuel shutoff valve
includes a reversible electric motor linked to a sliding-valve assembly. The motor moves
the valve gate in and out of the passage through which the fuel flows, thus, shutting off or
turning on the fuel flow.
FUEL SYSTEM INDICATORS
Fuel Quantity Gages
Fuel quantity gages are necessary so that the operator may know the quantity of fuel
remaining in the tanks during operation of the aircraft. The four general types of fuel
gages are:
(1) Sight glass,

(2) Mechanical,
(3) Electrical,
(4) Electronic.
The type of fuel gage installation depends on the size of the aircraft and the number and
location of the fuel tanks. Since the sight glass and mechanical fuel gages are not
suitable for aircraft where tanks are located an appreciable distance from the cockpit,
larger aircraft use either electrical or electronic fuel quantity gages.
On some aircraft, one fuel gage, called a totalizer, indicates the total amount of fuel
remaining in all the fuel tanks.
14
Fuel Systems
The sight glass is the simplest form of fuel quantity gage. The indicator is a glass or
plastic tube placed on the same level as the tank. It operates on the principle that a liquid
seeks its own level. The tube is calibrated in gallons or has a metal scale near it. The
sight glass may have a shutoff valve so that the fuel can be shut off for cleaning, and for
preventing loss of fuel if the tube is broken.
The mechanical-type fuel quantity gage is usually located in the tank and is known as a
direct reading gage. It has an indicator connected to a float resting on the surface of the
fuel. As the fuel level changes, the float mechanically operates the indicator, thus
showing the level of fuel in the tank. One type of mechanical fuel gage is illustrated in
figure.
Float-And-Lever Type Fuel Level Gage
The electrical-type quantity gage consists of an indicator in the cockpit and a

float-operated transmitter installed in the tank. As the fuel level changes, the transmitter
sends an electric signal to the indicator, which shows the changing fuel level.
Two important advantages of this fuel quantity gage (and the electronic type discussed in
the next paragraph) are that the indicator can be located any distance from the tank and
the fuel levels of several tanks can be read on one indicator.
The electronic-type (capacitance) fuel quantity gage differs from the other types in that it
has no movable devices in the fuel tank. Instead of floats and their attendant mechanical
units, the dielectric qualities of fuel and air furnish a measurement of fuel quantity.
Essentially, the tank transmitter is a simple electric condenser. The dielectric (or
non-conducting material) of the condenser is fuel and air (vapor) above the fuel.
15
Fuel Systems
The capacitance of the tank unit at any one time will depend on the existing proportion of
fuel and vapors in the tank. The capacitance of the transmitter is compared to a reference
capacitor in a rebalance-type bridge circuit. The unbalanced signal is amplified by the
voltage amplifiers that drive a phase discriminating power stage. The output stage
supplies power to one phase of a two-phase a.c. motor that mechanically drives a
rebalancing potentiometer and indicator pointer.
The electronic type system of measuring fuel quantity is more accurate in measuring fuel
level, as it measures the fuel by weight instead of in gallons. Fuel volume will vary with
temperature (a gallon of gasoline weighs more when it is cold than when it is hot); thus, if
it is measured in pounds instead of gallons, the measurement will be more accurate.
In addition to the cockpit fuel quantity indicating system, some aircraft are provided with a
means to determine the fuel quantity in each tank when the aircraft is on the ground. This
is accomplished in several different ways.
Some manufacturers use float-operated, direct-reading fuel gages mounted in the lower
surface of the wing. Another means is to use under-wing bayonet gages. There are two
types in use, the drip gage and the sight gage.
When using the drip gage it is necessary to proceed slowly, using the trial-and-error
method to find the exact fuel level. In large area tanks a proportionately large amount of
fuel is represented by a fraction of an inch variation in fuel level. The long, hollow drip
tubes require some time to drain once they are filled with fuel, and a substantial error in
reading will be made if the diminishing drainage drip is mistaken for the steady drip that
signifies that the tube is properly positioned.
When the cap and hollow drip tube are drawn out from the lower wing surface, the fuel
enters the open top of the tube when it reaches the level of the fuel. As stated previously
steady drip from a drip hole signifies that the tube is properly positioned with a tiny head of
fuel above the opening.
The drip gage tube may be calibrated in pounds or inches. When calibrated in inches, the
reading is compared with a special chart to give a reading of fuel quantity in gallons.
The sight gage is somewhat simpler in construction than the drip gage, and offers
unmistakable visual evidence when it is properly positioned for reading.
16
Fuel Systems
Under-Wing Sight Gage
As shown in figure, the sight gage is basically a long lucite rod, protected by a calibrated
tube, which terminates at the top in an exposed quartz tip. When the tip is above the fuel
it acts as a reflector. Light rays traveling up the lucite rod are deflected at right angles by
the 45O surface at one side of the tip and deflected 90O again by the 45 O surface at the
opposite side and returned down the lucite rod.
Any portion of the tip submerged in fuel will not act as a reflector. Consequently, when the
fuel level is part way up the taper, a light pattern is created that is visible at the lower end
of the lucite rod and that has the dimension and shape described by the intersection of the
tip and the fuel. When the reflected light is reduced to the smallest perceptible point in the
case of cone-tipped gages, or hairline in the case of chisel-tipped gages, the rod is
properly positioned. The fuel tank quantity can be read on the tube where it emerges from
the recessed guide housing. Drip gage readings are taken at this location also.
17
Fuel Systems
Fuel Flowmeter
The fuel flowmeter is normally used only in multiengine aircraft. The system consists of a
transmitter and an indicator. The transmitter is installed in the fuel inlet line to the engine,
where it measures the rate of fuel flow.
The transmitter is electrically connected to the indicator located in the cockpit. This gage
shows the rate of fuel consumption in pounds per hour.
The transmitter signal may he developed by a movable vane mounted in the fuel flow path.
The impact of fuel causes the vane to swing and move against the restraining force of a
calibrated spring.
The final position assumed by the vane represents a measure of the rate at which fuel is
passing through the flowmeter and the corresponding signal to be sent to the indicator. A
vane-type fuel flowmeter system is illustrated in the following figure.
Vane-Type Fuel Flowmeter System
The transmitter used with turbine engines is the mass-flow type having a range of 500 to
2,500 pounds per hour. It consists of two cylinders placed in the fuel stream so that the
direction of fuel flow is parallel to the axes of the cylinders as in the following figure.
18
Fuel Systems
Schematic of A Turbine Engine Fuel Flow Indicating System
The cylinders have small vanes in the outer periphery. The upstream cylinder, called the
impeller, is driven at a constant angular velocity by the power supply. This velocity
imparts an angular momentum to the fuel. The fuel then transmits this angular velocity to
the turbine (the downstream cylinder), causing the turbine to rotate until a restraining
spring force balances the force due to the angular momentum of the fuel.
The deflection of the turbine positions a magnet in the second harmonic transmitter to a
position corresponding to the fuel flow. The turbine position is transmitted to the flight
station indicator by means of a selsyn system.
Fuel Pressure Gage
The fuel pressure gage indicates the pressure of the fuel entering the carburetor. This
gage may be included with the oil pressure gage and the oil temperature gage in one
casing, called the engine gage unit. Most aircraft today have separate gages for these
functions. An engine gage unit is shown in the following figure.
19
Fuel Systems
Engine Gage Unit
The fuel pressure gage is a differential pressure indicator with two connections on the
back of the indicator housing.
Fuel Pressure-Indicating System
The air connection is vented to the carburetor air inlet, and the fuel connection is attached
to the fuel inlet chamber of the carburetor. In this way the gage indicates the difference
between the fuel pressure entering the carburetor and the air pressure at the carburetor
air inlet.
20
Fuel Systems
In some installations, the air fitting on the gage is left open to the air pressure of the
cockpit, which is generally the same as the pressure of the atmosphere. When this
venting arrangement is used, the relief valve of the engine-driven fuel pump is also vented
to the atmosphere, and the gage indicates the fuel pressure resulting from the adjusted
spring pressure only.
In order to dampen pressure pulsations that cause pointer fluctuation, a restrictor fitting (A)
is installed at the carburetor end of the fuel gage line. (See the Y connection shown in
figure). The second restrictor (B) meters fuel to the oil system during oil dilution. The
arrangement of these restrictors provides an indicated drop in fuel pressure when the oil
dilution system is used.
The oil-dilution system will be discussed thoroughly in the powerplant modules, and is
mentioned at this time only because the feel pressure indicator provides a means for a
cheek on the operation of other fuel system units.
In small aircraft the fuel pressure gage may be actuated by a Bourbon tube (an instrument
that converts changes in pressure to mechanical motion), or an aneroid and bellows type,
installed with a pressure line leading directly from the carburetor to the indicator.
On larger aircraft, where the fuel pressure gage is located some distance from the
carburetor, a transmitter is usually installed. The pressure transmitter may be a simple
cast metal cell that is divided into two chambers by a flexible diaphragm. Pressure
applied by the fuel source to the transmitter inlet pushes against the diaphragm and builds
up an equal pressure to a thin fluid (highly refined kerosene), which transfers the pressure
to the indicator mechanism.
Some installations, however, use electrical transmitters to register fuel pressure on the
gage. In this electrical arrangement, the pressure-indicating unit is contained in the
transmitter. Fuel pressure, acting upon the aneroid and bellows portion of the unit,
causes motion of one part of an electrical unit (the synchro transmitter).
As the unit turns, it causes a similar movement of a corresponding unit (the synchro
motor). This receiving unit actuates the indicator on the instrument panel. These
pressure and electrical arrangements make it unnecessary for combustible fuel to enter
the cockpit or flight deck, thereby reducing fire risk.
21
Fuel Systems
A fuel pressure gage often used with fuel injection systems on light aircraft engines is
illustrated in the following figure.
Fuel Pressure Gage for Fuel-Injection System
A gage of this type registers metered fuel pressure at the fuel injection unit distributor
valve and is a direct indication of engine power output when installed in a fuel injection
system for light aircraft engines. The dial of the gage is marked to indicate percent of
power.
The gage does not indicate either the engine-driven pump or the boost pump pressure.
Pressure warning signal in an aircraft with several tanks, there is always the possible
danger of allowing the fuel supply in one tank to become exhausted before the selector
valve is switched to another. To prevent this, pressure warning signals are installed in
some aircraft.
The complete installation, consists of a pressure-sensitive mechanism and a warning light.

The warning mechanism has both a fuel and an air connection. The connection marked
"fuel" is connected to the fuel pressure line of the carburetor. The air connection is vented
to either atmospheric or carburetor air inlet pressure. This arrangement prevents the
warning mechanism from acting in response to changes in the absolute pressure of the
fuel.
If, for example, the absolute pressure of the fuel decreases because of a change in
atmospheric or carburetor air inlet pressure, the-change is also reflected at the warning
mechanism, which then cancels the effects of the change.
22
Fuel Systems
Normal fuel pressure against the power surface of the diaphragm holds the electrical
contacts apart. When the fuel pressure drops below specified limits, the contacts close
and the warning light is turned on. This alerts the operator to take whatever action is
necessary to boost the fuel pressure.
Valve-in-Transit Indicator Lights
On large multiengine aircraft, each of the fuel crossfeed and line valves may he provided
with a valve-in-transit indicator light. This light is on only during the time the valve is in
motion and is off when movement is complete.
Fuel Temperature Indicator
A means for checking the temperature of the fuel in the tanks and at the engine is
provided on some turbine-powered aircraft.
During extreme cold, especially at altitude, the gage can be checked to determine when
fuel temperatures are approaching those at which there may be danger of ice crystals
forming in the fuel.
MULTIENGENE FUEL SYSTEMS

The design of the fuel system for an aircraft having two or more engines presents
problems not normally encountered in single-engine fuel systems.
A large number of tanks are often required to carry the necessary fuel. These tanks may
be located in widely separated parts of the aircraft, such as the fuselage and the inboard
and outboard sections of the wings.
The individual engine fuel systems must he interconnected so that fuel can be fed from
the various tanks to any engine.
In case of engine failure, the fuel normally supplied to the inoperative engine must be
made available to the others.
Crossfeed System
The twin-engine fuel system illustrated in figure is the simple crossfeed type.
23
Fuel Systems
Twin-Engine Crossfeed System Schematic
As shown, the tank selector valves are set to supply fuel from the main tanks to the
engines.
These valves can also be positioned to supply fuel from the auxiliary tanks. The
crossfeed valve is shown in the off position. It can also be set to supply fuel from the
fuselage tank to either or both engines and to crossfeed. A few of the numerous
combinations in which the three valves can be set are also illustrated.
Manifold System
The main feature of the four-engine system shown in figure below is the fuel manifold.
This fuel manifold system is actually a variation of the crossfeed.
As shown, fuel is being supplied from the main tanks directly to the engines. The manifold
valves can also be set so that all tanks feed into the manifold and each engine receives its
fuel supply from this line. The auxiliary fuel supply can be delivered to the engines only
through the manifold.
24
Fuel Systems
The main advantage of this system is its flexibility. Should an engine fail, its fuel is
immediately available to the other engines. If a tank is damaged, the corresponding
engine can be supplied with fuel from the manifold.
Another advantage of this system is that all fuel tanks can be serviced at the same time
through a single line manifold connection. This method of fuel servicing has greatly
reduced servicing time on large aircraft because fuel can be introduced into the fueling
manifold under high pressure.
A Typical Manifold Crossfeed System
FUEL JETTISON SYSTEMS

A fuel jettison system is required for transport category and general aviation aircraft if the
maximum take-off weight exceeds the maximum landing weight. The maximum take-off
and landing weights are design specifications and may be found in the aircraft Type
Certificate data sheets.
A fuel jettison system must be able to jettison enough fuel within 10 minutes for general
aviation, or 15 minutes for transport category aircraft, to meet the requirements of the
specifications and Federal Air Regulations. It must be operable under the conditions
encountered during all operations of the aircraft. Design requirements are that fuel
jettisoning must be stopped with a minimum of fuel for 45 minutes of cruise at maximum
continuous power for reciprocating engines. Turbine powered aircraft require enough fuel
for take-off and landing and 45 minutes cruising time.
25
Fuel Systems
The fuel jettisoning system is usually divided into two separate, independent systems,
one for each wing, so that lateral stability can he maintained by jettisoning fuel from the
"heavy" wing if it is necessary to do so.
Normally, if an unbalanced fuel load exists, fuel will be used from the "heavy" wing by
supplying fuel to engines on the opposite wing.
The system consists of fines, valves, dump chutes and chute-operating mechanisms.
Each wing contains either a fixed or an extendable dump chute depending upon system
design. In either case the fuel must discharge clear of the airplane.
TROUBLESHOOTING THE FUEL SYSTEM
In order to become proficient at the art of troubleshooting, one must be familiar with the
complete system. To do this, one can become familiar with the schematics of various
portions of the system, the nomenclature of the units, and their particular function within
the system by studying aircraft and engine maintenance manuals.
Location of Leaks and Defects
The location of leaks and defects within the internal portions of the fuel system is usually
a matter of observation of the pressure gage and operation of the selector valves to
determine where the trouble lies.
Troubleshooting of the internal fuel system can be aided by visualizing the path of flow of
the fuel from the fuel tank to the fuel-metering device, noting the location of the pump(s),
selector valves, emergency shutoff valves, etc.
The location of leaks or defects in the external portions of the fuel system involves very
little time in comparison to locating leaks within the internal system. Usually, fuel leaks
are evidenced by stains or wet spots, if they are newly developed, and by the presence of
fuel odor. The plumbing, clamps, gaskets, supports, etc., are to be examined carefully at
each inspection period. Any defect or leak in the internal or external fuel system is a
potential hazard.
Replacement of Gaskets, Seals, and Packings
In order to prevent leakage of fuel, it is of utmost importance that all gaskets, seals, and
packings be properly installed. Listed below are some of the general precautions that
should always be observed.
26
Fuel Systems
1. When replacing unit of the fuel system, it is necessary to cheek each part for
cleanliness, ensure that all of the old gasket material is removed, and ensure that
none of the old seal remains in the groove seat.
2. Always replace old gaskets and seals with new ones, cheek the new gaskets and
seals for cleanliness and integrity and ensure that it is the right part for the job.
3. Mating surfaces should be perfectly flat so that the, gasket can do the job for which it is
designed.
4. Screws, nuts, and bolts that hold units together should he evenly tightened or torqued
to prevent leakage past the gasket or seal.
FUEL TANK REPAIRS
There are three basic type fuel cells used in aircraft. Welded sheet metal and integral fuel
tanks, and fuel cell.
No fuel system is airworthy if it will not contain fuel. Inspection of the fuel tank bays or
aircraft structure for evidence of fuel leaks is a very important part of the preflight
inspection.
Welded Steel Tanks
Welded tanks are most common in the smaller single and twin engine aircraft. If the
access plates to the fuel tank compartment are discolored the tank should be inspected
for leaks. When leaks are found, the tank must be drained and inerted.
Fuel will be drained in accordance with local instructions and the manufacturer's
recommendations. Inerting the tank may be accomplished by slowly discharging a CO2
fire extinguisher (5 lb. minimum size) into the tank. Dry nitrogen may be used if it is
available.
If the tank is to be welded, removal is necessary. Before welding, the tank must be
steamed for a minimum of 8 hours. This is to remove all traces of fuel. Air pressure not
over 1/2 psi may be used to detect the leaking area. Liquid soap or bubble solution
brushed in the suspected area may identify the leak. Aluminum tanks are fabricated from
weldable alloys.
After riveting patches in place, the rivets may be welded to insure no leaks from that area.
Pressure checks should be performed after repairs are completed to assure that all leaks
were corrected.
27
Fuel Systems
Fuel Cells
Fuel cell leaks will usually appear on the lower skin of the aircraft. A fuel stain in any area
should be investigated immediately.
Fuel cells suspected of leaking should be drained, removed from the aircraft and pressure
checked. When performing a pressure check, 1/4 to 1/2 psi air pressure is adequate.
All fuel cell maintenance must be accomplished in accordance with the manufacturer's
specifications.
Integral Fuel Tanks
The integral tank is a non-removable part of the aircraft. Because of the nature of an
integral tank, some leaks allow fuel to escape directly to the atmosphere. This makes it
completely feasible to disregard certain minute leaks that do not represent a fire hazard or
too great a loss of fuel.
In order to standardize the procedures for integral tank fuel storage maintenance, the
various rates of fuel leakage are classified.
Fuel Leak Classification
The size of the surface area that a fuel leak moistens in a 30-minute period is used as the
classification standard. Wipe the leak area completely dry with clean cotton cloths.
Compressed air may also be used to dry the leak areas that are difficult to wipe. Wear
goggles when using compressed air to dry the leak area.
Dust the leak area with dyed red talcum powder. The talcum powder turns red as the fuel
wets it, making the wet area easier to see. At the end of 30 minutes, each leak is
classified into one of four classes of leaks:
1. Slow seep,
2. Seep,
3. Heavy seep,
4. Running leak.
28
Fuel Systems
The four classes of leaks are shown in figure.
Fuel Leak Classification
A slow seep is a leak in which the fuel wets an area around the leak source not over 3/4 of
an inch in diameter. A seep is a leak that wets an area from 3/4 inches to 1 1/2 inches in
diameter.
A heavy seep is a fuel leak that wets an area around the leak source from 1 1/2 inches to
3 inches in diameter.
In none of these three leak classifications does the fuel run, flow, drip, or resemble any of
these conditions at the end of the 30-minute time period.
The last classification, a running leak, is the most severe and the most dangerous. It may
drip from the aircraft surface, it may run down vertical surfaces, or it may even run down
your finger when you touch the wet area.
The aircraft is unsafe for flight and must be grounded for repair. When possible, the fuel
from the leaking tank should be removed after you mark the leak location. If it is
impossible to defuel the tank immediately, the aircraft should be isolated in an approved
area. Place appropriate warning signs around the aircraft until qualified personnel can
defuel the leaking tank.
29
Fuel Systems
Grounding of the aircraft for slow seeps, seeps, and heavy seeps is determined by the
applicable aircraft handbook. This determination may depend on the location of the fuel
leak.
For example, can the leakage progress to a potential fire source? The number of fuel
leaks in a given area is also a contributing factor. There is no rule of thumb for
determining if the aircraft is to be grounded. Running leaks ground the aircraft regardless
of location.
You may only have to make appropriate entries on the aircraft forms and periodically
observe the progress of the fuel leak if it is determined that the aircraft is airworthy and no
repair is required. When repair is required, you must find the cause of the fuel leak and
make an effective repair.
Leak Repairs
Repair of leaks in integral fuel tanks must be accomplished in accordance with the aircraft
manufacturer's specifications.
FIRE SAFETY
The first and most difficult step in the achievement of fire safety is to correct the
misconceptions about the "safety" of turbine fuels.
At the time these fuels were first introduced many people said, "fire problems in aircraft
are over, turbine fuel is completely safe." This is obviously nonsense but it has been
persistent nonsense.
Flight line personnel have agreed that aviation gasoline will burn, and therefore they have
exercised reasonable care and caution in handling it. However, it has been difficult to
convince them that under some circumstances turbine fuels are just as dangerous from
the fire standpoint.
The characteristics of turbine fuel do vary from those of gasoline. Kerosene, for example,
has a slow flame propagation and burning rate, which makes it less hazardous in the
event of spill or a ground accident. However, it does ignite readily when vaporized or
when misted, as when sprayed through a small leak in a service hose.
One disadvantage of the low volatility fuels is that they will not evaporate readily and
completely if spilled on the ramp, so special treatment of the spill area is required. Small
spills of kerosene should be removed with a commercial absorbent cleaning agent.
30
Fuel Systems
On large spills it is better to apply an approved emulsifier and then flush away the
resulting mixture with large volumes of water. This will prevent or appreciably lessen any
oily residue. Just as with gasoline, an electrostatic charge may be built up in pumping
turbine fuel through a service hose. In fact, the amount of the charge is higher in
kerosene because of the higher specific gravity and wider boiling range. Also, the amount
of the charge increases with high linear rate of fuel flow, such as is required for servicing
turbine powered aircraft.
In consequence, all of the fire safety precautions observed in the handling of gasoline
must be followed with equal care in the handling of turbine fuels.
31
HKAR66 Module 11b Airframe Structures
General Concepts
ENGINEERS' INSPECTION RESPONSIBILITY

If you are changing a component or testing a part 'in situ', it is your undoubted
responsibility to inspect the surrounding structure for signs of corrosion, fretting,
cracking, pitting and a good deal more.
When you have found a structural defect, you must enter the defect in the Log or
appropriate sheet so that it can be rectified in accordance with the Approved Drawing.
DEFINITIONS OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Certain terms are commonly used in connection with aircraft construction, definitions of
these terms follow:
Longeron
Main longitudinal member of a fuselage or nacelle.
The best example of a longeron is the seat rail in a passenger aircraft. The seats are
fixed to the rail and they are subject to heavy contamination due to spilt liquids such as
coffee and soft drinks.
Tie Rod (Tension Rod)
Member taking a tensile load.
They are used as support structure in securing heavy components to the primary
members. They usually have an eye end with integral bearings.
Strut
Member taking a compressive load.
They are seen in tubular engine mounting structure. The strut is under compressive
loads when attached to the underside of the engine, the weight of the engine providing
the compressive force.
Stressed Skin (Semimonocoque)
Structure where loads are shared between skin and framework.
Frame
Lateral fuselage or nacelle member giving cross-sectional shape, which is often circular.
May be reinforced where attachments, e.g. mainplanes, are made.
1
General Concepts
Rib
A fore-and-aft structural member of an aerofoil which has the primary purpose of

maintaining the correct contour of the covering but is usually also a stress bearing
component of the main structure.
Spar
The main spanwise member of an aerofoil. Frequently consists of an upper and lower
boom separated by a web.
Stringer
Stiffener which assists sheet materials to carry loads along their length. With integral
construction they are machined or etched out of the skin panel.
Bulkhead
A partition within the structure. Usually lateral but can be longitudinal. If it forms the
boundary of pressurised structure it is called a pressure bulkhead.
Manufacturers Joint (UK) Or Production Break (USA)
Many aircraft are built in sections, which are then assembled to one another. The joints
are given different names according to the country of origin.
Station Numbers
Numbers allocated to certain components, e.g. frames and ribs, to indicate their
positions within the structure. The numbers may represent in inches the distance from
a datum point, which could be the fuselage, nose or the wing root.
Safe Life
The period during which it is considered that failure of a component is extremely

unlikely. When deciding its duration the effects of wear, fatigue and corrosion must be
considered. If tests show that fatigue will cause failure in 12,000 flying hours, then one
sixth of this might be quoted as the safe life. If wear or corrosion is likely to cause failure
before 12,000 hours then it will be the deciding factor. Life may be expressed in flying
hours, elapsed time, number of flights or number of applications of load.
2
General Concepts
Fail Safe Structure
A structure which retains, after the initiation of a fracture or crack, sufficient strength for
the operation of the aircraft with an acceptable standard of safety, until such failure is
detected by normal inspection.
Crack Stopper
A reinforcing member normally placed at right angles to the path of an anticipated crack,
which will reduce the rate of further propagation.
Aerodynamic Loading
The loads imposed on an aircraft in flight.
Static Loading
The loads imposed on an aircraft when stationary.
Monocoque
Fuselage or nacelle in which all structural loads are carried by the skin.
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
For the purpose of assessing damage and the type of repair to be carried out the
structure of all aircraft is divided into three categories:
1. Primary structure,
2. Secondary structure,
3. Tertiary structure.
Diagrams are prepared by each manufacturer to denote how the various structural
members fall into these three categories. Some manufacturers use a colour code
others employ shadings.
In the colour code:
1. Red denotes primary structure,

2. Yellow denotes secondary structure,
3. Green denotes tertiary structure.
3
General Concepts
This colour code is now no longer used in modern Structural Repair Manuals as the use
of colour has been discontinued in all manuals under an international agreement.
However, there are still many aircraft remaining that have been in service since before
this agreement so you might still find manuals which identify the structural classification
with colour.
Primary Structure
Primary structure includes all portions of aircraft, the failure of which in flight or on the
ground would be likely to cause:
1. Catastrophic structural collapse or loss of control,

2. Power unit failure,
3. Injury to occupants,
4. Unintentional operation of, or inability to operate essential equipment or services.
Examples of primary structure include:
1. Main spars.
2. Engine bearers.
3. Main floor members.
4. Frames.
Two examples of primary structural members

4
General Concepts
Secondary Structure
This structure includes all portions of the aircraft which would normally be regarded as
primary structure, but which unavoidably have such a reserve of strength over design
requirements that appreciable weakening may be permitted without risk of failure. It
also includes structure, which if damaged would not impair the safety of the aircraft in
any manner specified above.
Examples of secondary structure include:
1. Skin and stringers in the fuselage,

2. Ribs and parts of the skin in the mainplane.
Primary and secondary structures in a typical wing
5
General Concepts
Tertiary Structure
This type of structure includes all portions of the structure in which stresses are low, but
which for various reasons cannot be omitted from the aircraft. Typical examples include
fairings and brackets, which support items in the fuselage. I.e., toilet rolls and soap
dishes etc.
AIRCRAFT FLOORS
Flight Deck Floors
These are primary structure as there are usually no floor beams to support them. They
are made from light alloy and have sufficient strength when fixed to other structural
members to withstand operational stresses.
Cabin Floors
The pressurised fuselage area is provided with flooring in the upper deck, main deck,
and lower lobe areas.
Typical floor structure consists of horizontal and transverse beams attached to the
fuselage frames. Local area variations from this floor structure include the control cabin,
stairwell, centre wing box and the wing and body wheel well areas.
Typical Cabin Floor
6
General Concepts
Multi Floor Aircraft
Some aircraft have more than one floor as can be seen from figure. The floors are often
made of a composite material such as aluminium honeycomb. The honeycomb may be
made from an:
1. Aluminium core,
2. Balsa wood filler.
Aluminium Honeycomb Floor
These assemblies are made from adhesive bonded aluminium skin and honeycomb
core.
Typical Honeycomb
The floors are located in recesses provided and screwed to the structure. The recesses
are provided in the longitudinal and lateral floor members. Both are classified as
primary structure.
Seat Rails
The seat rails form part of the longerons and are extremely vulnerable to corrosion from
spilled liquids by the passengers above. Great care must be taken when assessing
damage to seat rails as their structural integrity must not be degraded.
The upper deck floor consists of floor panels with facing sheets supported by floor
beams in the forward area and by floor beams and seat tracks in the lounge area.
The main compartment floor consists of floor panels with facing sheets supported by
seat rails in the longitudinal direction and by floor beams in the transverse direction.
On some airplanes, blowout panels are installed in the floor under selected passenger
seats.
7
General Concepts
The blowout panels are installed to prevent a dangerous difference in load occurring if
there should be a sudden decompression. The strain caused by the aircraft's
pressurisation system should be nil across the floors as the pressure should be the
same on either side. If there were a decompression, the blowout panels will provide
venting and therefore equalise any difference immediately.
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Most of the sheet metal stock used in the structure of the airplane is aluminium alloy. In
addition, significant amounts of sheet stock corrosion resistant steel alloys, titanium
alloys and steel alloys are used.
Aluminium Alloys
The word "clad" preceding the material designation indicates that a protective coating of
pure aluminium has been applied prior to completion of the final rolling process of the
material.
The most commonly used aluminium alloy sheet materials are 2024-T3 and 7075-T6.
2024-T3 7075-T6
Good fatigue resistance. Stronger material (tensile strength).

May be formed in the heat-treated Usually formed in the annealed
condition. condition (7075-0) and then heat-
May be skin-dimpled at room treated.
temperature. Heated tools must be used for dimpling
Has smaller minimum bend radius. to prevent cracking
The 7075-T6 material must be handled very carefully, because even slight damage
such as scratches, burrs and nicks has a detrimental effect upon its fatigue strength.
8
General Concepts
Four Digit Index Systems
Aluminium alloys are designated by symbols of the Aluminium Association new

standard four-digit index system.
The heat-treat condition of the material is indicated by a "T" number that follows the
alloy designation.
2024 - T3
Alloy designation Heat treat condition
"0" following the alloy designation indicates that the material is in the annealed
condition. Although the sheet metal may be received and formed in the annealed
condition, no heat-treatable alloy shall be used in the annealed condition, but shall be
heat-treated before installation in the airplane.
British Specification
Table shows part of a British Specification showing how aluminium alloys are identified
using the British Specification code I'm sure you have heard of L72 and L73 - well here
you are:
B.S. Aircraft Form Temper or Condition

2L.70 Sheet and strip Solution treated
2L.71 Sheet and strip Solution and precipitation treated
2L.72 Clad sheet and strip Solution treated
2L.73 Clad sheet and strip Solution and precipitation treated
Aluminum Alloys to British Specification
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium alloys are similar in appearance to aluminium alloys. Magnesium weighs

two-thirds as much as aluminium; for this reason magnesium alloys are used in the
structure in certain low stress applications with resultant saving in weight of the airplane.
Magnesium alloys can be machined with tools designated for use on steel or brass,
provided cutting edges are sharp.
Note that they must not be used where contact with methyl alcohol is possible, such as
in liquid de-icing and water injection systems. Do not use magnesium parts in integral
fuel tank areas.
9
General Concepts
Precautions
1. Small particles and fine shavings of magnesium ignite easily and present an
extreme fire hazard. Magnesium dust is highly flammable, and in the proper
concentration may cause an explosion.
2. Water in contact with molten magnesium presents a steam explosion hazard.
3. Extinguish fire of magnesium with absolutely dry talc, calcium carbonate, sand or
graphite by applying the powder to a depth of 1/2 inch or more over the burning
metal.
4. Do not use foam, water, carbon tetrachloride or carbon dioxide.
Titanium Alloy
Titanium alloy resembles corrosion resistant steel and is comparable to it in strength, it

weighs about 56 percent of the weight of steel.
A protective coating is not required because its corrosion resistance is very good;
however, it is cathodic to magnesium and aluminium and must be insulated from them
in a similar manner to corrosion resistant steel.
Fire hazards when working with titanium alloy are similar to those described for
magnesium, and the same fire extinguishing methods shall be used.
METAL FORMING
Bending
When we make a bend in sheet metal using a radius, the metal cuts across the corner.
The metal on the inside of the bend shrinks, and that on the outside stretches.
Sheet Metal Bending

10
General Concepts
To find the actual amount of material used in the bend, a bend allowance formula may
be used.
Aluminium alloy sheet is susceptible to cracking when bent round small radii. Table
below shows the minimum radius of bending for sheet and strip material of various
gauges and in different conditions of heat treatment. This table is applicable to the
duralumin and alclad groups of light alloys, but can be used as a guide in the bending of
all specifications of aluminium alloy.
Bend bars or a bending machine may be used to form bends.
Condition of material Minimum Radius of Bending

18 s.w.g. or thinner 18 s.w.g. or over
o o o
0 -120 Over 120 0 -120o
o
Over 120o
1 1
After Annealing T 1T T 1T
2 2
Within 2 hours of 1 1 1
T 1 T 1 T 2T
normalizing (Soltreat) 2 2 2
1
Normalized and aged 2T 3T 2 T 3T
2
T thickness of sheet or strip
Minimum Bend Radius
Joggling
To obtain a flush finish to layered surfaces, with greater rigidity and stiffness to the joint,
one edge may be joggled. The joggling tool used in repair work consists of two metal
blocks fitted with dowels or bolts to ensure correct alignment and metal strips to build up
the depth of the materials. Light alloys of the Duralumin group must be heat treated
prior to joggling.
Joggles should be formed by placing the material in the tool, and squeezing up in a
vice. Alternatively, the dowels may be replaced by nuts and bolts, and the nuts
tightened. If more than one joggle is to be made, righting lines are essential on both the
tool and one of the repair materials to ensure that the joggles are similar.
11
General Concepts
Joggled Joint
Rolling
Aircraft skins have to be curved to fit the fuselage frames and longeron rakes. This is
done by rolling.
Three hard-steel rollers are used, with the separation between two of them adjustable
for the thickness of the material being rolled, and the third roller adjustable to control the
radius of the curve. The clamp-roll may be opened so the material is able to slide off
the rollers when a complete cylinder has been formed.
When forming a curved skin, the material is run through the rollers and the radius roll
adjusted to form the required curvature of the sheet.
12
General Concepts
Typical Roller for Sheet Metal
Lightening Holes
Weight is one of the most critical factors in aircraft construction and every pound saved
may be used as a pound of payload. Many structural members have a great amount of
weight saved by the use of lightening holes.
Flanging Die Used for Lightening Holes
When forming a lightening hole, make one hole with a fly cutter, smoothing the edges
so there will be no cracks or scratches that could cause a tear when the metal is
stretched. Use a flanging die made of steel or hardwood, and centre the hole in the
metal over the male die; then force the dies together in an arbor press or vice.
13
General Concepts
Wing Rib Lightening Holes
These holes range in diameter from about one inch up to around three inches and are
flanged to provide rigidity to the structure.
Lightening Holes in A Wing Rib
FAIL SAFE
The design of a safe aircraft structure is extremely complex, and evolves over a period
of time, supported mainly by full-scale airframe testing, fatigue analysis and service
experience. This method is commonly known as the fail safe method. The fail safe
method relies upon a duplication of certain structural members to ensure that if one
member failed, the other would assume the load of the failed member.
DAMAGE TOLERANCE
The fail safe method is rather old and outdated, the main drawback in the fail safe
concept was the additional weight required by the addition of extra structural members
to protect the integrity of the structure. The fail safe concept has now been reflected in
new design ideas and is incorporated in the concept of damage tolerance which has
eliminated the extra structural members by distributing the loading of a particular
structure over a larger area.
The damage tolerance design concept requires an evaluation of the structure to ensure
that should serious damage, that is cracking or partial failure, occur within the
operational life of the aircraft, the remaining structure can withstand reasonable loads
without failure until the damage is detected.
14
General Concepts
In simple terms, the structure is designed so that damage can be detected during the
normal inspection cycles, before a failure occurs. A typical example of this design
concept is shown.
Damage tolerance design feature
The figure above shows a wing to body attachment with the old design and new
damage tolerance design. In the old pin connection all the load is taken by the pin,
causing fatigue problems because all the fluctuating loads had to be taken at a single
point, the pin. In this case the structure had to be reinforced to accommodate the pin
attachment - more weight!
The new design is to do away with the pin, and have a fixed joint the whole depth of the
spar to give a better load transference and minimise the fatigue problem. By having
numerous fasteners the fail safe concept is maintained and fatigue cracking will be
evident by the degraded fasteners before total failure occurs, this is an example of
damage tolerance.
15
General Concepts
Another type of fail safe structure is one, which follows the multiple load path concept.
In this method, large, heavy and highly stressed members are avoided, the loads are
carried by small members, each supporting only a small percentage of the total. A
failure of one load member will not degrade the structure as the other members will take
over the support function.
A typical example of the multiple load path concept is a hinge aileron attachment. The
following figure illustrates typical examples of fail safe/damage tolerance structures
related to primary and secondary support members.
A Hinge Aileron Attachment
A further method of achieving damage tolerance is by the use of crack limiting joints.
Parts of the structure are designed with special structural joints, which will limit the
spread of cracks, but will also ensure that these cracks can be detected during normal
structural inspection cycles.
The fail safe concept is not restricted to structural components, for example,
consider the passenger cabin window. These windows must be able to take the full
cabin pressurisation loads imposed upon them during flight.
In the illustration, depicting a typical passenger window arrangement, the outer and
inner panes are both capable of taking loads far in excess of the pressurisation
loads. If the outer pane should fail, then the inner pane will continue to take all
loading, hence fail safe.
16
General Concepts
Typical Window Assembly
FATIGUE
If an increasing load is applied to a piece of material, a value of the load will eventually
be reached at which the material fractures. This is the ultimate static load the material
can take. In most cases this situation will not apply to the structure of the aircraft.
If we assume that only a fraction of the ultimate static load is applied to the aircraft, then
the structure may bend or stretch but will not break. Once the load has been removed,
the structure reverts back to its normal shape. The loading cycle may be repeated
many times and each time the structure reverts back to its original shape.
On visual inspection there would seem to be no degrading of the structure, but if this
cycle loading were to continue a sufficient number of times, the material will break.
17
General Concepts
This phenomenon of fracturing after a series of cyclic loads, maybe much less than the
ultimate load, is known as fatigue.
FATIGUE TESTING
The aircraft manufacturer's design department will attempt to design an aircraft to take
into account all the loads that it may experience in flight. There are various guidelines,
formulas and experience to guide them in the design of a good fail safe/damage tolerant
structure. However, as most aircraft are designed to have at least a twenty year life,
waiting to see if they have got the design right, may be a long and drawn out process.
Fatigue testing is carried out on an aircraft structure taken from the production line. It is
then subjected to varying stresses and loads of the type and value to which it would be
subjected in normal life. By carrying out this type of testing on a continuous basis, the
structure will be subjected to fatigue effects which are equivalent to many thousands of
actual flying hours, in a fairly short period of time.
The amount that the test structure is deflected, and the rate at which the stress forces
oscillate, is controlled by a computer. The computer is programmed with details of the
all-up weight, the operational height, the aircraft airspeed and the loads that may be
imposed on the aircraft by atmospheric conditions and maneuvers.
After a period of testing, the structure is minutely inspected for signs of failure or
degradation. The results of the tests, together with the data available for the structural
materials, enable an accurate prediction to be made of how long, in terms of aircraft life
and total fatigue, the aircraft can safely remain in service. The aircraft, or parts of it, is
then scheduled for replacement before its safe life is exhausted.
The recording of fatigue life is not necessary on large modern aircraft as the structural
design includes measures to ensure that the airframe life will last indefinitely. The only
constraint would relate to the cost effectiveness of replacing corroded or worn structural
members.
Some aircraft, in particular military aircraft, use a fatigue indexing system. The safe life
or fatigue life of a particular aircraft is given in terms of a fatigue index, which is usually
fatigue index 100. A higher fatigue index can be given if the airframe has been
subjected to further tests or if major structural parts have been replaced. To determine
the amount of fatigue index used for a particular flight requires that a fatigue meter be
fitted to the aircraft.
18
General Concepts
Typical Fatigue Meter
The fatigue meter measures the varying loads imposed upon the airframe by the action
of manoeuvres, landings or atmospheric conditions, and converts them into 'G' loads
which are recorded by the fatigue meter. On landing the 'G' load figures are recorded
and a calculation of the amount of fatigue life consumed during that flight is made.
PRESSURE LOADED COMPONENTS

Passenger comfort is one of the major factors that airlines have to ensure, if they wish
to attract their customers and remain in business! The modern airliner is designed to
carry many passengers over vast distances, and to ensure their comfort. The
passengers are normally enclosed in a pressurised fuselage.
The fuselage has to be designed in such a way that it can withstand the varying
stresses and loads that it may be subjected to during its normal operational life.
One of the major stresses that the cabin is subjected to is the difference between inside
and outside air pressure, this difference can be as much as 9 psi. Therefore the cabin
must be structurally designed to withstand these enormous loads.
19
General Concepts
PRESSURE CABIN STRUCTURE

The pressure cabin can be considered as a thin walled tube.
The stresses that it will be subjected to are due to the tensile load which results from the
internal pressure trying to expand the cross sectional diameter of the tube, (hoop stress)
and the longitudinal stress which tends to try to stretch the tube.
To counteract the problem of longitudinal stress, a pressure bulkhead arrangement is

used. These pressure bulkheads form the strong airtight ends of the pressure cabin.
On large aircraft the pressure bulkheads are often domed, so they can withstand
pressure loading without deformation.
Rear Pressure Bulkhead

20
General Concepts
The bulkhead is made up of various sections, riveted together, thus improving its load
carrying capabilities. This form of construction also prevents the assembly from
stretching.
Normally the forward bulkhead is within the cockpit area and is generally smaller than
the rear bulkhead.
The major difference observed in a pressurised structure as opposed to an

unpressurized assembly is the arrangement of the structural members.
A typical pressurised cabin arrangement includes:
1. Frames,
2. Bulkheads,
3. Stringers,
4. Opening support frames.
This type of aircraft structure is known as primary structure and is essential to the
integrity of the aircraft.
Typical Pressure Cabin Structure
The frames throughout the cabin structure are designed to carry the pressure loads in
hoop tensions.
These frames are generally equally spaced along the fuselage length. Attached to
these frames are stringer assemblies, which are primary structure, and run
longitudinally along the length of the fuselage. The stringers, which pass through the
frames, are attached by brackets or cleats.
Note that stringers do not pass through pressure bulkheads, as this would create a
major sealing problem. The type of stringer used is up to the designer and
manufacturer, however a few examples are shown:
21
General Concepts
Attachment of Stringer to Frame
Finally the skin is riveted to the stringers and frame assemblies. This form of structure
adds rigidity to the fuselage, and the addition of the stringers prevents the skin buckling
under the differential pressure loads.
Typical Pressure Cabin Structure
22
General Concepts
CABIN WINDOW CONSTRUCTION

The design and construction of windscreens that are subjected to internal cabin
pressures vary from one aircraft manufacturer to another. A window is usually
constructed of layers of glass, vinyl, acrylic plastics and other polyester materials.
These layers are all bonded together to make a complete one piece windscreen.
Normally the outer layer has a thin chemically toughened layer that is abrasive resistant.
Sandwiched between the layers are electrical heating elements for anti-ice protection.
Attaching the windscreen to the structure can be achieved in two ways, the screen can
fit into a housing in the structure and be fixed into place by retaining strips, or as in the
figure, can be assembled into an integral frame, which is bolted to the structure.
Typical Windscreen Construction

23
General Concepts
PASSENGER WINDOW ASSEMBLY
The passenger cabin window is designed differently from its cockpit counterpart. The
cabin window is not subjected to the ram effect of airflow during forward flight.
However, because it is in a passenger cabin area, it is subjected to certain design

requirements that are known as 'fail safe'. The windows are designed as a plug type
window, and are required to withstand only the pressure acting upon them. The window
assembly is normally designed with two panes, an inner and outer pane assembled into
a window frame. The passenger window frames are attached to the fuselage window
openings and act as a load distribution point. A figure represents a typical fuselage
window cutout with the window frames attached.
Fuselage Window Cutout
A typical window installation sequence is illustrated. The inner pane and outer pane are
both capable of taking the full cabin pressurisation load. In the event of the inner pane
failing the outer pane acts as a 'fail safe' structure, preventing the loss of cabin
pressurisation.
24
General Concepts
Typical plug Type Cabin Window
Both panes are retained in the window frame structure by a series of clips that are
attached to the frame. It is these clips that hold the window in place, they are not part of
the structural strength of the assembly.
Note that cabin air pressure keeps the window in place during flight.
25
General Concepts
PRESSURE CABIIN DOOR
Pressure cabin doors normally take the form of a plug type door. When in the closed
position the door is larger than the opening, so that the cabin pressure during flight
keeps the door in a closed position. The door is opened by manually operating the
centrally located handle, which causes an internal mechanism within the door to unlock
the latch locks that retain the door against the structure. The door is then swung
through the opening and is stowed externally against the exterior skin.
Pressure Cabin Door Opening Sequence
The loss of air from the pressure cabin must be kept to a minimum. Air seals are fitted
to windows and windscreens to ensure that air loss is prevented. These seals can be
either pre-formed rubber or made up from a sealing compound.
Cabin Door Sealing
Moveable exits however do great sealing problems. Some aircraft may use inflatable
seals, using air from the aircraft pneumatic system, but the simplest method is shown in
the following figure:
26
General Concepts
Pressure Cabin Door Sealing Detail
This type of seal has a tube assembly incorporated into which the cabin pressure is
allowed to enter to keep the faces of the tube against both the door and the door
structure thus providing an efficient air seal.
CONTROL CABLE SEALING
The points at which control tubes and cables pass in or out of the pressure cabin must
be adequately sealed against air leakage, whilst at the same time allowing movement
and self alignment with a minimum of resistance.
One such device consists of a rubber bellows, which moves with the control.
Control Cable Sealing
27
General Concepts
This arrangement is used with control system which use twin cables, as the cabin
pressure acting on the bellows causes a load on the control which must be balanced by
an equal opposing load.
FASTENERS AND JOINT METHODS

Fasteners fall into two main groups:
1. Rivets
2. Special Fasteners
Rivets
This part will consider the following hollow or self-sealing rivets:
1. Chobert
2. Avdel
3. Tubular
4. 'Pop' or Tucker
5. Cherry.
Note:
It is most important that the correct tools are used with the types of rivets mentioned, a
variety of tools being available for each type of rivet. Power tools are normally used by
aircraft manufacturers, but hand tools are often used with the smaller rivet sizes for
repair work.
1. Chobert Rivets
Chobert rivets are manufactured with either snap or countersunk heads, and are
normally supplied in tubes for ease of assembly on the mandrel.
The action of closing a Chobert rivet is shown, initial movement of the mandrel down the
tapered bore forming the head and subsequent movement expanding the shank to fill
the rivet hole. Sealing pins are an interference fit in the rivet bore and, apart from
increasing shear strength, will prevent the ingress of moisture.
28
General Concepts
Closing Chobert Rivets
The anti-corrosive treatment for Chobert rivets is either cadmium plating or anodizing.
A range of Chobert rivets with oversize shanks is also available and may be used for
repair work on aircraft. This is an advantage when rivets have been removed, since the
increase in diameter is of the order 0.0l5 to 0.020 inches, depending on rivet size, so
that repositioning of holes or re-stressing of joints is unnecessary.
2. Avdel Rivets
These rivets are similar to Chobert rivets, but each is fitted with its own stem (mandrel),
the component parts being referred to as the body and stem respectively. The stem is
pulled into the body to close the rivet and, at a predetermined load, breaks proud of the
manufactured head, leaving part of the stem inside the body in the form of a plug.
Excess stem material may be nipped off and milled flush with the rivet head when
required, e.g. on external surfaces, but stainless steel and titanium rivet stems break
flush with the rivet head at the maximum grip range limit, and milling may not be
necessary. The action of closing an Avdel rivet is shown:
Closing Advel Rivets

29
General Concepts
Strength
The shear strength of Avdel rivets is similar to that of solid rivets, and is somewhat
greater than that of Chobert rivets of similar material and size.
Caution
Avdel rivets are lubricated by the manufacturer to facilitate the forming of the rivet and
on no account should the rivets be cleaned in solvent before use. The lubricants used
are specially prepared for each type to obtain consistent results.
3. Pop Or Tucker Rivets
Tucker Pop rivets are manufactured with either domed or countersunk heads, and are
supplied threaded on individual mandrels. There are, basically, two different types of
rivet, known as standard (open) and sealed. The action of closing both types of rivet is
shown:
Closing Tucker Pop Rivets
30
General Concepts
Break Head And Break Stem
The mandrels of standard type rivets are of two types, namely break head and break
stem. With the former type the mandrel head separates from the formed rivet, but with
the latter the head is retained in the rivet bore and provides a measure of sealing. The
break head rivets are not widely used on aircraft due to the difficulty of recovering
broken mandrel heads.
Short and long break mandrels
The mandrels of sealed type rivets are also of two types, the short break and the long
break. The short break mandrel breaks immediately under the head, but the long break
mandrel breaks outside the rivet, thus greatly increasing shear strength of the rivet and
providing a flush finish when the protruding stem is nipped off.
'Pop' rivet tools
A wide variety of tools is available for closing 'Pop' rivets, ranging from plier type hand
tools to pneumatically or hydraulically operated power tools. A range of
interchangeable heads for these tools permits closing the rivets where access is
restricted.
4. Tubular Rivets
Tubular rivets were, at one time, quite often used on tubular structures, such as engine
mountings or fuselage frames, for joining tubes to fittings, or for repair work. These
parts are now more often welded or fixed with taper pins, but tubular rivets may still be
found on a number of aircraft. These rivets are closed by hammering, using specially
shaped punches and snaps, and care is necessary to prevent buckling the rivet or tube.
To prevent buckling and to maintain the tube shape, distance tubes are often used.
5. Cherry Rivets
These are rivets of American manufacture and are very similar to Avdel rivets, except
that the stem is positively locked in the rivet bore. During the final stages of forming, a
locking collar, located in a recess in the rivet head, is forced into a groove in the stem,
and prevents the stem from further movement.
31
General Concepts
Closing of cherry rivets
Alternative Types Of Head
Alternative types of blind head may be formed, and these are known as 'standard' and
'bulbed'. The only practical difference between these types is that the bulbed rivet stem
has a stepped head, and the finished blind head is flatter and broader than the standard
head.
After forming, the stem of the Cherry rivet protrudes slightly beyond the rivet head, and
is milled flush.
Cherry Rivet Tools
Cherry rivets are installed using hand or power operated tools, and it is important that
the tools are fitted with the correct type of head for the particular size or type of rivet.
Details are normally supplied by either the aircraft or tool manufacturer.
Identification
Cherry rivets are identified by a four figure number followed by a figure indicating the
diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch, and a further figure indicating the maximum grip in
sixteenths of an inch.
32
General Concepts
SPECIAL FASTENERS
These include:
1. Hi-shear
2. Avdelok
3. Jo-bolts.
They are all closed by means of a collar, which is swaged into grooves in the fastener
shank or expanded over the shank to form a blind head. The fasteners are generally
used instead of bolts and present a considerable saving in weight.
Hi-shear
The fasteners are normally closed by hammering a special Hi-shear set against the
collar, the pin head being supported by a dolly, but squeeze or reaction riveting may
also be used if the normal method is impracticable.
Avdelok
The plain shank of these fasteners should be approximately equal to the thickness to be
joined. The fasteners are normally closed by power operated tools, the gripping jaws
pulling on the shank and the nose piece pushing against the collar, first clamping the
plates together and then swaging the collar into grooves on the shank. When swaging
is complete the pin shears approximately level with the collar.
Closing Avelok Fasteners
Avdelok fasteners are identified by a code system similar to that used for Chobert and
Avdel rivets, namely a four figure product code and a four figure size code.
33
General Concepts
Jo-Bolts
Although Jo-bolts may be classified as blind rivets, the method of closing is different
from the methods previously discussed. The complete item consists of a threaded bolt
with a round head, a rivet shaped nut and a sleeve, assembled as illustrated.
Closing Jo-Bolts
Rotation of the bolt forces the sleeve up the tapered nut shank, clamping the materials
to be joined, and at a predetermined load the bolt shears just inside the nut head
leaving, virtually, a solid steel rivet in the hole.
Different adaptors for the tools must be used for each size and type of Jo-bolt.
Rivnuts
These are a form of blind rivet which, can be used as an anchor nut, the internal bore
being threaded to receive a bolt or screw.
When Rivnuts have a locating key to prevent rotation, the keyway should be cut with a
special tool supplied by the nut manufacturer. To close Rivnuts the threaded mandrel of
the special tool is screwed into the nut, and when the tool is operated the nut shank
bulges towards the far side of the work to form a blind head as shown.
34
General Concepts
Closing rivnuts
When the mandrel is removed a fixed nut is left in the structure and may be used for the
attachment of de-icing boots, floor coverings and other non-structural parts.
PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING FASTENERS
When using hollow rivets or special fasteners, the following precautions must be
observed:
1. After marking out, ensure conformity with the repair scheme or the riveting methods
used elsewhere on the aircraft.
2. After drilling, confirm the position of holes and ensure that hole size and condition
are suitable for the type of rivet to be used.
3. After countersinking or dimpling, check the mating of the parts involved, the
condition of the countersink or dimple, and the flushness of rivet heads.
4. After final assembly prior to riveting, confirm the fit of the component and condition
of any protective treatments.
5. After riveting, ensure that rivets are satisfactorily formed and that there has been no
significant distortion of the parts and, where specified, that jointing compound has
been correctly applied.
JOINTING COMPOUNDS
After components have been prepared for riveting, the mating surfaces are normally
given a coat of jointing compound or sealant before final assembly. The purpose of the
jointing compound is to inhibit electrolytic action between materials of different electrical
potential and prevent the ingress of moisture, whereas a sealant (normally a
polysulphide type synthetic rubber) is used to seal joints in fuel tanks and pressurised
compartments.
35
General Concepts
Application
Jointing compound should be applied in a thin even film, just sufficient to ensure that all
mating surfaces, including rivets, are adequately covered, but sealant should normally
be applied in a layer approximately 0.030 inch thick so that it exudes from the joint when
it is closed.
CLOSE TOLERANCE FASTENERS
The use of close tolerance fasteners is an important feature in aircraft construction.

Such fasteners can take the form of bolts with retaining nuts or be special type fastening
bolts that require special tools and equipment to fit them.
Close tolerance fasteners are normally used for major structural assemblies such as
wing to fuselage joints, engine pylon to wing joints, undercarriage assemblies etc.,
where the components are not considered removable except for major repair or
overhaul. The close tolerance fastener is an 'interference fit', that is to say the hole is
slightly smaller than the diameter of the fastener and requires to be forced under
pressure on installation. The use of close tolerance fasteners removes the possibility of
'play' in the joint.
Another important point during the construction of aircraft is related to the correct
sealing of the structure, wings and components within the pressure cabin.
Close Tolerance Fasteners
Before we begin by looking at the types of close fastener, we shall consider the concept
of close tolerance design. In the table we can see that the fastener hole is classified
into four categories. The close tolerance fastener is featured in the first two, close
ream, and Class I holes, depending upon the type of fastener used.
HOLE CLASSIFICATION FASTENER APPLICATION
LOCKBOLTS AND HI-LOCKS

CLOSE REAM CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS WITH < 4 FASTENERS IN THE
JOINT.
STANDARD BOLTS AND CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS WITH 4 OR
CLASS I MORE FASTENERS IN THE JOINT.
BOLTS ATTACHING REMOVABLE PANELS.
CLASS II
BOLTS ATTACHING REMOVABLE PANELS, WHICH ARE NOT
CLASS III INTENDED TO PICK UP ANY STRUCTURAL LOADS.
36
General Concepts
The close tolerance fastener hole, either a close ream or Class I hole, is an interference
fit hole. The value or measurement of the interference fit or tolerance as it is sometimes
known, is about 0.002 inches up to holes 1/2 inch in diameter and increasing to 0.0025
inches on holes larger than 1/2 inch diameter.
Consider the figure below. Because the shaft is larger in diameter than the hole, some
sort of force will be required to assemble the bolt. This can be provided by either
hydraulic, or pressure (hammer) means depending upon the amount of tolerance
between the shaft and hole.
Close tolerance bolts require extremely close fits, and may be found in critical structural
joints and junctions. It is very important that you are able to identify these bolts.
A figure illustrates typical examples of close tolerance bolt markings. The type of thread
is indicated by a raised round disc on the head of the bolt and this marking applies to
both BSF and Unified. This also is applicable to close tolerance bolts of American
manufacture.
37
General Concepts
Close Tolerance Bolt Identification
Where possible the replacement of a close tolerance bolt should be with another bolt of
the same type and material. However, access to the airframe structure may make only
one side of the structure easily accessible. As an alternative to the close tolerance bolt
in this case, it is permissible to use a blind type, self locking fastener. In this case they
can be:
1. Lockbolts,
2. Hi-lok fasteners.
NOTE: Before using an alternative close tolerance fastener check with the relevant
Maintenance or Structural Repair Manual.
38
General Concepts
LOCKBOLTS
The lockbolt is not a bolt in the true sense, it is a form of shear pin which is secured by a
swaged collar.
Lockbolt Assembly Sequence
The pin is manufactured from high tensile steel, normally cadmium plated. Circular
grooves along the shank of the bolt provide a shear point once the clenching action has
been carried out.
39
General Concepts
A particular feature of this type of bolt is that it can, when required, provide a fluid tight
joint when used in an interference fit situation.
The collars for the lockbolts are manufactured from cadmium plated steel and the
recessed end of the collar is applied to the face of the work. Collars are supplied
lubricated to assist the swaging process.
Lockbolts are normally set by pneumatically or manually operated 'pull' guns.
Removing a lockbolt does not create many problems, the simplest method is to split the
collar axially, ensuring no damage to the structure, with a narrow pointed chisel, and
drive out the lockbolt with a parallel punch, whilst ensuring adequate support of the
structure during this operation.
HI-LOK FASTENER
In the absence of specialised tools, an alternative to the close tolerance bolt is the hi-lok
fastener as shown:
Hi Lock Fastener Installation
Hi-lok bolts are a type of threaded fastener. They are usually installed with a special
collar, the hexagon extension of which breaks off at a pre-determined load, thus
obviating the need for torque loading.
The bolts and collars are provided lubricated and must not be degreased.
40
General Concepts
Although the bolts can be installed by power tools, the most common method during
repair practices is to install them by hand. A typical sequence of assembly is as follows:
1. Insert the bolt into the hole until the head is seated. A slight tap from a hammer may
be required.
2. Screw the collar on finger tight.
3. Prevent the bolt from turning with a hexagon 'Allen' key in the recess provided in the
stem of the bolt. Tighten the collar with a socket or spanner until the hexagon end of
the collar is torqued off.
The lockbolts and hi-lok fasteners have generally superseded bolts during the
manufacture of an aircraft structure, however, they are permanent fixtures and are not
designed to be constantly removed. Conventional close tolerance bolts must be used
when the structure is to be regularly disassembled.
The correct assembly of close tolerance bolts in critical bolted joints is an important part
of the airframe's integrity.
When the close tolerance bolt is removed the bolt and bolt hole must be inspected for
signs of corrosion, cracks and looseness. If the hole has elongated or has worn larger
than the diameter of the bolt, the whole purpose of the close tolerance concept has
been destroyed. Consultation with the aircraft Maintenance Manual or aircraft
manufacturer is imperative if this condition is found. Any movement of a close tolerance
jointed assembly can have catastrophic effects in major airframe assemblies in that it
may cause the structure to move, thus overloading other bolted joints until eventually
the whole of the aircraft structure is degraded.
SEALING AND SEALING COMPOUNDS
All aircraft require sealing in some form or other. The reasons for sealing can vary from
aircraft type to type, but in general sealing may be required to:
1. Prevent air leaking from pressurised cabins.

2. Prevent the ingress of fluids into parts of the aircraft that may cause corrosion.
3. Weatherproof the exterior of the aircraft.
Sealing compounds can be divided into two categories:
1. Single tube or one part, generally used for non pressurised areas. They are ready
for use as packaged.
2. Two part sealants, these are mostly used with pressurised aircraft.
41
General Concepts
One Part Sealant
When working with the one part sealant, the instructions for application are normally
found on the tube or box. It is important for correct sealing that these instructions are
adhered to.
Two Part Sealant
The two part sealant requires care in its method of application and there are many types
under various trade names, but in each case each part is separately packaged to
prevent curing prior to application. The sealant consists of base sealant and an
accelerator and the ratio of the mixture between the two is very important. In most
cases the two parts are packaged in separate specific amounts (weights) and all the
user has to do is thoroughly mix both parts together. If the two parts are not in weighed
packets, but are drawn from a bulk storage, such as a tin, it is important to ensure that
the correct mixing ratios are achieved to give a correct sealant balance.
Preparation
The work area where the sealant is to be applied must be thoroughly prepared before
the sealant is mixed, and the following general tasks should be carried out:
1. The area must be dry.

2. All swarf and debris to be removed.
3. The area of the components must have all loose paint or previous sealant removed.
4. All drain holes are to be covered.
Before mixing the two parts of the sealant together each part should be well stirred to
ensure that its individual components are evenly dispersed.
The working life of the sealant when mixed is of great importance. It can vary from half
an hour up to four hours, and can be accelerated by the application of heat to the
sealed area. Note that it is important that all the preparation work has been carried out
to the sealed area, prior to mixing the sealant compounds.
Once mixed the sealing compound should be free of flecks or lumps, if any are found,
reject the mixture. It is also important to ensure that the mixture is air free on
application to ensure that no pockets exist once the sealant has cured.
The 'curing rate' of the sealant depends upon temperature and humidity of the working
environment. The cure time is the amount of time that the sealant takes to reach its
hardened state. If the climatic conditions are cold then the cure time will take that much
longer. The ideal curing conditions will be found on the manufacturer's label. Curing
can be accelerated by the addition of heat from infra-red lamps or heated air.
42
General Concepts
However, if heated air is used it must be properly filtered to remove all the moisture that
would affect the sealed area.
A word of caution! NEVER EXCEED 120OF when using heat to accelerate the cure
time as this high temperature could have a detrimental effect on the sealant. The heat
should only be applied after all sealing has been accomplished.
Where the sealing compounds are required will be in accordance with instructions found
in the Maintenance Manuals or other servicing documents and includes:
1. Any pressurised skin that has been repaired will require a coat of sealant on the
inside surface.
2. Repairs to integral fuel tanks.
3. The aerodynamic sealing and weatherproofing of exterior skin panels.
Figure shows the application of sealant to give a typical aerodynamic/waterproof finish.
Aerodynamic/Weatherproofing Sealing Sequence
43
General Concepts
In this case the sealant is applied to the joint after tape has been placed on each side of
the joint. The tape prevents excess sealant passing into the surrounding structure.
The sealant is allowed to cure and then any excess is cut away using a non-metallic
cutter to ensure that the surrounding skin is not damaged.
When a repair has to be carried out to a joint that requires to be sealed, wet sealing
takes place prior to riveting. The surfaces to be wet sealed are known as 'faying
surfaces'. When the joint has been made, the excess sealant is removed.
This type of joint sealing will prevent the ingress of water into the joint. At the same time
it will also prevent dissimilar metal corrosion taking place.
Faying Surface
STRUCTURAL SURVEYS AND NDT PROGRAMMES
Structural surveys and NDT programmes are carried out to ensure the continuing
integrity of an aircraft structure so as to enable the aircraft to be maintained in an
airworthy condition.
As the aircraft is maintained to an approved maintenance schedule, these inspections

provide a continual assessment of the airframe and structural condition.
44
General Concepts
With long life aircraft a more in-depth inspection may be required by the manufacturers.
This can take the form of a structural integrity programme - or structural surveys. In
these programmes inspections other than visual checks may need to be carried out.
Such inspections may be undertaken in the form of non-destructive test programmes.
The finish of an aircraft is very important to ensure that the material from which the
aircraft is made will not be degraded by environmental conditions.
Structural Surveys
Most aircraft use the 'fail safe' principle or damage tolerance as it is now known as a
basic guideline during manufacture. Damage tolerance requires that if a structural
component fails, then the other parts of that structure must be designed to take the
extra load from the failed component.
Structural Re-Assessment
Structural re-assessment involves:
1. The identification of structural parts or components, which contribute significantly to

carrying flight, ground and pressure loads whose failure would affect the structural
integrity of the aircraft. These items are known as structurally significant items.
Typical examples are spars, pressure bulkheads, landing gear, beams, etc.
2. The establishment of a procedure for developing programmes that provide a high
probability of detecting fatigue damage before the residual structural strength falls
below the fail-safe requirements.
A structural inspection survey programme is normally directed to older types of aircraft,

as the aircraft with the highest number of flight cycles are the most likely ones to
experience initial fatigue damage in an operator's fleet.
The inspection programme is therefore based on high time aircraft, which have
exceeded certain cycle figures, i.e., 37,000, and is usually requested by the aircraft
manufacturers. Such inspections are fairly flexible and allow the operator to adjust the
inspection cycle to coincide with normal maintenance programmes.
The areas of the structure that require inspection are decided by the aircraft
manufacturer as particular information is required to assess the fatigue life and the
damage tolerance rating. This information is then used to ensure the continuing
integrity of the aircraft structure.
Additionally, structural sampling may be required, the manufacturer may require parts of
the structure to be removed, so that laboratory tests can be carried out on the sample
structure to look for signs of stress corrosion or degradation of the material.
45
General Concepts
By using this structural survey inspection method manufacturers can determine the
wear and tear on an aircraft structure, and anticipate at what point the structure will
reach and exceed its 'fail safe' life. The manufacturer may use such instrumentation to
apply certain checks and repairs to younger aircraft and so extend their fatigue life
accordingly. In this way an aircraft's life can be considerably extended, without major
degradation of the structure.
NDT Inspection Programmes
NDT inspections may be called up at various times during an aircraft's life. For example:
1. Scheduled maintenance,
2. Implementation of service bulletins,
3. Special structural survey checks.
The use of NDT equipment and methods is really part of condition monitoring. That is
to say, the checks carried out are designed to detect degradation within aircraft
structures and components before it causes major problems.
Degradation within aircraft structures can usually be associated with structural cracking
or corrosion. To achieve this, NDT inspections are carried out at set times. These
times or frequencies can be dependent upon cycles, hours, landings, etc., and are
normally incorporated into maintenance schedules.
NDT checks may also be called up during special structural survey checks.
To achieve these inspections, six methods are commonly used in aircraft maintenance
operations:
1. Visual,
2. Penetrant (dye),
3. Magnetic particle ,
4. X-ray,
5. Ultrasonic,
6. Eddy current.
One or more of the six methods may be called-out by the manufacturer to assist the
maintenance engineer in determining the condition of the structure or component,
before deciding what action to carry out in respect of repair, replacement or noting of
any existing degraded part.
There is no best inspection method, the various NDT methods are complementary to
each other. One method may be preferred in one particular situation, whilst another
method may be best suited for another application.
46
General Concepts
Although a visual inspection is not normally classed as an NDT method, manufacturers

consider a visual inspection as most important, it is the initial primary method used in
structural inspections. Other methods are used as a back up to visual inspections, i.e. a
source of magnification to detect smaller defects, or a means of looking inside a
component/material or to investigate areas that are not normally accessible.
SURFACE PROTECTIVE FINISHES
The finish of the aluminium structure of an aircraft is designed to provide adequate

corrosion protection in environments of varying severity. Several parameters play an
important role in the choice of a protective finish, they include the:
1. Environment (hot and cold temperatures),

2. Weight of the proposed finish (fairly considerable on a large passenger aircraft ,
more weight = higher fuel burn),
3. Appearance (attractive company logo),
4. Aerodynamics (will the finish create airflow problems?).
All the above must be looked at when choosing an aircraft finish. However it is not only
the outer skin that needs to be considered, this outer finish is mainly cosmetic. From an
engineering aspect the finish of the inner structure is of paramount important in respect
of corrosion control.
STRUCTURAL PROTECTIVE FINISRES
A metal fuselage is usually painted for two reasons:
1. Cosmetic appearance,
2. Corrosion prevention.
From an engineering aspect corrosion prevention is a major challenge in modern

aircraft. With the use of the correct surface protection, we can at least eliminate the
chemical attack on the structure, caused by harmful fluids.
The action of just painting the bare surface of the structure is not enough, the surface
material is very smooth, and normal paint will not adhere to it very well. Some means
must be provided to give a base for the surface paint to adhere to. The primer serves
this purpose, it is basically a paint undercoat.
The primer coat can be divided into 4 types:
1. Synthetic,
2. Stoving,
3. Epoxy,
4. Etch.
47
General Concepts
Synthetic and stoving primers are not used very often on today's modern aircraft, they
are derived from resins and fatty acids, but although they can be applied in thick coats
they do not afford the structure any great protection.
Etch primer is considered to be one of the best and easily used of all the primers. The
surface does not require any pre-treatment before application, other than that any
surface grease or dirt must be removed. It has very good adhesive qualities when used
on bare untreated metal, and is primarily used in aircraft repair schemes as an anti-
corrosive before repair joints are made. Application is straight forward but for the best
overall effect, hand gun spraying will give the best results. During repair practices any
untreated bare metal should be treated with etch primer.
Epoxy resins however do afford the best protection to structures. Epoxy primers
normally comprise a two part mixture, that once mixed thoroughly, can be applied by
spray gun to the structure. The epoxy primer has a very good adhesive quality and is
extremely resistant to most fluids used in aircraft.
Where primers are concerned, the application to the aircraft structure depends on the
area in which they are to be used. Reference should always be made to the structural
repair Manual, or Maintenance Manual to ensure that the correct materials are being
used. As a general guideline however, the minimum requirement to ensure that the
structure is not affected by corrosive fluids would be one or two coats of primer. A
typical example would be the crown area of the cabin, which is not normally affected by
these fluids. Areas which tend to collect moisture and corrosive chemicals include
bilges, wheel wells and locations between joints or screws. Such situations are
normally treated with two coats of epoxy resin and then top coated with an epoxy
enamel finish.
To give an additional corrosion resistant finish, all structural areas can be coated with a
corrosion inhibiting material. This is applied by spraying either from aerosol cans or
spray gun assemblies. Any structure that is sprayed with this water resistant material,
will provide water proofing as well as a coating on the metallic surface which will cut out
the oxygen required for corrosion to take place.
Surface finishes other than primers are used for company logo, emergency markings,
etc.
There are many types of finish used on aircraft, they include:
1. Cellulose,
2. Synthetic,
3. Acrylic,
4. Epoxy,
5. Polyurethane.
48
General Concepts
Areas that have a high corrosion risk, i.e., battery bays, etc, do require particular
corrosion resistant paints. Always consult the Maintenance Manual for the correct paint
to be applied.
The most popular paint finish on today's large metal aircraft structures is the
polyurethane paint. The paint is derived from polyester and di-isocyanate and gives an
extremely hard glossy coated finish that is resistant to most types of aircraft fluid. It has
excellent weatherproofing qualities, is extremely hard wearing and is resistant to
cracking and crazing.
Other types of finish may be required for cleaning parts of the structure. A typical
example is the application of a matt black finish in front of windscreen or flight deck
windows to prevent sunlight glare reflecting from the structure and interfering with the
vision of the crew.
STRUCTURAL BONDING PROCESSES
Structural bonding will mainly be found in the older type of aircraft. The bonding
process is a method of bonding metal to metal, (stringer to aircraft skin), wood to metal
or thermoplastic to metal. Its main advantage is that it removes the need to use rivets
and other fastening devices, thus reducing the weight of the structure.
The process, usually called Redux bonding, is carried out by applying a Redux coating
to both surfaces to be joined. The parts are then placed into an oven (temperature
145OC to 190 OC), and a hydraulic pressure of 200 psi is applied. The resin then
solidifies making a hard joint between the surfaces, thus creating a joint that is resistant
to most fluids.
Another advantage in using this process is that the joints are good insulators and
dissimilar metals can be joined without the risk of galvanic corrosion. The only
drawback however, is that if the Redux joint is damaged, the structure must either be
replaced or repaired by riveting.
Although the Redux bonding method is fairly old, it has been adapted for use on today's
modern transport aircraft. An example of this is the technique of skin reinforcement,
where doublers are bonded to the inside of the outer skin. These doublers function as
tear stoppers by forming a complete, integral fail-safe, circumferential and longitudinal
'waffle' grid. In today's aviation jargon they are known as bonded waffle doublers.
49
General Concepts
Bonded Waffle Doubler
50
Aeroplanes
FUSELAGE
Introduction
It is very important that you have a comprehensive knowledge of the construction of the
fuselage, and are aware of the loads imposed on its structural members. When you
become a Licensed Aircraft Engineer it is your job to inspect the adjacent structure for
condition when you are working on fuselage components, even though this inspection is
not stated on the job sheet.
Design For End Loads
Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist stress. A single
member of the structure may be subjected to a combination of stresses. In most cases
the structural members are designed to carry end loads rather than side loads; that is,
to be subjected to tension or compression rather than bending.
Tension and Compression
Strength may be the principal requirement in certain structures, while others need
entirely different qualities. For example, cowling, fairing, and similar parts usually are
not required to carry the stresses imposed by flight or the landing loads. However,
these parts must have such properties as neat appearance and streamlined shapes.
1
Aeroplanes
LIGHT AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

The principal components of a single-engine, propeller driven aircraft are shown.
Light Aircraft Structural Components
MAJOR STRUCTURAL STRESSES

In designing an aircraft, every square inch of wing and fuselage, every rib, spar and
even each metal fitting must be considered in relation to the physical characteristics of
the metal of which it is made.
Every part of the aircraft must be planned to carry the load to be imposed upon it. The
determination of such loads is called stress analysis. Although planning the design is
not the function of the L.A.E., it is, nevertheless, important that he understands and
appreciates the stresses involved.
2
Aeroplanes
PASSENGER JET TRANSPORT STRUCTURE

The following figure illustrates the structural components of a typical turbine powered
aircraft. One wing and the tailplane assemblies are shown exploded into the many
components which, when assembled, form major structural units.
Typical Structural Components of A Turbine Powered Aircraft
TYPES OF FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft. It provides space for cargo,
controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment. In single-engine aircraft, it
also houses the powerplant. In multi-engine aircraft the engines may either be in the
fuselage, attached to the fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure.
3
Aeroplanes
There are two general types of fuselage construction:
1. Truss type,
2. Monocoque type.
Truss Type
A truss is a rigid framework made up of members such as beams, struts, and bars to
resist deformation by applied loads. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered
with fabric.
On some aircraft, principally the light, single-engine models, truss fuselage frames are
constructed of aluminium alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross
bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.
The truss type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing welded together in
such a manner that all members of the truss can carry both tension and compression
loads.
Welded Tubular Steel Engine Mount (Left)

And Warren Truss Of Welded Tubular Steel (Right)
4
Aeroplanes
Monocoque Construction
This is further classified into the true monocoque construction and the more common
semi-monocoque construction.
The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to
give shape to the fuselage, but the skin carries the primary stresses.
Monocoque Construction
Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the
fuselage rigid. Thus, the biggest problem involved in monocoque construction is
maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits.
To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoque construction, a modification

called semi-monocoque construction was developed.
Semi-Monocoque Construction
5
Aeroplanes
Skin Reinforcement
In addition to formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semi-monocoque

construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members. The reinforced shell has
the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members. Different portions of
the same fuselage may belong to either of the two classes, but most aircraft are
considered to be of semi-monocoque type construction.
Semi-Monocoque Construction
The semi-monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of the alloys of aluminium and

magnesium, although steel and titanium are found in areas of high temperatures.
LONGERONS
Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several
points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members,
called stringers.
BULKHEADS, FRAMES AND FORMERS

The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames and formers. The
heaviest of these vertical members are located at intervals to carry concentrated loads
and at points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings,
powerplants, and stabilisers. One form of the semi-monocoque design now in use is
shown:
Fuselage Structural Members
6
Aeroplanes
Function of Stringers and Longerons
The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have
some rigidity, but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of the skin.
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these, in turn, hold
the stringers. All of these joined together form a rigid fuselage framework.
Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression from bending the fuselage.
Stringers are usually of a one-piece aluminium alloy construction, and are manufactured
in a variety of shapes by casting, extrusion, or forming. Longerons, like stringers, are
usually made of aluminium alloy; however, they may be of either a one-piece or a
built-up construction.
STRESSED SKIN
The metal skin or covering is riveted to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural
members and carries part of the load. The fuselage skin thickness will vary with the
load carried and the stresses sustained at a particular location.
ADVANTAGES OF SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
There are a number of advantages in the use of the semi-monocoque fuselage. The
bulkheads, frames, stringers and longerons facilitate the design and construction of a
streamlined fuselage, and add to the strength and rigidity of the structure. The main
advantage, however, lies in the fact that it does not depend on a few members for
strength and rigidity. This means that a semi-monocoque fuselage, because of its
stressed-skin construction, may withstand considerable damage and still be strong
enough to hold together.
SECTION MANUFACTURE
Fuselages are generally constructed in two or more sections. On small aircraft, they are
generally made in two or three sections, while larger aircraft may be made up of as
many as six sections.
DOORS AND PANELS
Quick access to the accessories and other equipment carried in the fuselage is provided
for by numerous access doors, inspection plates, landing wheel wells, and other
openings. Servicing diagrams showing the arrangement of equipment and location of
access doors are supplied by the manufacturer in the aircraft maintenance manual.
7
Aeroplanes
LOCATION NUMBERING SYSTEMS

There are various numbering systems in use to facilitate location of specific wing
frames, fuselage bulkheads, or any other structural members on an aircraft. Most
manufacturers use some system of station marking; for example, the nose of the aircraft
may be designated zero station, and all other stations are located at measured
distances in inches behind the zero station, as in Figure.
Fuselage Stations
Fuselage Stations (Fus.Sta. or F.S).
These are numbered in inches from a reference or zero point known as the reference
datum.
Lateral Locations
To locate structures to the right or left of the centre line of an aircraft, many
manufacturers consider the centre line as a zero station for structural member location
to its right or left. With such a system the tailplane frames can be designated as being
so many inches right or left of the aircraft centre line.
The applicable manufacturer's numbering system and abbreviated designations or

symbols should always be reviewed before attempting to locate a structural member.
8
Aeroplanes
WING STRUCTURE
The wings of an aircraft are surfaces, which are designed to produce lift when moved
rapidly through the air.
Wing Skin
The skin is part of the wing structure and carries part of the wing stresses.
Cantilever Wings
The wings of some aircraft are of cantilever design; that is, they are built so that no
external bracing is needed.
Externally Braced Wings
Some aircraft wings use external bracings (struts, wires, etc) to assist in supporting the
wing and carrying the aerodynamic and landing loads. Both aluminium alloy and
magnesium alloy are used in wing construction. The internal structure is made up of
spars and stringers running spanwise, and ribs and formers running chordwise (leading
edge to trailing edge).
Wing Spars
The spars are the principle structural members of the wing. The spars support all
distributed loads as well as concentrated weights, such as fuselage, landing gear, and
on multi-engined aircraft, the nacelles or pylons.
SPAR ARRANGEMENTS
In general, wing construction is based on one of three fundamental designs:
1. Monospar,
2. Multi-Spar,
3. Box Beam.
Monospar
The monospar wing incorporates only one main longitudinal member in its construction.
Ribs or bulkheads supply the necessary contour or shape to the airfoil.
Multi-Spar
The multi-spar wing incorporates more than one main longitudinal member in its
construction. To give the wing contour, ribs or bulkheads are often included.
9
Aeroplanes
Box Beam
The box beam type of wing construction uses two main longitudinal members with
connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength and to give contour to the wing.
WING CONFIGURATION
Depending on the desired flight characteristics, wings are built in many shapes and
sizes. The following figure shows a number of typical wing leading and trailing edge
shapes.
Wing Features
Features of the wing will cause other variations in its design. The wing tip may be
square, rounded, or even pointed. Both the leading edge and the trailing edge of the
wing may be straight or curved, or one edge may be straight and the other curved.
Typical Wing Leading And Trailing Edge Shapes
Common Wing Forms
In addition to the particular configuration of the leading and trailing edges, wings are
also designed to provide certain desirable flight characteristics, such as greater lift,
balance, or stability.
10
Aeroplanes
Common Wing Forms
WING CONSTRUCTION
The main structural parts of a wing are the spars, the ribs or bulkheads, and the
stringers or stiffeners, as shown:
Internal Wing Construction
Wooden Spars
Wooden spars can be generally classified into four different types by their cross
sectional configuration. As shown, they may be partly hollow, in the shape of a box,
solid or laminated, rectangular in shape, or in the form of an I-beam.
11
Aeroplanes
Typical Spar Cross-Sectional Configuration
Metal Spars
Figure shows the basic configuration of some typical metal spars. Most metal spars are
built up from extruded aluminium alloy sections, with riveted aluminium alloy web
sections to provide extra strength. More recent aircraft have machined spars.
Metal Spar Shapes
Load Path
As a rule, a wing has two spars. One spar is usually located near the front of the wing,
and the other about two-thirds of the distance towards the wing's trailing edge.
Regardless of type, the spar is the most important part of the wing. When other
structural members of the wing are placed under load, they pass most of the resulting
stress on to the wing spars.
Spar Construction
The actual spar configuration may assume many forms. For example, a spar may have
either a plate or truss type web:
12
Aeroplanes
i) Plate Web Spar
The plate web consists of a solid plate with vertical stiffeners, which increase the
strength of the web. Some spar plate webs are constructed differently. Some have no
stiffeners; others contain flange holes for reducing weight.
Plate Web Wing Spar
ii) Truss Spar
Figure shows a truss spar made up of an upper cap, a lower cap, and connecting
vertical and diagonal tubes.
Truss Wing Spar
13
Aeroplanes
Wing Ribs
Ribs are the structural crosspieces that make up the framework of the wing. They
usually extend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or to the trailing edge of the
wing. Ribs are manufactured from wood or metal. Either wood or metal ribs are used
with wooden spars while metal ribs are usually used with metal spars. Some typical
wooden ribs, usually manufactured from spruce.
Typical Wooden Ribs
Wooden Wing Structure
Figure shows the basic rib and spar structure of a wooden wing frame, together with
some of the other wing structural members. In addition to the front and rear spars, an
aileron spar, or false spar, is shown. This type of spar extends only part of the
spanwise length of the wing and provides a hinge attachment point for the aileron.
Wooden Wing Frame Basic Rib And Spar Structure
14
Aeroplanes
Wing Tips
The wing tip is often a removable unit, bolted to the outboard end of the wing panel.
One reason for this is the vulnerability of the wing tips to damage, especially during
ground handling and taxiing.
Figure shows a removable wing tip for a larger aircraft wing. The wing-tip assembly is
of aluminum alloy construction. The wing-tip cap is secured to the tip with countersunk
screws and is secured to the interspar structure at four points with 1/4 inch bolts.
The tip leading edge contains the heat anti-icing duct. Wing-heated air is exhausted
through a louver on the top surface of the tip. Wing position lights are located at the
center of the tip.
Removable Wing Tip
15
Aeroplanes
All Metal Wing
Figure shows an all-metal full cantilever (no external bracing) wing section. The wing is
made up of spars, ribs and lower and upper wing skin covering. With few exceptions,
wings of this type are of the stressed-skin design (the skin is part of the wing structure
and carries part of the wing stresses).
The top and bottom wing skin covers are made up of several integrally stiffened
sections.
All Metal Wing With Chemically Milled Channels
Box Beam Milled Wing
A wing that uses a box-beam design is shown. This type of construction not only
increases strength and reduces weight, but it also enables the wing to serve as a fuel
tank when properly sealed.
Box-Beam Milled Wing
16
Aeroplanes
Honeycomb Wing Construction
Both aluminium honeycomb and fibre glass honeycomb sandwich material are
commonly used in the construction of wing and tailplane surfaces, bulkheads, floors,
control surfaces and trim tabs. Aluminium honeycomb material is made of aluminium
foil honeycomb core, bonded between sheets of aluminium. Fibre glass honeycomb
material consists of fibre glass honeycomb core bonded between layers of fibre glass
cloth.
Honeycomb Wing Construction on A Large Jet Transport Aircraft
The figure above shows a view of the upper surface of a large jet transport wing. The
various panels manufactured from honeycomb material are outlined by diagonal lines
and labelled.
Aircraft honeycomb material is manufactured in various shapes, but is usually of the

constant thickness or tapered core types.
17
Aeroplanes
Honeycomb/ Metal Bonding
Still another type of construction is illustrated. In this case the sandwich structure of the
wing leading edge is bonded to the metal spar. Also shown is the integrally bonded de-
ice panel.
Leading Edge Sandwich Material Bonded To Metal Wing Member
WING BOX STRUCTURES

The wing box structure serves to support the fuselage to wing joint. The weight of the
fuselage on the centre wing box and the flight loads on the wing combine to produce a
considerable upward deflection of both wing tips when the aircraft is in flight.
Although this deflection is slight within the wing centre box, it is most important that the
box section is so designed to ensure that these wing deflections are not imparted into
the fuselage structure.
In the illustration, the box section structural connection between the wing and fuselage
consists of pin mounted joints, known as wing terminal pins, which are installed on an
axis parallel to the aircraft centreline and in the same plane as the outboard ends of the
centre wing box.
18
Aeroplanes
The rotation permitted by these pins allows the middle of the centre wing box to move
vertically down as the wing tips move up, without any distortion to the fuselage
structure.
In the figure we considered the assembly of the wings to the wing centre box
connections by using pin joints. Later designs use splice fittings instead which take the
same types of load as the pin mounted structure.
Box Section Arrangement Fuselage to Wing Attachment
The centre box section has forward, aft, upper and lower surfaces that are formed by
the front and rear spars and the upper and lower skin panels, as shown:
The side or body ribs facilitate wing attachment and provide centre box sealing and
isolation if the space is used for an integral fuel tank. The interior is reinforced by three
spanwise beams, with stiffened webs which attach to the upper and lower skin panels.
Also attached to this structure are floor beams that are attached longitudinally.
19
Aeroplanes
Center Box Section
In addition to this structure, the keel beam provides the fuselage with structural strength,
and support for the centre wing box.
INTEGRAL TANKS
Further advancement in aircraft design has removed the need for multiple fuel tanks
within the aircraft structure. In this case the aircraft structure is used as a fuel tank
assembly and is known as an integral tank arrangement. The integral tank arrangement
is normally associated with larger multi-engined aircraft.
Construction
A typical example of an integral tank arrangement wing is illustrated. The integral tank
is a fuel proofed space within the wing structure, which is filled with fuel and provided
with fittings and connections to allow fuel to be fed to the engines. Refueling manifolds
and valves, vents, fuel pumps and transfer valves are also fitted to particular positions in
the fuel tank system.
20
Aeroplanes
Typical Integral Fuel Tank
The connections and fittings cause few major problems, but tank sealing and making
the structure fuel proof is a vital element, which decides the reliability of the integral
tank. The integral tank is usually an area of the wing that is bounded by the front and
rear spars, and the wing upper and lower skins.
The tank area is sealed and fuel proofed during manufacture, and all joints, fittings,
rivets and bolts are assembled whilst the sealant is wet. Special sealants are used for
this purpose, as adequate sealing cannot be given if the assemblies are assembled dry.
You should have noticed from figure above that the wing contains a dry bay. This is
normally situated over the engine area to prevent any fuel leakage from dripping onto
the engine, thus creating a fire hazard.
The surge tank is not really a fuel tank in the sense that it contains fuel, it is really a
meeting point for all vent tubes from the main and auxiliary tanks, it collects all the air
that is to be discharged to atmosphere.
Finally you should also have noticed the positioning of fuel dams within the aircraft wing
structure. These dams ensure that fuel only runs from outboard to inboard through the
dams, which are one way check valves. The use of the fuel dams prevents major fuel
surges within the wing tanks taking place during abnormal aircraft flight conditions, i.e.,
rolling etc. As shown:
21
Aeroplanes
Integral Tank Fuel Dams
Sealing
During assembly, all the structural parts which are to become part of the integral tank
assembly are cleaned and degreased, and then coated with a special sealant and are
assembled wet. It is imperative to ensure that the joints are closed before the sealant
drys or leakage may occur. This first coating is called an 'interfay' and should bond all
parts of the joint. As the rivets or bolts are closed, excess sealant will be squeezed out
of the joints and should be removed with a spatula or other similar tool. Once the joint
has been made, a coating of sealant is applied to the edges of the joint, this coating is
called a fillet and should be strong enough to cope with any flexing of the joints. The
following figure illustrates the sealing sequence for an integral fuel tank.
Tank Sealing Sequence
22
Aeroplanes
A final brush-on coat of sealant is applied to overlap the joint and fillet. The interfay fillet
and brush on coat are part of a standard treatment to seal integral tanks, and all use a
similar sealant. The barrier coat, although not a sealant itself, is a fast drying coat that
is applied to protect the joint sealant from swarf or metal particles produced during
manufacture becoming embedded in the slower drying sealant joints.
SKIN MANUFACTURE
In the continuing desire to provide lighter structures but still retain the strength of the
materials, various methods have been devised. Three methods now adopted to
achieve this aim are:
i) Machined skins,
ii) Chemically etched skins,
iii) Milled skins.
Machined Skin
With the normal skin method of construction, the holes drilled for attaching the rivets
weaken the stressed skin, so the aircraft designer will require a thicker skin than the
design loads dictate to preserve the strength in the rivet area.
This requirement is fairly unimportant where the skin is thin, but for thick skins, of the
type used on large multi-engined aircraft there is a major weight penalty to be paid.
The required strength can be maintained and a reduction of weight achieved by using a
machined skin. Consider the following figure, the riveted area retains the skin
thickness, but the non-riveted areas have been machined to reduce weight.
Machined Skin
23
Aeroplanes
Chemically Etched Structure
An example of chemical skin etching is shown below. Here we can see a typical skin
section riveted to the fuselage structure. The metal between the doubler plates has
been chemically etched to produce a thin portion of skin, this leads to a major weight
saving on large transport aircraft. The parts that are riveted to the structure have not
been etched and have the original skin thickness.
Chemically Etched Skin
24
Aeroplanes
Milled Structure
This is a process of manufacturing an integrally constructed skin, either for the fuselage
or the wings using a milling process. A typical milled structure is shown on the right:
Milled Skin Construction
The top and bottom stressed skins, complete with stringers, are milled out as a single
piece from a thick aluminium alloy sheet. The skins are then attached to the wings by
bolts and rivets.
This type of structure involves fewer structural parts, and because of the reduction in
the number of joints, ensures that there are fewer rivets and bolts to interrupt the
smoothness of the airflow over the wing. Such a method of manufacture reduces the
possibility of internal structural corrosion taking place.
EMPENNAGE
The empennage is also called the tail section and most aircraft designs consist of a tail
cone and stabilizers.
25
Aeroplanes
Tail Cone
The tail cone serves to close and streamline the aft end of most fuselages. The cone is
made up of structural members like those of the fuselage; however, cones are usually of
lighter construction since they receive less stress than the fuselage.
Tail Cone Structure
Stabilizers
The stabilizers are aerodynamics control structures in the tail section of the airplane.
They consist of a vertical stabilizer (fin), dorsal fin, rudders, horizontal stabilizer and
elevators.
26
Aeroplanes
Stabilizers
The vertical stabilizer (fin) is stationary, but rudders hinged to the fin move left and right
to provide directional control for the airplane.
Construction Features of Rudder and Fin
The figure shows how the vertical surfaces are braced, using spars, ribs, stringers and
skin in a similar manner to the systems used in a wing.
The horizontal stabilizer consists of left and right outboard sections attached to a center
section located in the fuselage. The center section attaches to the fuselage at two
hinge fittings on the rear spar and a jackscrew fitting on the front spar. During trimming
the stabilizer pivots on the hinges as the jackscrew operates.
The leading edge sections and tip of each stabilizer are screw mounted to the stabilizer
structure and may be removed.
There are three horizontal stabilizer to fuselage seals; an upper seal, a leading edge
seal and a lower seal. The seals may be removed and installed independently.
27
Aeroplanes
Horizontal Stabilizer
The horizontal stabilizer is made up of the box beam or aft torque box, forward torque
box, removable leading edge, fixed trailing edge and the inboard and outboard
elevators.
The forward torque box is the structure between the auxiliary and front spars. The aft
torque box is the structure between the front and rear spars. The fixed trailing edge is
aft of the rear spar and supports the elevators.
The aft torque boxes of the outboard stabilizer sections are joined by fittings and splice
plates to the stabilizer center section to form a continuous main structural beam through
the fuselage. The structure forward and aft of the front and rear spars has no tie to the
center section and exists primarily for aerodynamic purposes.
The fixed trailing edge consists of ribs cantilevered from the rear spar and aluminium
honeycomb skin panels.
The elevators consist of front and rear spars, trailing edge ribs and fiberglass
honeycomb skin panels.
28
Aeroplanes
Horizontal Stabilizer Structure
PYLON
Engines are installed on the wing by means of pylons (nacelle struts). Pylons are
essentially frame and skin structures riveted and bonded together to form a torque box.
Outside skins are adhesive bonded laminates. Lower spar and engine mount
bulkheads are made of steel. Stainless steel or titanium is used where high strength
and heat and fire resistance is required.
Pylons are normally attached to the wing by means of the upper link, the diagonal
brace, and the strut fittings connecting the strut and wing directly. Structural fuse pins
are used at the upper link, diagonal brace, and mid spar joints.
Some aircraft may use forward and aft attachments to connect the pylon to the wing
structure and a spigot and spherical bearing arrangement to transmit engine thrust to
the aircraft.
29
Aeroplanes
Pylon Construction
Especially for the outboard pylon two spring beams may be installed, which are
movable load bearing supports to soften the side loads induced by wing flutter. The
forward end of the spring beam attaches to the strut box through a lubrication friction
bearing.
Spring Beam and Fuse Pin
30
Aeroplanes
SEATS
Aircraft seats are provided with attachments to the primary structure, as they must be
capable of withstanding the very heavy forces that would occur during a crash.
If the seat remains fixed to its attachment after an impact, then the occupant who is
restrained by the safety belt has a greater chance of survival.
AIRCRAFT SEAT CATEGORIES
There are three main groups of seats:
i) Passenger seats
ii) Flight attendant seats
iii) Flight deck crew seats.
Passenger seats consist mainly of multiple assemblies, but there may be a number of
single seats. Aircraft operators may even choose swivel armchair type seats for the
first class lounge or business configurations. Settees may also be provided, as shown
in the figure. Each passenger seat and settee is provided with a control unit housing, a
light, an attendant call button, and passenger entertainment controls.
Settees Arrangement
31
Aeroplanes
Construction
Typical passenger seats consist of an aluminium riveted and welded frame with
supporting legs and braces individual moveable seatbacks each with a recline control
mechanism, and integral tables located in the rear of each seatback. Multiple passenger
seats utilize moveable drop-arm type center armrests to separate individual seating.
Passenger Seat Installation
Seat Removal and Fitment
The seat assemblies are secured in place by the rear track attachment fitting. The seat
group electronics box (SEB) is located, if fitted, under the seat and is provided with
spring-loaded positive locking plug connectors.
Passenger Seat and Track
The seats are often locked to the seat rail by feet or plungers, which are spring loaded,
locked. Sometimes these feet are released by a spanner or lever arrangement, which is
part of the seat structure.
32
Aeroplanes
Seat Retaining Plunger
In the above figure a handle is rotated 90 degrees to withdraw the plunger. The seat
may now be moved forward or backwards about half an inch and then lifted clear.
If the seat is fitted with Multiplex for in-flight entertainment etc., the electrics must be
disconnected before removing the seat.
FLIGHT ATTENDANT SEATS
There are two types of flight attendant seat:
i) Wall mounted
ii) Track mounted.
Track Mounted Flight Attendant Seats
These are fixed to the seat rails in a similar manner to the passenger seats. The flight
attendant seat is more functional than comfortable. The plunger attachments are a little
different from those for the passenger seat arrangement as they are not moved so
often.
A typical rail mounted attendant seat is shown as below:
33
Aeroplanes
Single Attendant Seat
Wall Mounted Attendant Seats
These seats are mounted to the structure in much the same way as other furnishings
and fittings. The seat frame is fixed to seat anchoring stanchions by bolts or screws.
Typical Wall-mounted Attendant Seat

34
Aeroplanes
TECHNICAL CREW SEATS

The seats are attached to the seat rails in a similar arrangement to that for the
passenger seats. Set rails are used, but they allow the seats to move sideways as well
as fore and aft. This seat movement is required as the technical crew need to move in
and out of their work position which is very congested.
CAPTAINS AND FIRST OFFICERS SEATS
These seats are very similar in construction, fixing and mobility. However, there is a
small difference, which will enable you to identify at a glance, which is which.
Captains Seat
The major features of the seat are as follows:
i) It is mounted on tracks, which allow fore and aft movement.

ii) The seat also travels outboard during the last four inches of travel.
iii) Manual adjustment controls provide for:
a) Fore and aft travel,
b) Vertical travel,
c) Seat base tilt,
d) Backrest recline.
iv) Each armrest may be adjusted and the inboard armrests may be folded and
stowed to facilitate entry and exit of the occupant.
35
Aeroplanes
The First Officers seat is similar in all respects to the Captains seat, except that the
movable armrest is on the opposite side of the seat.
FLIGHT ENGINEER SEATS

A typical flight engineers seat is shown:
Flight Engineers Seat
The major features of the seat are that:
i) The seat is track mounted for fore and aft travel,

ii) The fore and aft travel are controlled electrically with manual backup,
iii) The lateral, vertical and recline adjustments are controlled manually,
iv) The lateral and swivel control handles are on the right hand side of the seat,
v) The seat may be swiveled to the left and locked at the 30O, 60 O or 90 O position,
vi) Each armrest may be adjusted and the left armrest may be folded and stowed.
36
Aeroplanes
SAFETY ASPECTS OF SEATS

The requirements are quite stringent as the safety of the passengers and crew is placed
very high on the list of design priorities. They include:
i) Seats must not have any sharp projections,

ii) Seats must remain fixed during a crash,
iii) The seat covers must be flame resistant,
iv) The seat cushions must not give off choking fumes in a fire.
WINDOWS & DOORS
Transparent panels have to be provided for the aircrew and the passengers. They must
meet high optical standards if they are to be used in the flight compartment. All of them
must be strong and tough to withstand pressurisation cycles.
Doors must also be very strong and indicate an unlocked condition.
WINDOWS
The windows on aeroplanes are grouped as follows:
i) Flight Compartment Windows.

ii) Passenger Cabin Windows.
All windows, except the interior compartment viewers, are designed to withstand cabin
pressurisation loads, and are designed with fail-safe features.
Transparent Plastic Panels
The transparent plastic panels in common use on aircraft are of acrylic sheet, usually
called perspex. This material shows great resistance to the effect of atmospheric
conditions, apart from extremes of temperature. It is sensitive to heat changes, and in
fact some strength is lost as the temperature is increased.
Attachment Hole Clearance
Over a temperature range of +25oC to -35 oC (which is not unusual for the outer surface
of an aircraft during a climb from a tropical airport to cruising altitude) a six inch panel
could contract by 0.036 inches. This would set up extremely high stresses in the
perspex with the attendant possibility of failure if correct clearance were not provided at
the attachment holes.
37
Aeroplanes
Solvent Crazing
A further disadvantage lies in the susceptibility of acrylic materials to deterioration due

to the chemical action of a wide range of substances in common use on an aircraft,
giving rise to the effect of solvent crazing which has a marked effect on the structural
integrity of the panel.
Cleaning
Perspex panels should be cleaned at the appropriate periods with a soft cloth dipped in
warm soapy water. The panel should then be rinsed with clean water and dried with a
soft cloth or chamois leather. All materials used for cleaning perspex windows should
be scrupulously clean, as acrylic sheet is highly notch-sensitive, and the presence of
scratches produced as a result of grit, etc., on cloths can seriously affect the strength of
the panel.
Polishing
Polishing should be carried out to remove minor scratches, or to restore the full optical
properties of the panel.
Scratches
The manner in which scratches should be dealt with varies considerably from one
situation to another, depending upon the optical and strength factors involved. The
depth of the scratches should first be ascertained, using a scratch measuring
microscope if necessary. (Typical limits of depth are 0.010 inches on a stressed panel,
and 0.050 inches on an unstressed panel.)
Crazing
A characteristic network of fine hairline cracks on the surface of a perspex panel is

indicative of crazing, which may exist in two different forms.
i) Stress Crazing:
This is found on the tension surface of a stressed panel, and may not be visible
unless the panel is under load. The crazing may worsen in the course of time,
and failure of the panel may result.
ii) Solvent Crazing:

This is caused by contamination with deleterious substances. It is similar in
appearance to stress crazing; but may be apparent when the panel is not under
stress.
38
Aeroplanes
Action to be taken upon discovery of crazing of either form will vary from one aircraft to
another, but in general, if the panel involved is a stressed one, it should be renewed as
soon as possible.
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT WINDOWS

In the example shown six windows are symmetrically located around the forward end of
the flight compartment. The windows are designated right side and left side windows
number 1, 2 and 3. The corresponding left and right windows are identically opposite
assemblies.
All flight compartment windows are of laminated construction; a toughened glass layer
on the outside - vinyl layers on the inside. The number 1 windows, which are the pilots'
windshields, consist of a greater number of laminations to withstand bird impact.
Flight Compartment Windows
Flight Compartment Side Windows
These windows are often 'plug' type windows. That is they are fitted from the inside.
This makes pressure sealing a lot easier than when the windows are fitted from the
outside.
39
Aeroplanes
Flight Compartment Side Windows
Pressure sealing is accomplished with a gasket or rubber-beaded seal moulded to the

windshield frame. An aerodynamic seal is accomplished by filling the gap between
window edge and fuselage skin flush with aerodynamic smoother. This also serves as
a weather seal for keeping out moisture.
Windscreen Heating
The inner face of the face ply is covered with a conductive coating, which is part of the
antifogging and anti-icing systems. Bus bars, embedded in the windshield layers,
contact the conductive surface near the top and bottom of the windshield. Two
temperature control sensors are laminated into the windshield adjacent to the
conductive coating.
PASSENGER COMPARTMENT WINDOWS
Frequent use is made of a double layer of perspex with an intervening air gap to
produce a strong, light window for use in the passenger compartment. The panels are
separated by a spacer, and the periphery of the outer panel carries a rubber seal, which
prevents pressurisation losses to atmosphere.
The space between the windows can be vented eight to atmosphere or the pressure
cabin.
Venting to Atmosphere
If the space is vented to atmosphere the differential pressure across the aircraft skin will
also be felt across the inner perspex panel, i.e., the panel nearest the passengers will
be a stress-bearing one. In the event of failure of this panel, the stress will be
transferred to the outer panel and this will now carry the pressurisation load.
40
Aeroplanes
Venting To Cabin
On aircraft where the cabin pressure is felt in the inter-panel space, the outer panel
carries the differential pressure and is therefore under load. The panel nearest to the
passengers is unstressed until such time as the outer panel fails, then the differential
pressure will be contained by the inner panel.
Window Vent To Cabin
41
Aeroplanes
AIRCRAFT DOORS
Non Pressurised Aircraft
On unpressurized aircraft the majority of all external doors, crew, passenger, service
and cargo are outward opening. This is mainly because an inward opening door
requires fuselage space for its opening movement.
Pressurised Aircraft
With pressurised aircraft however, the effect of the differential pressure must be
considered. The load that it imposes tends to open an outward opening door whilst
keeping an inward opening one firmly closed.
Construction
Most doors comprise an inner and an outer skin enclosing horizontal and vertical
stiffeners and the door locking mechanism.
Many have conventional hinges, often mounted horizontally in the case of cargo doors.
Some are attached to hinge beams, which pivot on both the fuselage and the door.
Operation
The majority of doors are both operated and locked manually. On some large ones, the
main cargo doors may be operated hydraulically or by electric actuators.
Internal Doors
These give access between separate compartments and are frequently of light-weight
construction. Where such doors form the only exit from a compartment they may be
designed to collapse easily if they jam shut following an accident.
Gear Doors
These close the undercarriage bays when the legs are retracted and, on some aircraft,
partially close them when the legs are locked down. They may be operated by
mechanical connections to the retraction mechanism or hydraulically.
42
Aeroplanes
LEGISLATION REQUIREMENTS
It must be possible to operate normal exits from inside and outside using one handle
only whose operation shall be rapid and obvious.
Means shall be provided for a direct visual inspection of the locking mechanism to
ascertain whether all external doors for which the initial opening movement is
outwards, are fully locked.
Also for any external doors the closure of which cannot be checked visually from the
flight deck, a visual indicator shall be provided to show that the doors are closed and
in the fully locked position.
DOOR INDICATIONS
These satisfy the last requirement in the preceding paragraph.
They may consist of a separate light for each door, which illuminates to show that the
door is not fully locked, or a single light covering all doors together with a selector switch
to enable the unlocked door to be identified.
It is normal to have the lights controlled by micro switches operated by the door locking
mechanism.
DOOR ALIGNMENT CHECKS
Apart from obvious functioning checks on the doors and their associated systems, it is
customary to measure the clearance between the door and the fuselage surround, to
see that it is within limits.
In addition, on high-speed aircraft, "into wind" and "out of wind" checks are made.
These ascertain that the alignment between the door outer skin and the fuselage skin is
correct. If the door is "into wind" it is protruding beyond the fuselage skin whilst an "out
of wind" condition is the reverse.
43
Aeroplanes
PASSENGER DOORS
Main entry doors on most civil air transports are inwards/outwards opening. That is -
the top and bottom parts of the doors fold inwards to reduce the height of the doors.
They can now be swung outwards completely clear of the exit.
This type of door saves a lot of ground handling damage and is easy to seal.
Figure shows four main entry doors and one escape door overwing.
Aircraft Passenger Doors
The doors shown here are 'main entry' doors but in fact only the convenient doors are
used for embarking and disembarking passengers.
The doors are usually numbered from front to back - left and right. You can see six
doors here but there are another six on the other side.
44
Aeroplanes
Door Construction
Notice the folding parts; they are called upper and lower gates. Not also the pressure
seals, two types are shown:
i) Mechanical,
ii) Diaphragm.
Door Construction Section through A-A
CARGO DOORS
Cargo doors are normally operated through four mechanisms: master latch lock, latch,
hook and life. The master latch lock mechanism is manually operated. The latch, hook
and lift mechanism are electrically powered by electric actuators as shown.
The hook mechanism contains two electric actuator; the latch and life, only one. Each
mechanism is mechanically independent, but electrically sequenced with the other
mechanisms to operate at the correct time in the opening and closing cycles.
45
Aeroplanes
Typical Cargo Door
Manual Drive
A manual drive mechanism is installed to allow the door to be opened in the event of a
failure in the electrical system. Each electric actuator has a manual drive port into
which a tool can be inserted to rotate the actuator manually.
46
Aeroplanes
ACCESS DOORS
Access doors take two forms:
i) Pressure,
ii) Non pressure.
As the same suggests these doors provide a facility for maintenance and repair. They
are pressure doors and you can see from the figure following that they are just as sturdy
as the passenger and cargo door.
Typical Pressure Access Door
Non Pressure Doors
There is no pressure differential across them. Sometimes doors such as these are
designed to 'blow out' if an air duct fails. This prevents a dangerous build up of pressure
inside a compartment.
This type of door is usually provided with a hold-open stay.
47
Aeroplanes
A Non Pressure Access Door
PRESSURE CABIN SOUNDPROOFING
Soundproof lining panels cover the inside walls and ceiling of the pressure cabin in all
areas except the areas covered by system components and exits.
These formed panels are normally manufactured from fibreglass material with a
rubberised outer casing and attached behind the panels are soundproofing blankets
which are made in suitable sizes and shapes to fit into areas between frames and other
structural components. The panels and blankets have attachments to facilitate their
removal for structural inspection purposes.
48
Aeroplanes
A typical blanket is made of fibreglass layers encased in a neoprene coated outer fabric.
Insulation Blanket
The attachment of the blankets to the cabin structure can be achieved in three ways.
i) By using a clip and stud method of attaching the blanket to a structural part of the
aircraft. (see the following figure)
ii) By the use of velcro fastening strips,
iii) By cementing the blankets to the structure.
Clip and Stud Attachment
The insulation blankets perform two major functions within the cabin area, they:
i) Insulate the aircraft interior from the low ambient temperature experienced when
flying at high altitudes,
ii) Soundproof the interior from exterior aircraft noises created by flight conditions
and engine operation.
49
Aeroplanes
The next illustration shows a typical passenger cabin lining blanket. In this case the
blanket is situated behind the cabin sidewall panels, and the blanket is normally
attached by the clip and stud method.
One of the major drawbacks when using insulating blankets is the amount of moisture
the fibreglass material can absorb; cuts or damaged outer rubber covering will let in
moisture that has formed by condensation within the aircraft cabin area. It is important
that, when assembling and fitting insulation blankets, they are correctly sealed and the
outer covering is undamaged.
Typical Passenger Cabin Lining Blanket
50
Aeroplanes
AIRCRAFT DRAINGE
External and internal holes and drain paths are provided in aircraft structures to prevent
water and other fluids from collecting within the structure, which could become a
possible fire and corrosion hazard. Airframe drainage can be divided into two areas:
i) External drains,
ii) Internal drains.
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and
empennage to dump fluid overboard. In non-pressurised areas the drain ports are
always open, but in pressurised areas, air leakage has got to be considered. There are
basically three types of drain valve used for this purpose.
Two types rely upon pressurised air within the cabin to keep the valves closed, one
valve has a rubber flapper seal and the other a spring loaded seal. Both are open when
the aircraft is stationary on the ground, allowing the fluids to drain overboard. During
flight the valves close thus preventing any air losses from the cabin area, as shown in
the figure.
External Drain Valve
This figure also illustrates the use of a leveling compound in areas that may act as a
fluid trap. This compound, normally a rubberised sealant fills the cavity, and brings the
level up to the drain hole, thus ensuring all fluids are allowed to drain out.
Illustrated in the next figure is another type of drain valve. This valve uses cabin
pressure air to close off the drain path, by moving the plunger down to seal the drain.
When cabin pressure is removed, the spring assists the valve to open and drain out any
fluid to atmosphere.
51
Aeroplanes
Drain Valve
To enable the external drains to function correctly, some means must be provided within
the airframe structure to ensure that all fluids are directed towards the external drain
points, this is achieved by using internal drain paths and drain holes.
The internal structure is provided with tubes, channels, dams and drain holes to direct
the flow of fluid towards external drain points. A typical example of this would be holes
drilled in stringers to allow fluids to drain down to the keel beam. Other methods of
draining are shown in the figure on the next page, here drain tubes remove the fluid
from the pressure cabin and direct them through tubes in the wing to the body fairing
and dump the fluids overboard.
Drain Tubes
52
Aeroplanes
CARGO HOLDS
Most passenger aircraft have some sort of cargo compartment, and this is normally
under the passenger cabin floor, as shown:
Cargo Loading
Cargo compartments and fittings can be divided into two systems containerised
compartments and bulk cargo compartments:
Containerised Compartments
The containerised method is a more modern approach to cargo loading, the passengers
luggage or freight is loaded into containers before being loaded into the aircraft. These
containers are of various shapes to ensure a correct fit into the aircraft's cargo hold.
Bulk Cargo Compartments
The bulk cargo arrangement however requires various components within the aircraft
structure to restrain the movement of the smaller items of cargo. This is achieved by
the use of webbing, tie down tracks, anchorplates and nets.
Cargo Bay Arrangement

53
Aeroplanes
The compartment bulkheads, ceilings and wall panels are normally lined with fibreglass,
sheet metal panels and capping strips, and are easily removable for structural
inspections. Situated within the cargo wall you may find some type of pressure
equalising valve, this valve ensures that the cargo compartment is kept to the same
pressure as the cabin.
Illustrated in the next figure, is a typical arrangement of the bulk cargo netting system.
In this case, the web nets can be situated anywhere within the cargo compartment
depending upon the amount of cargo carried.
Typical Bulk Cargo Net Assembly
54
Aeroplanes
The containerised cargo compartment has some means of automatic cargo loading
system incorporated. The only major structural assembly in such a system is the ball
transfer panel (see the following figure). This panel has numerous balls fitted into the
compartment floor that allow the containers to slide easily in and out of the compartment
when unloading or loading is taking place. Obviously once in flight the containers are
locked in position.
Ball Transfer Panel
EXTERNAL FITTINGS
There are many external fittings that for various reasons have to be attached to aircraft
fuselages. They are nearly all vulnerable to damage from ground equipment and
deserve a special inspection at every opportunity. The most frequent scheduled
inspection is before every flight.
Some equipment is faired with fibreglass, so every effort must be made to protect this
type of structure from solvent softening. Skydrol hydraulic fluid is particularly harmful to
fibreglass, as is paint stripper.
55
Aeroplanes
The following external fittings will be considered in this part:
i) Aerials/antenna,
ii) Pitot probes,
iii) Drain masts,
iv) Air intakes,
v) Exhausts
AERIALS/ANTENNAS
Antennas vary in shape and design depending upon the frequency to be transmitted,
and the specific purposes they must serve.
Aircraft aerials/antenna Installation
56
Aeroplanes
Aerials should be installed in a suitably reinforced skin area, in accordance with the
relevant installation drawings. The mating surfaces must be perfectly clean, and in
order to prevent moisture or water from entering the aircraft, and to guard against the
loss of air from pressurised structures, a special sealing gasket should be inserted
between the aerial mounting base and fuselage skin.
BONDING
Radio aerial masts require a bonding check after they have been fitted to ensure
efficient radio reception or transmission as well as for the usual requirements.
To ensure efficient electrical bonding at radio frequencies, some gasket materials either
consist of metal gauze, or are impregnated with carbon or metal particles. Effective RF
bonding can also be ensured by fitting spring contacts to the base of the aerial.
The procedure to be adopted when applying seals, varies between installations and, as
full details are normally given in the relevant Maintenance Manuals, reference should
always be made to such documents.
Inspection - Blade Aerials
At the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule, a blade aerial should
be inspected for security of attachment, cracks around fixing holes, and corrosion or
other damage to the protective finish of the shell.
Erosion
A typical erosion damage is shown. This may be repaired.
Erosion damage
57
Aeroplanes
Aerial Positioning
Considerable modification to both elevation and azimuth patterns is experienced in

practice, mainly as a result of the screening effect of the wings. In general, the
screening effect is most marked where the VHF aerial is mounted within the planform of
the wings, and adjacent to it, e.g., a high wing aircraft with a top fuselage mounted
aerial.
Ventrally Mounted Aerials
Although a ventrally mounted aerial shows a theoretical improvement in range and

distribution over a top mounted aerial, in practice a suitable position may be difficult to
achieve (say on a light aircraft), in which case the CAA recommends a top mounted
aerial. Aerials should preferably be mounted on the centre line of the fuselage, at or
near right angles to the aircraft skin laterally. The minimum distance between aerials,
and between aerials and other protuberances of a similar nature, should be greater than
one wavelength.
Location Examples
Some aerial locations of a heavy jet transport shown in the following figures.
Typical aerial ventral locations
58
Aeroplanes
Typical top mounted aerial positions
PITOT PROBES
The probe should be placed in the airstream where the flow is clean and laminar and
not in any way subject to turbulence for a disturbed airflow would give false readings.
Typical Pitot probe
Typical pitot probe installation
59
Aeroplanes
Pitot tubes and their supporting masts should be inspected for security of mounting and
evidence of damage.
Checks should also be made to ensure that electrical connections are secure. The pitot
pressure entry hole, drain holes, and static holes or ports should be inspected to ensure
that they are unobstructed.
Pitot Head Heaters
The pitot probes (heads) are electrically heated:
i) In the air,
ii) On the ground.
There are often two voltages available; a lower voltage is switched by ground sensing,
(weight switch). The higher voltage is only applied when the aircraft is flying when and
there is a much greater need for ant-icing.
The heating elements should be checked for functioning by ensuring that the pitot tube
begins to warm up when the heater is switched "on". If an ammeter or loadmeter is
installed in the circuit, a current reading should be taken.
Inspection
Any impact damage to a pitot probe is unacceptable and must be rectified at once and
the pitot static system re-calibrated.
The static vent must be completely clear of all obstructions. Pitot head cover and static
vent plugs must be fitted if the aircraft is not due to fly in the near future.
NOTE: Ensure that the pitot head heater is switched off, and that the probe is cold prior
to fitting the pitot head cover.
DRAIN MASTS
The water from the basins in the aircraft toilets together with the waste liquids from the
galleys are drained into a drain system, which is routed to suitably positioned drain
masts.
The drains are streamlined by a fin-shaped fairing and placed at the lowest points of the
fuselage along the center-line.
60
Aeroplanes
Here is an arrangement for a heavy air transport.
Position of drain masts
Attachment
The drain fairing attachment is secured with bolts and a seal in a similar manner to that
for an aerial fairing.
Bonding
It is important to bond the drain masts. A bonding lead called a bonding jumper is used.
Heating/Ant-Ice
To prevent the drain masts from blocking up they must be kept free of ice, this is done
by using ribbon heaters as shown.
61
Aeroplanes
Drain Mast Heater
The voltage across the heaters changes from a ground voltage to a flight voltage as the
aircraft leaves the ground.
AIR INTAKES
There are various types of air intake throughout the fuselage to meet the many
requirements of the aircraft systems. The air conditioning is such a system.
These intakes or ducts are very carefully shaped so that they incur as few air losses as
possible. Such losses would mainly be caused by the ducts disturbing the airflow and
producing excessive drag. There will always be drag, but it must be kept to a minimum.
The name given to the typical air intake or duct is the N.A.C.A. duct. The shape was
designed in America by the National Advisory Council for Aeronautics. It is often
referred to as a NACA duct.
A fuel system venting intake formed in the shape of a N.A.C.A. duct is shown. The
shape is very similar to the Concorde wing plan form.
N.A.C.A. Air Intake
62
Aeroplanes
Inspection
When inspecting these ducts the smoothness of the surfaces in contact with the airflow
should be checked. Even a rivet protruding a small amount can cause a great deal of
turbulence and therefore drag.
Birds have been known to nest in these ducts if the aircraft has been standing a while.
On the ground in cold weather there is always the danger of icing. If ice builds up the
airflow will be reduced but, even more important, there is the risk of ingestion of the ice
into the system.
EXBAUSTS
There are many types of exhaust which pass unwanted air overboard. The electronic
equipment produces more heat than is good for it and this requires a cooling system
which exhausts overboard.
The galleys and lavatories may be vented through this type of exhaust. The same
precautions followed for air intakes generally apply when inspecting exhaust ducts. In
this case however, the ice would cause an obstruction to the outflow of air.
Great care must be taken to ensure all blanks, covers, silencers and exhaust plugs are
removed before the systems are operated.
PANELS AND RACKS
This part deals with those parts of the structure that may not be given as much attention
as they deserve. They are:
i) Instrument panels,
ii) Consoles,
iii) Electronic equipment racks,
iv) Stowages
However, they are important and they need just as much attention as any other part of
the structure.
Instrument Panels And Consoles
In an aircraft there may be a number of instrument panels and/or consoles. This part
will cover those found in a typical large transport aircraft.
63
Aeroplanes
Centre Console
It consists of a number of instrument panels fitted together. One frequent problem here
is that members of the technical crew have been known to spill coffee over this console,
with subsequent electrical problems. Another problem that can arise is that the
switches become damaged as the crew climb in and out of their seats.
The majority of the panels on the centre console are easily removed for quick
replacement. However, engineers are often in a hurry when changing these panels and
the fixing screws become damaged.
Typical Transport Aircraft Center Console
64
Aeroplanes
Forward Panel
There are a number of panels in front of the pilot or pilots. They are underneath a
screen called a glare shield. The panel shown carries the essential flying instruments.
These instruments are duplicated but independent and are provided for both pilots.
Typical of the instruments to be found on such panels are:
i) Altimeter,
ii) Airspeed indicator,
iii) Compass,
iv) Horizontal situation indicator.
Typical Essential Flying Instrument Panel
Instrument panels are mounted on anti-vibration mountings to minimise the risk of

damage to instrument caused by vibration.
Typical checks include:
i) All markings to be legible,

ii) Instrument glass to be undamaged and clean,
iii) Instrument lights to be serviceable,.
iv) All components to be in date
65
Aeroplanes
RADIO AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT RACKS
Cooling
A typical cooling system for a large electronic rack is shown. Air is drawn across the
equipment racks to cool the equipment and then dumped overboard.
Cooling of Equipment Racks Air Ducts
Bonding
All electronic and radio equipment racks must be bonded for the usual reasons.
66
Aeroplanes
STOWAGES
There are many types of stowage on transport aircraft, which are in constant use by
passengers and crew. These stowages are subjected to rough treatment and their
catches, in particular, need some special attention during maintenance.
Security
If a worn catch releases an overhead stowage and it falls on a passenger's head, the
consequences could be severe for both the passenger and the aircraft operator.
Types of Stowage
Here is a list of some types of stowage:
i) Overhead stowage
ii) Sidewall stowage
iii) Centre ceiling stowage
iv) Forward wardrobe stowage
v) Life raft stowage
vi) Lavatory stowage lockers
vii) Projector stowage
The stowage doors are often made from fibreglass or honeycomb section.
Many types of stowage have a range of retaining catches. These catches are often
made from nylon and may be prone to breakage.
Projector Stowage
Long haul aircraft have projector stowages, which require appropriate inspection. The
projectors, if carried, are very heavy and the inspection must ensure that the catches
and their retaining brackets are complete and undamaged. There are usually two
catches and they should both be secure when the stowage is closed.
Stowage Secondary Latches
Secondary latches are another method of safe retention. Stowage bins containing
projector units are the same as the standard bins except for the addition of an aft
secondary latch. The secondary latch is installed in a manner opposite to that of the
standard latches; the latch striker is attached to the bin and the latch is attached to the
vertical support. When the primary latch is released, the bin opens one or two inches,
where it is held by the secondary latch. From this position, raising then lowering the bin
releases the secondary latch, allowing the bin to be fully opened.
67

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HKAR-66 Module 11b Theory of Flight

Aeroplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

ELEVATOR AND STABILIZER

DIFFERENTIAL AILERON CONTROL

positive angle produces a nose-down attitude. Such a stabiliser is known as a

SPOILERS, AIRBRAKES OR LIFT DUMP

The two uses of speed brakes we have looked at are:

(i) airborne speed brakes (flight spoilers),

SPOILER IN ROLL CONTROL

Set Back Hinge

Inset Hinge Balance

Sealed Nose Balance/Balance Panel

Sealed Nose Balance

Aerodynamic Balance Panel

Servo System of Balance

CONTROL SURFACE FLUTTER AND MASS BALANCE

Fluttering with Unbalanced Surfaces

HIGH LIFT DEVICES

The chief devices used to augment the CL max are: -

(a) Slats and slots

SLOTS AND SLATS

c. Controlled slots or slats

Cross Section of a Leading Edge Flap

Lift Augmentation by Flaps

Lift Augmentation: Flaps & Slats

At standard sea level condition:

Speed of sound = 661 knots

i.e. it takes less than 5 seconds to travel a mile.

M = True Air Speed / Local Speed of Sound = V / a

Free stream Mach number

Local Mach number

Critical Mach number (Mcrit)

MACH WEDGE OR CONE

A supersonic airstream passing through an expansion wave experiences these changes:

a. The airstream is slowed, but is still supersonic.

The free stream speed is greater than M = 5.0.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUBSONIC & SUPERSONIC FLOWS

Duct Shape Subsonic Flow Supersonic Flow

Convergent V increases V decreases

Divergent V decreases V increase

When a steady flow is accelerated the streamlines:

a. Converge at speeds less than M = 1.0

DEVELOPMENT OF SHOCK WAVES ON WING SECTIONS

Typical Subsonic: M =0.75

Lift Versus Mach Number at M = 0.75

Slightly Over Mcrit: M=0.81

Lift Versus Mach Number at M = 0.81

Second Shock Wave on Lower Surface: M = 0.89

Lift Versus Mach Number at M = 0.89

Beginning Supersonic Flow: M = 0.98

Lift Versus Mach Number at M = 0.98

Bow Shock Waves: M = 1.4

Lift Versus Mach Number at M = 1.4

The associated increase in drag is known as wave drag.

TRIM CHANGES (TUCK-UNDER)

The change of trim is made even worse by the loss of control.

DUTCH ROLL & OTHER OSCILLATIONS

Dutch Roll oscillation

Loss of control response

Loss of response leading possibly to loss of effectiveness is encountered when shock

Erratic control movements (snatch)

Increased control forces

Increased longitudinal stability

SPECIAL DESIGNS AND ARTIFICIES