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Purpose
How high power waves signals are generated and amplified?
Topics
Frequency Limitation of Conventional Tubes
Multi-cavity Klystron
Reflex Klystron
Magnetron
Twt
This unit will introduce to tube electronics..
Vacuum Tubes
Triodes, Tetrodes, Pentodes etc.
High Power (<1GHz)
Types of
Tube Electronics wave Tubes
Klystron, Magnetron, TWT etc.
High Power (>1GHz)
2
Why tubes?
Certain applications areas where high
power wave signals are required and
low power electronics fails!
3
Potential areas..
Satellite is a special communication technique to broadcast/receive
message over large population on earth
Large dish
Satellite
Lead Inductance
inter-Electrode Capacitance
Possible Reasons!
Transit Time
GBP Limitation!
Ref: Lio Book (3rd ED); pp. 338-341 ; Kennedy Book (4th ED); pp. 378-380
Lead Inductance
Triode Model
G P
Load
Inductance
K
Cgp=gate- to- plate capacitance ; Cgk=gate- to- cathode capacitance ; rp= plate
resistance
Load= tuned at operating frequency
Parasitic Lk (> 1 GHz) reduces the gain due to negative voltage series feedback
Inter- electrode capacitance
LF< 1 GHz wave> 1 GHz
P (O/P)
Inter- electrode P (O/P)
capacitance Inter- electrode
capacitance
C = 1 pF
C = 1 pF
1 59k
~1 0
G (I/P)
G (I/P)
C
C
Coated with
Why is reduced? tungston- iridium
REASON Being
P (+) Grid potential oscillate back and forth 1 0
to 1 00 time during transit time for
f> 1 GHz
Other consequences
Lower transcoductance (gm) as less carrier
reach to the plate
Plate and grid are 1 800 phase outcause
C (- ) problem in design of a feedback oscillator
GBP Limitation!
Amplifier + Resonant load
Constant GBP
Solution!
wave tubes could maintain higher gain over WIDER band
Re- Cap!
Tubes electronics primarily deals with carriers flow
in evacuated chamber!
High Efficiency
-
More bulkier than semiconductor
technology
What is VM?
What is VM?
An arrangement to produce Velocity when Cavity Maintained at positive potential
fine beam of electrons electrons enter to collects electron from gun
Electron Collector
Gun
Velocity : v0 Velocity: v(t)=v0v
Velocity when
electrons leave
d = separation between
two walls of cavity
rf field
When electrons are passed through rf field, some electrons have their velocities
increased and some will have their velocities decreased when voltage is reversed.
Wave Tubes
Construction!
They include:
e-Gun, Cavities
Elaborate potential arrangement for acceleration
of carriers
rf Input rf Output
v0
v(t1 ) L+ d L+ 2d
d
V0 Bunched electron
Collector
Bunching space L
Electron gun t0 t1
t2 t3
e- Gun
An arrangement by which fine electron beams are produced
electrons It include:
Heater, Filament, Cathode Coated with
tungston-iridium for long life
performance
Cathode
Cathode
Heating
Cavities
These are non-resonant structures and used to feed input to and collect
output from wave tubes.
l
Using the Maxwells theory, one can arrive at the final
expression as:
d
d
tan l =
2b 2a
a 2 ln(b a )
Since it involves tangent function, which has infinite
number of solution and therefore multiple frequencies can
be supported.
This can be interpreted as number of tank circuits connected in parallel
(deferring slightly in their central frequencies).
C1 C2 Cn 1 1
f1 = ; f2 = so on...
L1 ... 2 L1C1 2 L2C 2
L2 Ln
Overall
response
Gain
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 Frequency
l
Working!
Applied rf on cavity modulates the velocity of electrons velocity
which help to form e- cluster
Energy
pulse
e- cluster
Amplified Output
e- cluster/Bunch
Some electrons enter into cavity at a time when rf field is negative,
their velocity get SLOWER
- SLOWER
+ FASTER
gap gap
voltage Vs = V1 sin(t )
V1 << V0 time
Bunching limit
Answer!
Higher Order
Cluster
Out of cluster
Applegate
diagram
Bunch limit Bunch limit Bunch limit
rf t
"Bunch window"
Slow electrons catch with fast and form cluster down the drift space.
Many out of cluster electrons reach at the cavity and cause
undesirable effect on gain and noise performances.
Outcome!
Towards Catcher
A
t
Oscillation
at f is
sustained
and rest
A other die
t out.
When the
energy pulse
arrive at
catcher can be
L controlled by
appropriate
choice of drift
Pulse should be made to arrive at a point when rf space L.
field at the positive peak and going negative. Why?
C1 C2 Cn
L1 ...
L2 Ln
high energy
pulses are
Electron gun Collector generated
Energy Pulses!
Multi- cavity =2- cavity
Multi- cavity + Intermediate cavity
2- cavity
Towards Collector
e- clusters improve as they move
toward collector compared to fixed
value cluster in 2- cavity
Ref: Lio Book (3rd ED); pages: 362- 363
Input
At Glance!
Improved e- cluster High energy pulse
C1 C2 Cn
L1 ...
L2 Ln
Improved
performance
> 40% Higher Output
Gain 50- 60 dB
A Quantitative
Look!
Mathematical Expressions for Efficiency and
Gain for 2- Cavity Klystron will be presented
sin( g / 2 )
i = = Beam Coupling Coefficient (BCC)
g / 2
2e g
v( t1 ) = V0 + iV1 sin( t 0 + ) = VM When iV1 << V0
m 2
VM
iV1 g iV1 g
v ( t 1 ) = v0 1 + sin( t 0 + ) Or v ( t 1 ) = v 0 1 +
sin( t 1 )
2V0 2 2V0 2
Ref: Lio Book (3rd ED. ); pages: 345- 357
Transit Time
L L L iV1 g
T = t 2 t1 = = sin( t 1 )
v ( t 1 ) v0 v0 2V0 2
L L iV1 g
T = t 2 t 1 = sin( t 1 )
v0 v0 2V0 2
DC transit Bunching
angle 0 parameter X
i 2 f = 2I 0 J 1 ( X ) ; fundamental component
Maximum
Value i2f is maximum when X=1.841
0. 582
(X)
1 . 841
LOPT
Spacing L
between
2-cavity need
to be
carefully
adjusted
for better
result.
L
With X=1.841, L=LOPT and with this value L performances are
improved..because i2 induced maximum voltage in the cavity
(O/P)
L iV1
0 ;
= X = 0
v0 2V0
3.682v0V0
LOPT =
iV1
Efficiency
Cavity model Load
0 I2 0 I 2V2
Pout =
2
Pout 0 I 2V2
= =
Pdc 2 I 0V0
C L Rsh I2MAX=2I00. 582; when X=1 . 841
V2
If 0 1 and V2=V0, then
f =
1 MAX 58%
2 LC
Practical value
1 5- 30%
Gain AV
V2 0 I 2 Rsh
AV = =
V1 V1
L
I 2 = 2 0I 0 J 1 ( X ) 0 =
v0
V0 V1
R0 = X = 0
I0 2V0
02 0 J 1 ( X )
AV = Rsh
R0 X
Space- charge effect
(2- Cavity)
Electrons in cluster repel each others, when this effect is accounted, then
the magnitude of current i2 induced in catcher cavity can be expressed as:
1 I 0
i2 = i V1
2 V0 q
V2 = O i2 R sh 1 I 0 2
V2 = O V1 Rsh
2 V0 q
2
1 I
= V2 / Rsh = 0 O4 V1 Rsh
2 2
POUT
4 V0 q
2
1 I 0 4
2
POUT POUT 1 I 0 V1 4
AV = = O Rsh Rshi = = O Rsh
4 V0 q I 0V0 4 V0 V0 q
2
V1 / Rshi
Where Rshi is resistance of input cavity Ref: Lio Book; pages: 363- 367
4- Cavity
V1 1 st 2nd 3rd
+ ve
1 I 0 2
I 2 = O i2 = O V1 V2 = I 2 Rsh I 3 V3 I 4 V4
2 V0 q
Analysis 4- Cavity
Current expression i3 for 2nd intermediate cavity can be written as:
1 I 0 1 I 0 2
i3 = 0 V2 V2 = O V1 Rsh
2 V0 q 2 V0 q
2
1 I
2
i3 = 0 O3 V1 Rsh 1 I 0 4
V3 = O i3 Rsh = V R 2
4 V0 q 4 V0 q
O 1 sh
2 V0 q 8 V0 q
O 1 sh
6 Derive
1 I 0 12 2 4 2 expression
= V4 / Rsh = O V1 Rsh Rsh
2
POUT for - - HW
64 V0 q
A
t
When any system is switched ON/OFF, due to noise
oscillations are set up but they quickly die out.
Sustained
Oscillation
A
t
Draw circuit- - - HW
Oscillator's Circuits
Oscillator=Amplifier + Proper feedback Oscillations
O/P started
through
FB switching/
noise is
sustained
at f
through
proper FB
V0
>1 Cavity
In Multi- cavity (> 1 cavity) frequency adjustment of each cavity is
required.
f f f f + ve
--------
f f+ f f+ 2f f+ 3f
No tunability issue
Why as an oscillator?
0 v0 v0
v(t1 )
+ peak L
d
L+ d
VR
VO t0 t1
Repellar space 0 t2 Z
E- Cluster/Bunch
+ peak = electrons see positive rf potential and go deeper into repallar
space;
+
- peak= electrons see negative rf and travel less deep into repallar
space.
-
0 = no change in velocity.
Electrons getting out of the gun over the period (+ peak 0 - peak) will have
fair chance to return back to the cavity together and form a cluster.
Outcome!
e- clusters are formed and arrive at cavity and transfer energy to rf
field.
Returns to Cavity
A- diagram
Reference point for 2 mode
- - HW
T = n + 3/4
0
One bunch + Peak - Peak t
per cycle
A
t
V. M. e- cluster
C1 C2 Cn
L1 ...
L2 Ln
rf Output
A Quantitative Look!
Mathematical Expressions for Efficiency
and fOSC for Reflex Klystrons will be
derived
d 2z Vr + V0
m 2 = eE = e V1 sin( t ) << Vr + V0
dt L
dz
At t = t1 , = v ( t1 ) and z = d
dt
e( Vr + V0 )
z= ( t t 1 )2 + v ( t 1 )( t t 1 ) + d
2 mL
Transit Time
t2= time when cluster return back to - Ve
cavity
2 mL iV1 g
T = t 2 t1 =
'
v ( t 1 ) v ( t 1 ) = v0 1 + sin( t 1 )
e( Vr + V0 ) 2V0 2
Bunch Parameter X
2mL i V1 g
T = t 2 t1 =
'
v 0 1 + sin( t 1 )
e(Vr + V0 ) 2V0 2
DC transit
angle T0'
iV1 '
g
T = ( t 2 t1 ) = T
'
0
'
T0 sin(t1 )
2V0 2
DC transit Bunching
angle 0' parameter X
2 mL
0' =
v0 = 2 n 0
e( Vr + V0 ) 2 + Peak - Peak
Bunch Limit
iV1 V 2 X '
2 X ' J1( X ' )
X' = 0' 1
= =
2V0 V0 ( 2n )
i ( 2n )
2 2
' '
V1 I 2 2 V I X J ( X )
Pac = = V1 I 0 i J 1 ( X ) =
' 0 0 1
2
( 2n )
2
. . Pac collected depends on n
fOSC
2e 2 mL
T = 2n
'
v0 = V0 T =
'
v0
0
2 m
0
e( Vr + V0 )
V0 ( 2n )2 e
= 2
f OSC = / 2
( Vr + V0 ) 2
8 2 L2 m
Magnetron & TWT are the two wave tubes where rf & e- beam interact
CONTINUOUSLY
High performances
Application Areas..
As a signal source in upper UHF up to 1 00GHz
Used in high power RADAR and communication
equipments
Magnetron
Cavity Anode(0V)
There can be
many cavities
Output cavity but magnetron
with 08
cavities are
more
When popular. .
cathode is due to
heated up improved
es are performances
emitted
out
radically.
Electric field
Direction
H- field of motion
2 m
n = , where m is an integer
N
It has been found that magnetrons with m=4 and N=8 gives
improved performance (Ref: Kennedy book; p. 394)
n =
Cavity
c =
Interaction Moving
space rf field
Working!
rf interact with e- beam continuously in Magnetrons. .
Energy
transfer
e- beams Weak rf High O/P
Design Maxwells equations are required to
derive rotating rf field expression
Phase constant
- component 2 m
of rf field 0 =
NL
E 0 = jE 1e j ( t 0 )
Angular velocity
of rf field
d d
L = = 0
dt 0 dt
meV 2 V eB
= eVB c = =
R R me
Angular velocity
of e- beam
C1 C2 Cn
L1 ...
L2 Ln
rf Output
Analysis
Simplified model of coupled cavity.
N=8
Associated losses have been ignored.
O/P
Cavity
V= rf voltage
induced
C=capacitance
L=inductance
Gr= loss
Gl= load
Model of Load
Cavity
c
Unloaded Q
How to maximize C?
0C
Qunloaded =
Gr Possible solution: Gl> > Gr but
it results in frequency
Loaded Q instability
External Q
0C 0C
Qext = Ql =
Gl Gr + Gl A more realistic solution!
Circuit
Efficiency
Gl 1 1 A reasonably high Gl satisfy
c = = = the conflicting requirements
Gl + Gr 1 + Gr Q of high efficiency &
1 + ext
Gl Qtun frequency stability.
1 2 0C
Pgen = NV Lio Book page no. 433
2 Ql
depends on
1 2 0C cavity structure
NV N and dc power
2 Ql 0C
= where Q l =
V0 I 0 Gr + Gl
Ref: Lio Book (3rd ED) ; Pages: 433
TWT
Used as LNA> 3GHz
High performances
Application areas
TWT
rf Slowed rf
SWS
d
d
vp= phase velocity along the pitch ; c= phase velocity along the coil ; = pitch angle
By appropriate choice of p & d, vp can be adjusted equal vo and continuous interaction
is possible.
Design!
By design ensure vp v0 , so as to achieve best performance
Gr- 1 : Sr. No. 1 - 1 1 ; Gr- 2: 1 2- 22; Gr- 3: 23- 33; Gr- 4: 34- 44;
Gr- 5: 45- 55
When students are called for tutorial, they are required to report
along with:
Updated class notes;
Exercises/HWs given in class completed till date etc.
Purpose!
Students take interest in day- to- day class activities
Working!
E z = E1 sin( t z) Ez=Field along the axis of helix Ref: Lio Book; Page 390
Some electrons enter into Helix at a time when rf field exerts retarding
force, their velocity get SLOWER
Ez
+ SLOWER
Some electrons enter into Helix at a time when rf field exerts accelerating
force , their velocity get faster
Ez
- FASTER
Some electrons enter into Helix at a time when rf field is in ZERO their
velocity do not change
NO CHANGE
As a result electrons begin to form cluster around those that enter
into the helix when E- field is "ZERO"
Input Working!
Further improved
e-cluster
Similar Gain as
Clusters High
Are As
Formed ~80dB
Along Is
The Achieved
Helix With
And Extremely
rf Low
Amplitude noise
grow
At Glance!
Applied rf grows as it move along the HELIX
Exponentially
rising waveform
VIN=V(0) VOUT=V(L)
Length, L
Differences
TWT can be modeled as coupled cavities,
whereas in klystron each cavity is
independent
Gr- 1 : Sr. No. 1 - 1 1 ; Gr- 2: 1 2- 22; Gr- 3: 23- 33; Gr- 4: 34- 44;
Gr- 5: 45- 55
When students are called for tutorial, they are required to report
along with:
Updated class notes;
Exercises/HWs given in class completed till date etc.
Purpose!
Students take interest in day- to- day class activities