Educational Action Research

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Action research and reflective practice: towards a

holistic view

Ruth Leitch & Christopher Day

To cite this article: Ruth Leitch & Christopher Day (2000) Action research and reflective
practice: towards a holistic view, Educational Action Research, 8:1, 179-193, DOI:
10.1080/09650790000200108

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 Educational Action Research, Volume 8, Number 1, 2000

Action Research and

Reflective Practice:
towards a holistic view

RUTH LEITCH
Queens University of Belfast, United Kingdom
CHRISTOPHER DAY
University of Nottingham, United Kingdom
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ABSTRACT Two concepts that have captured the imagination of the educational
community in the last 60 years have been those of reflective practice and
action research. Both, in their various forms, are considered to be critical
dimensions of the professional development of teachers. However, whilst both
were receiving academic attention during the 1930s and 1940s (Lewin, 1934,
cited in Adelman, 1993; Lewin, 1946; Dewey, 1933), it was not until
Stenhouses (1975) notion of the teacher-as-researcher that the two came most
compellingly into relationship and educational action research as a process,
which held at its centre different kinds of reflection, began to be reformulated in
Britain (Carr, 1993). This article considers the important part played in
teachers development by different kinds of action research. Its central thesis is
that, although action research has a critical role to play not least as a means of
building the capacity of teachers as researchers of their own practice, there has
been insufficient attention given to both the nature of reflection in the action
research process, and its relationship to the purposes, processes and
outcomes. The article challenges the rational, cognitive models of reflection that
are implicit in much of the action research literature. It suggests that more
attention needs to be given to the importance of the role of emotion in
understanding and developing the capacities for reflection which facilitates
personal, professional and ultimately system change.

Reflection and Reflective Practice

... the way of teaching demands a long journey that does not have
any easily identifiable destination ... It is a journey that I believe

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 Ruth Leitch & Christopher Day

must include a backward step into the self and it is a journey that
is its own destination. (Tremmel, 1993, p. 456)
In any analysis, it is initially important to differentiate the terms reflection
and reflective practice. Reflection is considered as a process or activity that
is central to developing practices (Dewey 1933, 1938; Loughran, 1996).
However, although it retains connotations of thinking processes and
contemplative self-examination, in this context it seems to remain more a
metaphor for representing a process of learning from experience than a term
which might be subject to more detailed analysis. In the literature, for
example, reflection is predominantly associated with acts of cognition that
are linked to learning how rather than learning about or what. Dewey
(1933, p. 12) defined reflective thinking as a number of phases in thinking,
i.e. a state of doubt, hesitation or mental difficulty in which thinking
originates, followed by an act of searching or inquiring to find material that
will resolve the doubt. In 1996, Loughran, drawing on the work of Dewey
(1933) and Goodman (1984), defined reflection as the deliberate and
purposeful act of thinking which centres on ways of responding to problem
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situations (p. 14). Thus, reflection is associated with thinking and is judged
to involve the cognitive processes of both problem finding and problem-
solving, concepts which continue to fascinate in cognitive psychology (Arlin,
1990; Csikszentmihalyi & Sawyers, 1995).
It was Schn, in the mid-1980s, who distinctively popularised the
image of the reflective practitioner by extending Deweys (1933)
foundational ideas on reflection through observing how practitioners think
in action. This led to Schn (1983) coining reflection-on-action and
reflection-in-action as the two forms of reflective thinking. His model of the
epistemology of practice (p. 49) was timely and well received within teacher
education and research. According to Schn (1983) reflection-in-action
acknowledges the tacit processes of thinking which accompany doing, and
which constantly interact with and modify ongoing practice in such a way
that learning takes place. Much of this may remain unconscious, tacit and
unverbalised (Clark & Yinger, 1977), though Loughran (1996) suggests that,
in meeting unanticipated problem situations, reflection-in-action comprises
reframing the problem and improvising on the spot so that the experience
will be viewed differently. Reflection-on-action, on the other hand, is viewed
as teachers thoughtful consideration and retrospective analysis of their
performance in order to gain knowledge from experience. Russell & Munby
(1992) describe it succinctly as the systematic and deliberate thinking back
over ones actions (p. 3). These two processes together, in Schns terms,
form the core professional artistry of the reflective practitioner. Subsequent
research has been focused on determining that reflective practice exists,
and identifying enabling and disenabling conditions which affect its use,
and the means by which it might be fostered within all levels of the teaching
profession.

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Schns notion of reflective practice was a reaction against an

instrumental notion of teaching where the teacher is a technician
implementing others knowledge in practice (Schn, 1983).[1] However, it
and many other texts on reflection present an essentially rational, problem-
solving means of learning rooted as it is in cognitive psychology, with its
emphasis on critical thinking. Johnston & Badley (1996, p. 4) defined
reflective practice as the acquisition of a critical stance or attitude towards
ones own practice and that of ones peers. The essential concern is the
explication of meanings and understandings of teachers as they engage in
actual practice across diverse teaching contexts (Grimmett et al, 1990).
Critical theorists have extended Schns categories adding reflection about
action as a means of ensuring that teachers reflect on the social, economic
and political purposes and conditions of teaching and learning, as well as
the school and classroom contexts (Zeichner, 1993). These notions continue
to form the basis of much of the thinking about the nature of reflection and
the development of effective reflective practitioners in the teaching
profession. Reflective practice in these terms entails making conscious and
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explicit the dynamic interplay between thinking and action, what Shulman
(1987) terms the wisdom of teaching, so that teachers may become
thoughtful and learn from their work in the light of purposes and principles,
which are moral (Sockett, 1993).
Dewey (1933) considered reflection in practice as having a moral base,
where professional actions would be treated as experimental, and the
individual would reflect both on their actions and their consequences. The
relationship of effectiveness to moral purposes of teaching remains a key
area in the international debate on the nature of teachers professionalism
(Jackson et al, 1993; Goodson & Hargreaves, 1996). Thus, while a reflective
practitioner may be concerned to improve practice and to develop additional
competence, what defines the effective reflective practitioner is more a set of
attitudes towards practice based upon broader understandings of self,
society and moral purposes than those which seek simply to increase
efficiency in relation to delivery and narrowly conceived achievement
targets. It is particularly important in current policy contexts for those
engaged in action research to be clear about its purpose. Zeichner & Gore
(1995) advocate a social reconstructionist approach to action research
aimed at, for example, politicising student teachers reflective abilities:
while we are interested in reflection about teaching practices ...
and student teachers practical theories ... we are also concerned
with encouraging action research that contributes towards the
elimination of the social conditions that distort self-understandings
of teachers and undermine the educative potential and moral base
of schooling and teacher education. (p. 19)
Serving teachers needs are even more complex. For example, there is in
England, a growing concern of a double-edge sword creeping into

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 Ruth Leitch & Christopher Day

government directives in the area of research, which may ultimately have an

impact on the quality, purposes and outcomes of teacher research. In recent
years, with others, David Hargreaves (1996), has presented the case for,
among other substantial changes, greater involvement of teachers as
practitioners in the research process, in order to establish a reliable,
evidence-base of what teachers do in classrooms (p. 7). Employing the
parallel of medicine as an established, evidence-based profession, teachers
would engage systematically and actively in the process of problem-based
learning in order to benefit practice in the field of education. Such an
outcome is entirely consistent with the notion of the teacher as reflective
practitioner (p. 8). However, whilst this bears all the hallmarks of a political
endorsement [see Teacher Training Agency (TTA), 1996] of an action
research paradigm, the model which he presents implicitly is one involving
technical reflection as a means of increasing teachers efficiency in
delivering the curriculum, rather than, for example, building problem-
solving, and self-evaluation capacities and understandings of the effects on
teaching and learning of broader social and policy contexts. Action research
of this kind could provide merely a convenient, and legitimate means by
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which individual and groups of teachers may indirectly receive support and
encouragement for change, whilst being unwittingly channelled into taking
on responsibility for solving problems and conflicts, the sources of which are
manifestly outside their making. Thus, while still holding a key role in
encouraging reflective practice, there are clearly different modes of action
research, which according to purpose will have different kinds of benefits,
signal the kinds of teaching practices which are encouraged or discouraged
by policy makers and, more importantly, define the meaning of
professionalism.

The Role of Reflective Practice in

the Professional Development of Teachers
There are three reasons why reflective practice is increasingly being
recognised as being essential to good teaching and having a central role in
the learning life of the effective teacher (Day, 1993, p. 83). The first
concerns the nature of teaching. The assumption is that since teaching and
learning are complex processes and since there is not necessarily one right
approach (Loughran, 1996), deliberating among competing versions of good
teaching and recasting past understandings and current practices
(Grimmett et al, 1990) are likely to lead to improvement. Without a capacity
to evaluate assumptions, teachers will be more inclined to remain prisoners
of (their) programs (Argyris & Schn, 1976, cited in Day, 1985, p. 137) and,
as a result, their professional effectiveness in circumstances which
inevitably change over time will be decreased. The second is that engaging
in reflective practice is a means of helping individuals towards greater self-
knowledge and self-challenge a useful way of achieving personal
development (Johnston & Badley, 1996, p. 5) through, for example, an
analysis of the personal values and theories that underlie teaching. Finally

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(and here the link with action research becomes sharper), reflective practice
is considered to be central to the growth of teachers as inquirers who
engage in collaborative research with others from inside and outside the
school in generating knowledge of practice rather than finding themselves
as objects whose role is to implement existing theory in practice (Peters,
1985). However, research continues to reveal that there is a continuum of
reflective practice that exists within the profession (Ebbutt, 1989; Day,
1999). Teachers may reflect in differing ways at different times. It is
important, therefore, to recognise the impact of teachers positions in their
career and life cycle, and the effects of the organisational and cultural
contexts in which they work if opportunities for their professional growth to
be maximised (Day, 1993).

The Relationship between Different Orientations

of Action Research and Reflective Practice
Examination of the action research literature reveals that its goals like those
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of reflective practice are change and improvement (Corey, 1952, 1953; Carr
& Kemmis, 1986; Whitehead, 1989; Elliott, 1991; Atkin, 1993). The ways in
which the reflective inquiry processes within action research are framed and
interpreted, however, relate to the underpinning epistemology of the action
research model being employed whether, for example, the goal is for
teachers to become more effective or efficient or empowered. The
relationship between particular models of action research and types of
reflective processes is graphically demonstrated by Grundys (1982) typology
[2], that distinguishes between technical, practical and emancipatory models
of action research. Technical action research seeks to deliver more efficient
effective practice through the practical skill of the participants (Grundy,
1982, p. 357). With its emphasis on orderly sequencing of research and the
use of methods associated with the social science paradigm, it seems to
require technical research expertise which may be externally provided, and
thus this model presents less opportunity for the development of teachers
capacities for reflection in or on practice. Altrichter & Posch (1989) warn
that this can also restrict practitioners to a subordinate, technical-rational
approach to teaching without developing reflective features of professional
action (p. 91). Reflection in this approach, is likely to be related to solving
immediate pressing problems of efficient and effective delivery of curricula.
It is likely to be orientated towards the development of pedagogical
strategies, skills and tactics
In contrast, practical action research aims to improve practice through
the application of practical judgement and the accumulated personal
wisdom of the teacher. Models of action research falling within this frame
are as concerned with process as the end product of inquiry. They rely not
only on the exercise of moral and practical judgement by teachers, but also
their capacities to identify issues or problems that are salient to this in
these professional contexts. Reflective processes within this action research
approach are likely to focus upon building teachers capacities to self-

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evaluate. Elliotts (1991) revision of Lewins (1952) self-reflective spiral of

cycles, which entail the steps of observe-reflect-plan-act-evaluate, provides
an approach for undertaking practical action research of this kind. Here the
aim is to improve the quality of action within a situation. Theory is
generated and validated through the examination of practice by the
practitioner rather than being independently applied. For Elliott (1991)
Action initiates reflection (p. 23). He emphasises the recurrent feature of
reconnaissance, in the action research cycle, which involves analysis and
reflection of the situation, rather than merely fact-finding. His elaboration of
techniques to gather evidence for reconnaissance and monitoring (e.g.
diaries, analytic memos, running commentary) seems to demonstrate the
value to learning and change of more introspective, self-reflexive kinds of
analysis. However, closer examination reveals that these are for largely task-
orientated purposes. He cautions that although the process of analysis is
an endless one, ... in action research (it) must be interrupted for the sake of
action (p. 74), a warning later echoed in the words of Bridget Somekh
(1995):
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Too much emphasis on the importance of self in action research

can distract the practitioner from the substantive focus of the
study. There is a tendency for some action research to become
ingrown and contentless, so that self-exploration and personal
growth seem to become the whole focus and purpose of the
research. This may be an effective form of therapy, but it is difficult
to call it research. (p. 348)
Thus, within practical action research of this type, we have a version of
reflective practice, which focuses almost exclusively on the individual in the
professional domain with self-awareness only important as a precondition
for the practitioners professional development (Elliott, 1978). However, this
model is limiting also, since it seems to rely solely upon transactional
experience and as a result, writers such as Handal & Lauvas (1987) remain
essentially pessimistic about serving teachers opportunities to move beyond
practical reflection. Although it does acknowledge the moral base of teaching
and the broader social justice values, which are central to the third
approach, it does not necessarily result in the development or
transformation of teachers perspectives of self nor the raising to awareness
of what being a professional may mean in terms of the construction or
reconstruction of identity.
Emancipatory action research is the third mode identified by Grundy
(1982). Its purpose is the emancipation of participants in the action from
the dictates of compulsions of tradition, precedent, habit, coercion as well
as from self-deception (Grundy, 1982, p. 358). It is, therefore, outwardly
directed toward the social or educational system, as well as being focused
upon individual practice. There are two main contrasting, but
complementary approaches, both of which present serious challenges to the
definition of teaching as a profession offered by the two previous types of

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action research. In the first approach, Carr & Kemmis (1986) view it as a
collective, collaborative activity engaged in by a self-critical community of
practitioners, who are committed to transforming the educational system in
line with rational and democratic principles by researching their own
practice. In this case, reflection takes on a social-reconstructionist mantle,
as practitioners confront, in their own and others practice, the oppression
inherent in dominant, socially and historically embedded ideologies. The
structure for the facilitation of this radical approach to reflective practice
remains mostly confined within the seemingly tidy model of planning, acting,
observing, reflecting and critiquing the broad social, political and economic
contexts of teaching and learning.
The second approach is typified by the work of Whitehead (1989, 1993)
and supported in the writings of Lomax (1986, 1994), McNiff (1992, 1995)
and Dadds (1995). Whitehead (1989, 1993, 1996) has developed a
commonsense concept of living educational theory in which each of us is a
living contradiction of ourselves. This is not unlike Argyris & Schns
(1976) theory of action differing principally in its emphasis upon values.
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Whilst we may hold certain values dear, these are often negated or denied in
practice. From this position, two fundamental questions arise: How do I
improve my practice? and How do I live my values more fully? These
necessitate engaging in a process of explaining your present practice in
terms of an evaluation of your past (Whitehead, 1996, p. 2) with a view to
individuals creating improvements in their present and future contexts. The
action inquiry is carried out through a variety of means including,
autobiography, dialogical conversations, fictional stories (Evans, 1994),
reflective writing and journals (Holly, 1989). The researchers become aware
of the values that drive their work so that they may be clear about what
they are doing and why. Through such processes, teachers as researchers
construct their own living educational theory. Their claim to knowledge
may then be validated by groups of critical peers and thus eventually
contribute to the dynamic pool of living theory, which has the potential for
generalisation (Whitehead, 1989, p. 73). Whiteheads approach is
emancipatory, but its initial emphasis is on introspective processes and
individual, rather than collective social action. However, both models have
similar goals and aim to challenge deep structures (Holly, 1987). The
difference remains in their respective starting points within one, the
system, within the other, the individual.
In summary, then, across the typology of action research approaches
outlined by Grundy, it is possible to observe not only the key role that
different forms of reflection play but also the ways in which different goals
influence the development of specific reflective processes in the
participant(s).
Specific tools for reflection are increasingly being incorporated into
action research methodologies from other disciplines and contexts. These
are justified as aids to reflective processing and meta-cognition, as well as a

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 Ruth Leitch & Christopher Day

means of documentation: autobiography (Day, 1985), journals (Tripp, 1988;

Holly, 1989), image-making (Clandinin, 1989), metaphors (Munby &
Russell, 1989), dialogical conversations between internal voices, flow-of-
consciousness recordings, fictional stories (Whitehead, 1989). Action
research then, represents a potentially powerful means of developing
reflective processes across the teaching profession. Without access to the
idea of the action-reflection cycle, embodied in the different action research
approaches, and the expectations and rigours of writing up, inherent in
action research projects, reflection could remain tacit, amorphous, in
action and with little perceivable benefit to practice. In this sense, action
research provides a tangible focus and structures for developing critical
capacities though the extent to which this occurs will be limited by the
particular goals of such research. As one student teacher commented, the
difference between undertaking a specific action research project and simply
being a reflective teacher is that in the former individuals are forced to draw
all their thoughts and ideas together in such a way that new observations
can be made (Zeichner & Gore, 1995, p. 29).
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According to Adelman (1989), there is a paucity of high-quality

research reports by teachers demonstrating the processes and outcomes of
reflection through action research and, despite an increase in opportunities
for publication in recent years, this remains the case. Research within
cognitive science demonstrates also that the art of problem finding (a high-
level meta-cognitive skill) is a much rarer commodity than that of problem
solving (Arlin, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi & Sawyers, 1995). Teachers
themselves have also been shown to hold a tendency to technologise action
reflection cycles (Richardson, 1990) and, in so doing, trivialise the
opportunities for real engagement with and ownership of a meaningful, self-
reflexive inquiry. This results not only from personal history and
disposition, but also from school culture and the busyness of school life
(Cole, 1997). So for personal, social, contextual and psychological reasons,
there are limitations in both the conceptualisation and conduct of action
research and reflection.

Towards a Holistic Model of Action Research:

reflecting on the action
A self-aware, self-reflexive teaching population, capable of producing the
highest quality learning situations for pupils, is a laudable and necessary
aim in a world characterised by social fragmentation, increasing economic
competition and personal turbulence. A holistic vision of reflective teaching,
however, has yet to be achieved. What is required for teacher educators and
those involved in the action research-reflection debate is a greater clarity of
thinking about the connections between what reflection, being a reflective
practitioner-action researcher, and being a professional involves. This might
lead to the development of more complex models of reflection, related to
purpose, which take greater cognisance of existing knowledge from other

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disciplines, particularly those aspects of psychology concerned with

cognitive processes including problem-finding, insight, wisdom, creativity.
Additionally, relevant insights and understandings of human nature derived
from other paradigms including counselling, psychotherapy, human
relationships, personal growth and systems theory, for example, need to be
integrated with current concepts of reflection in a seamless manner, such
that a more encompassing and heuristic model of reflection is developed.
At the moment, much of the literature provides a linear principally
cognitive model of reflection (though see Dadds, 1995), with the tendency,
despite the rhetoric, for this to be hierarchical in nature, with lower level,
instrumental reflection being transcended, according to circumstance, by
higher level introspective, or collective processes concerned with personal
change and emancipation. This linear conceptualisation has been
challenged by Tremmel (1993) as promoting an undue focus on mental
processes that support practice (p. 446). He calls us to incorporate such
Zen Buddhist notions as mindfulness and paying attention into a broader
concept of reflection. Indeed, recognition of the key role that mental
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processes play seems always to be over-shadowed by a less generous

acknowledgement of the cognitive-affective links in the reflective process
which are central to action research (see also Korthagen, 1993). Mind-set,
motivation, attitudes and emotions are all clearly relevant too. While Dewey
(1933) did recognise the moral basis of action, outlining the three attitudes
of open-mindedness, whole-heartedness and responsibility, which he
considered necessary to predispose someone to reflect and experiment upon
their actions, there has been relatively little attention paid to these
subsequently in the study of either reflective practice or action research.
There are a growing number of post-graduate courses which have been
developed over the last two decades which demonstrate strong commitment
to the development of reflective practice (Hall et al, 1996, 1997; Leitch,
1993). Many of these courses have been designed, delivered and assessed
outside the boundaries of the cognitive action research paradigm, but
contain many of its purposes and processes. They are based on a more
integrative model of thinking, feeling and acting, which elaborates Schns
notions of reflection in and on action. The main axiom of such holistic
approaches is that emotions are key and, therefore, the starting point for
development and change, due to the recognition that emotions across the
range are such powerful determinants of thinking processes (Goleman,
1996), and that turbulent emotions, whether past or present, limit thinking
(Jackins, 1965; Goleman, 1996) and encourage responses based on
restrictive patterns of behaving. For example, encountering a problem in a
classroom is unlikely to produce either keen observation or a unique
response but, more predictably, will involve a restricted set of behaviours,
based on old patterns of emotional distress and thinking (Zeichner & Gore,
1990). Thus, reflection-in-action is always going to be limited or pre-empted
by an individuals previous experiences where unprocessed or confused

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 Ruth Leitch & Christopher Day

emotions predominate. Reflection-on-action is, therefore, a prerequisite for

reflection-in-action to be manifested effectively. So, in order to encourage
flexible thinking in action, what Tremmel (1993) calls being mindful in the
moment, opportunities must be presented for teachers to map and
understand the patterns of their lived experience, both in their personal and
professional lives, in order that they may better understand their current
purposes and practices.
Such a process is independent of but has clear parallels with
Whiteheads (1989) approach to living theory and Korthagens (1993) call
for strategies that promote teacher awareness by means of non-rational
processes. Whilst often employing similar tools to facilitate reflection, the
main difference is that the approach outlined here focuses upon reflection
itself as being central to the action research paradigm, incorporating
psychotherapeutic and psychological insights.
Conceptualising reflection at the centre of any of the processes of
change inherent in action research methodologies not only acknowledges
that teaching is an emotional practice(Hargreaves, 1998, p. 319), but also
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that emotions are integral to organisational life (Fineman, 1993) frequently

occurring as by-products of the socio-political circumstances in which
teachers work. What this acknowledgement demands of teachers engaging
in reflection, for whatever purpose and within whichever action research
paradigm selected, is that they are committed to engaging with the
emotional dimension of their context whether at a personal or system level.
Arriving at emotional understanding through, for example, unravelling the
relationship between current thinking, feeling and behaving, and how these
link to our most basic emotional roots or, through unpicking the way in
which the cultural value system of a school controls and inhibits the
emotions of its members, is central to developing flexible and rational
approaches to change. To avoid a well-rehearsed, but limited approach to
reflection on feelings (i.e. intellectualising which is usually self-serving,
justificatory and thereby defeats the goals of arriving at new insights or
clear decision-making or problem-finding/ solving), the approaches derived
from the worlds of psychology or psychotherapy are those which by-pass the
rational in the first instance, and find access to the emotional and
imaginary substrates of the teacher. Thus, for example, the use of drawings
or collage work with individual or groups of teachers to represent the felt
sense of an organisation, and what are the perceived impediments to
development powerfully access emotional and symbolic dimensions which
would not otherwise be available to exploration and reappraisal. Without
access to these emotions, there is no opportunity to release feelings and
without release there is little room for re-evaluation (Jackins, 1965).
Developing reflective opportunities of this kind has evident consequences for
those engaging in or facilitating action research methodologies. Primarily,
there must be a conceptual understanding of the nature of emotional
understanding, and its links to change processes in individuals and

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organisations. In addition, there must be safety and containment in the

approaches, which are adopted by individuals or groups. Finally, there must
also be a fitness for purpose to ensure that identified goals are not being
lost in any mindless self-exploration.
Early evaluation of the impact of such approaches to teacher reflection
(Leitch, 1993) has indicated that they not only provides the individual with
opportunities for profound re-evaluation, but have also led frequently to
powerful changes within the teachers practices. While such claims clearly
need further evaluation, documentation and validation, the current store of
teacher journals and independent research theses, which are living
testimony to this process, provide the basis on which the case for such a
reflective journey may be built. Identifying reflection as the engine of action
research processes, which are conceptualised more holistically, adds to the
learning possibilities for all those involved, and the richness of what might
otherwise be continuing adherence to restrictive action research paradigms
and practices. Paradoxically, as policy makers in all countries exhort
teachers to become lifelong learners in the ever more demanding and
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complex worlds of classrooms and schools, so the strictures which they

place upon the use of time and the accompanying mechanisms for
bureaucratic accountability increase. These often result in diminishing,
rather than increasing opportunities for structured reflection through action
research. They thus decrease teachers capacities to raise standards of
teaching, learning and achievement in circumstances where many children
and young people are becoming disillusioned with schooling alongside
raised expectations of teachers by parents and employers.

Correspondence
Ruth Leitch, Graduate School of Education, Queens University of Belfast,
69/71 University Street, Belfast BT7 1HL, United Kingdom
(r.leitch@qub.ac.uk).

Notes
[1] Schn (1983) drew a distinction between the notions of technical rationality
and the knowledge of practice. Therefore, reflection was seen as an important
vehicle for the development of professional knowledge etc.
[2] A similar tripartite distinction is made in the works of Van Manen (1977) and
Zeichner & Gore (1995).

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 Ruth Leitch & Christopher Day
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