Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity,

constraint or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to
be both uncertain and important.

According to Ivancevich and Matterson, Stress is the interaction of the individual with the
environment. It is an adaptive response, mediated by individual differences and/or psychological
process; that is a consequence of any external (environmental) action, situation or event that
places excessive psychological and/or physical demands upon a person

According to Beehr and Newman, Job stress is a condition arising from the interaction of the
people and their jobs, and characterised by changes within people that force them to deviate from
their normal functioning.

Nature of Stress:

Some important points relating to the nature of stress is:

1. Stress is a Neutral Word:

Stress is not bad in itself. But when stress is created by undesirable outcomes, it becomes
Distress. On the other hand, if it is created by desirable and successful effects it is called
Eustress. Eustress is a healthy, positive and developmental stress response. It is primarily the
Distress form of stress which requires examination and steps to cope with it; because distress is
generally associated with heart disease, alcoholism, drug abuse, marital problems, absenteeism
etc.

2. Stress is Associated with Constraints and Demand:

Constraints prevent an individual from doing what he or she desires. If a person wants to buy
something, but he does not have the necessary cash, it is a constraint. Demands refer to the loss
of something desired. If a person wants to go and watch a movie, but he is unable to do so
because of pressing official work, it amounts to a demand. Both Constraints and Demands can
lead to potential stress.

3. Two Conditions are Necessary for Potential Stress to Become Actual Stress:

There must be:

(i) Uncertainty over the outcome, and

(ii) Outcome must be important.

Stress is usually very high when there is uncertainty over the outcome and the outcome is very
significant. Both these conditions are necessary. If there is no uncertainty but the outcome is
significant, there will not be any stress. On the other hand, if there is uncertainty, but the
outcome is not significant, there will again be no stress.

4. Stress is not Simply Anxiety:

Stress may be accompanied by anxiety, but the two are not synonymous. Anxiety is
psychological and emotional whereas stress operates in the physiological sphere also along with
psychological sphere.

5. Stress should also be Differentiated from Nervous Tension:

Nervous tension may be a result of stress. Stress is a subconscious action. Even unconscious
people have exhibited stress, whereas nervous tension is a conscious action. People may bottle
up their emotions and not reveal them through nervous tension.

6. The Term Burnout is also Closely Associated with Stress:

Some researchers contend that burnout is a type of stress, but others treat it differently. Burnout
is closely associated with helping professions like nursing, education and social work, it is
characterised by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and diminished personal
accomplishments. Even though technically, burnout is different from stress, these are generally
used interchangeably.

Types of stress:

Acute stress

Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It comes from demands and pressures of the
recent past and anticipated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute stress is thrilling and
exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. A fast run down a challenging ski slope, for
example, is exhilarating early in the day. That same ski run late in the day is taxing and wearing.
Skiing beyond your limits can lead to falls and broken bones. By the same token, overdoing on
short-term stress can lead to psychological distress, tension headaches, upset stomach and other
symptoms.

Fortunately, acute stress symptoms are recognized by most people. It's a laundry list of what has
gone awry in their lives: the auto accident that crumpled the car fender, the loss of an important
contract, a deadline they're rushing to meet, their child's occasional problems at school and so on.

Because it is short term, acute stress doesn't have enough time to do the extensive damage
associated with long-term stress. The most common symptoms are:

Emotional distress some combination of anger or irritability, anxiety and depression,

the three stress emotions.
 Muscular problems including tension headache, back pain, jaw pain and the muscular
tensions that lead to pulled muscles and tendon and ligament problems.

Stomach, gut and bowel problems such as heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhea,
constipation and irritable bowel syndrome.

Transient overarousal leads to elevation in blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, sweaty palms,
heart palpitations, dizziness, migraine headaches, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath
and chest pain.

Acute stress can crop up in anyone's life, and it is highly treatable and manageable.

Different kinds of stress

Many people are unaware that there are two categories of stress: Eustress and Distress

Eustress is the good stress that motivates you to continue working. Stress can be a motivater and
provide incentive to get the job done. This "good stress" is what eustress can be identified as and
some people enjoy it. Everyone needs a little bit of stress in their life in order to continue to be
happy, motivated, challenged and productive. It is when this stress is no longer tolerable and/or
manageable that distress comes in.

Bad stress, or distress, is when the good stress becomes to much to bear or cope with. Tension
builds, there is no longer any fun in the challenge, there seems to be no relief, no end in sight.
This is the kind of stress most of us are familiar with and this is the kind of stress that leads to
poor decision making. Physiological symptoms of distress include and increase in blood
pressure, rapid breathing and generalized tension. Behavioral symptoms include overeating, loss
of appetite, drinking, smoking and negative coping mechanisms.

Acute stress

Acute stress is the more common form of stress and is associated with things to do with our
everyday lives such as losing bills, rushing to meetings or making deadlines. These kinds of
demands and pressures tend to be short term stress related issues that dont have time to do any
damage that long term stress could.

Acute stress can actually be exciting and thrilling but too much can make you feel exhausted.

Symptoms of acute stress can include emotional anguish, headaches, back pains and general
muscular problems. They may also include irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), dizziness, and
shortness of breath and chest pains and heart palpitations which can often be triggered by
adrenaline. Acute stress can affect anyone but it is very manageable.
Episodic Acute stress

Episodic acute stress is the stress which affects those who suffer from acute stress more
frequently. People that tend suffer from this always seem to be in a rush, They take too much on
and tend not to be able to organise themselves to deal with demands and pressures.

Episodic Acute stress can affect interpersonal skills and can make sufferers hostile towards
others causing a deterioration of relationships at home and the workplace.

Its symptoms include prolonged over stimulation, persistent tension, headaches or migraines,
hypertension and chest pains.

Episodic acute stress can be helped with certain lifestyle changes but professional help may also
be needed before any chronic problems develop.

Chronic stress

Chronic stress is the stress that can wear a sufferer down making them feel burned-out.
Chronic stress is stress that someone can feel when they cant see a way out of the demands
and/or pressures that are making them feel depressed, miserable and disheartened on a continual
basis.

Factors of chronic stress can be the feeling of being trapped in an unhappy marriage or career
and tends to be associated with ill health, alcohol excess, violence and can even be associated
with suicide.

Chronic stress can be helped with professional and medical help such as special forms of
counselling and targeted behavioural therapy.

Stages of stress: There are three stages a person goes through while suffering from stress.
Alarm Stage: Look at a student's face just before he is going to give an exam. Isn't the fear and tension
clearly evident? When something has just started stressing you and you feel a fight or flight kind of
attitude, then you are in the alarm stage of stress. It is the start up stage which defines the first reaction
to the stressor.

Resistance Stage: When a child is sitting in the examination hall and writing his exam, he is bothered
about completing it in time. He is making full efforts to cope with the situation and his whole body is
engaged in fighting against the condition. This is the resistance stage. In this stage, the body keeps
making continuous efforts to cope with stress and therefore feels run down and exhausted. The person
starts feeling irritated, over reacts to minor situations and gets mentally and physically weak.
Psychological, physical and behavioral changes are also clearly visible.

Exhaustion

Stage: If a student is preparing for his exam and despite of every possible effort, he is not able to relate
to his studies, he is bound to get stressed. The stress could reach a height where he/she may feel
completely exhausted and helpless to the extent of committing suicide. This is the exhaustion stage. This
stage is further divided into two phases:

Initial phase: The stress persists and due to lack of appropriate measures the person is not able
to concentrate and work efficiently.

Burnout: The person is completely exhausted and drained of all energy reserves. There is a
complete physical, psychological and emotional breakdown. This requires immediate attention.

The physiology of stress

While preparing for flight or fight response our body undergoes following changes:

Increased heart rate, blood pressure and respiration. Pumping more blood to the muscles,
supplying more oxygen to the muscles and heart-lung system.
Increased sugar rates in the blood. Allowing rapid energy use, and accelerating metabolism for
emergency actions.
Thickening of the blood - to increase oxygen supply (red cells), enabling better defence from
infections (white cells) and to stop bleeding quickly (platelets).
Sharpening of senses. The pupils dilate; hearing is better etc., allowing rapid responses.
Prioritising - increased blood supply to peripheral muscles and heart, to motor and basic-
functions regions in the brain; decreased blood supply to digestive system and irrelevant brain
regions (such as speech areas), this also causes secretion of body waists, leaving the body lighter.
Secretion of Adrenaline and other stress hormones - to further increase the response, and to
strengthen relevant systems.
Secretion of endorphins - natural painkillers, providing an instant defence against pain.

Stimulus-oriented approach.
Stimulus-based definitions view stress as an independent variable that disturbs the individual: it leads to
distress.

This is the stimulus based model, i.e. the stimulus causes the stress but our response is the same
physiologically. Any perception of a stress stimulus triggers the body's physiological response. We speak
of being 'under stress; the external event causes the stress. Managing stress comes down to avoiding
the stressor.

Response-oriented approach

Stress can be defined as dependent upon the person's response to the stressor. This is a more negative
way of looking at stress. The person is described as 'suffering from stress', 'feeling stressed'. The
individual is seen as having inadequate coping mechanisms. This internal reaction may also be down to
different personality type or cultural influence, but the management of stress is seen as coming from
internal change.

The transactional and interact ional model

The most accepted way of looking at stress nowadays, is to use an interactionist approach. That is, we
may all be faced with the same external stressor (stimulus) but, the stress response that we show, will
depend on our individual differences or gender or culture. In other words, the phrase 'exam' is the same
stimulus, but some of you will be feeling very worked up about the exam, others will be more 'laid back'.
The internal and behavioural response will be different for each of us. Psychologists try to find out the
factors affecting this interaction and stress management depends on the perceived interaction and
response.

Pressure environment fit model of stress

The Person-Environment (P-E) Fit model, developed in the early 1970s , states that strain develops when
there is a discrepancy between the motives of the person and the supplies of the environment, or
between the demands of the job and the abilities of the person to meet those demands.

Causes of stress vary from person to person. Some common causes of stress can be a death of a family
member, illness, taking care of your family, relationship changes, work, job change, moving and money.
Even small things such as long waits or delays or traffic can cause stress.

Personal

Some of the leading personal causes of stress are:

 Finances; who name finances as the leading cause of stress cite major purchases they have to
make, such as a home or car. Others are stressed by a loss of income, or mounting credit card
debt. For some, financial stress will eventuate in bankruptcy. While college students stress over
paying for an education, Baby Boomers and older senior ci tizens find that retirement income
can be a major cause of stress.

Personal Health and Safety; For some, the stress is linked to obesity, and a desire to lose weight.
For others, the stress is a personal bas habit that affects health and must be changed. For
example, smoking, abuse of alcohol or other drugs. Illness or injury, whether less or more
serious, can be a leading cause of stress for many people. Personal safety is also a leading cause
of stress. Women, more than men, tend to stress about their own and others safety. Adults tend
to stress more than young people, who may act invincible.

Personal Relationships; Whether it is a friendship, dating, separation, marriage, divorce, or re-

marriage, a relationship can be a leading cause of stress for many. We all want love, and that is
potentially available in relationships, but getting from A to B can be very stressful. Some resort to
online relationships that are easier to handle. Others withdraw and become recluses. Either way,
the demands on time, finances, and emotions can cause ongoing stress.

Death; Probably the most wrenching cause of stress is the death of a loved one or close friend.
Even the death of a pet can be stressful.

The environment itself can be a source of stress. Pollution, extremes of temperatures, poor living
conditions all contribute to your stress.

Noise itself is a source of environmental stress. The stress response is triggered by noise over 85
decibels (a loud music, motorcycle, lawn mower, vacuum cleaner).

Some of the environmental causes of stress are:

Radiation

Lighting - too much or too little

Fluorescent lighting

Too hot or too cold

Impure air and water supplies

Heavy metal toxicities

 Other toxins - plastic, pesticides, toxic fumes

Noise

Electromagnetic pollution

Severe storms, drought, famine, hurricanes, earthquakes, floods, or war

Organizational causes of stress:

1. Career Concern: If an employee feels that he is very much behind in the corporate
ladder, then he may experience stress. If he seems that there are no opportunities for self-
growth, he may experience stress. Hence, unfulfilled career expectations are the
significant source of stress.

2. Role Ambiguity: It occurs when the person doesn't know what he is supposed to do, on
the job. His tasks and responsibilities are not clear. The employee is not sure what he is
expected to do. It creates confusion in the minds of the worker and results in stress.

3. Rotating Work Shifts: Stress may occur in those individuals who work on different
work shifts. Employees may be expected to work on day shift for some days and then on
the night shift. That may create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and it can
affect not only personal life but also family life of the employee.

4. Role Conflict: It takes place when people have different expectations from the person
performing a particular role. It can also occur if the job is not as per expectation, or when
a job demands a certain type of behavior that is against the person's moral values.

5. Occupational Demands: Some jobs are more demanding than others. Jobs that involve
risk, and danger are more stressful. Research findings indicate, job that cause stress needs
constant monitoring of equipments and devices, unpleasant physical conditions, making
decisions, etc.

6. Lack of Participation in Decision-making: Many experienced employees feel that

management should consult them on matters affecting their jobs. In reality, the superiors
hardly ask the concerned employees before taking a decision. That develops a feeling of
being neglected, which may lead to stress.

7. Work Overload: Excessive workload leads to stress as it puts a person under tremendous
pressure. Work overload may take two different forms:

a. Qualitative work overload implies performing a job that is complicated or beyond

the employee's capacity.
 b. Quantitative work overload is a result of many activities performed in a
prescribed time.

8. Work Underload: In this, case, too little work or very easy work is expected on the part
of the employee. Doing less work or jobs of routine and simple nature would lead to
monotony and boredom, which can lead to stress.

9. Poor Working Conditions: Employees may be subject to poor working conditions. It

would include bad lighting and ventilation, unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive
noise, and dust, presence of toxic gasses and fumes, inadequate safety measures, etc. All
these unpleasant conditions create physiological and psychological imbalance in humans
thereby causing stress.

10. Lack of Group Cohesiveness: Every group is characterized by its cohesiveness,

although they differ widely in its degree. Individuals experience stress when there is no
unity among work group members. There are mistrust, jealousy, frequent quarrels, etc., in
groups and this lead to stress to employees.

11. Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict: These conflicts take place due to differences in
perceptions, attitudes, values and beliefs between two or more individuals and groups.
Such conflicts can be a source of stress for group members.

12. Organizational Changes: When changes occur, people have to adapt to those changes,
and this may cause stress. Stress is higher when changes are significant or unusual like
transfer or adoption of new technology.

13. Lack of Social Support: When individuals believe that they have the friendship and
support of others at work, their ability to cope with the effects of stress increases. If this
kind of social support is not available, then an employee experiences more stress.

Certain factors outside the scope of an organization also cause stress.