Sách học Frosio

Preface
i,ROSIO, ThL' t\nfwc).'iufl Professional Cuuucil for ldur.uion .uid Certificatinn of Inspectors fur SllrL!cc 'lreauucnt. wa~ fOUI1(kd ill ]lJi'\() with the aim ttf educate and ccrt i l"::i Surface Trc atrncnt Inspectors. (-'m this purp.»,« a Curriculum and all ~I.) hours truini fig l'()ur~l' were l',lablIshcu logl'lhcr with the N l Jf"\"C~1 au Standard '\ S 47(1, Paint and cO;lting:-. Approval and ccrtilrc.uion lit <urt.tce trc.u mcnt II1~PCl'tors .

Thi ~ h;llld hllt do; i" d n Ellg 1I sh trailS l.it ion of the .'J lln,'cg 1:1 n h.md ho: J l, "Overflatebch.mdling mot Korrosjon", which 1I;ls been used in Norwav Ior many years ;t,'" all aid ill the lralning COUrses for candidate, who WIshes to become ecru Iicd by fR(JSIO <1" lnspector.

The handbook cover-, all items given in tll(' fROST() Curriculum and should therefore hl' good assisunu tll obtain the knowledge needed to pu'-,,, the theoretical and practical examination.

FROSIO therefore highly recommend this handbook for (he training tn obtain a FROSIO NS 47(1 certificate.

teosto Board

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FROSIO

Contents

'1 Corrosion , , ' "" .. " .,,, .. " .. " , ' " " " , 15

ililroduction, , ,"" " , , , ." "" , 15

What is corrosion? " " 15

Corrosion theory , , , " 17

Electrochemical series ' 20

Corrosion environment and pH "" " 23

Corrosion types , " 24

Uniform corrosion (general corrosion) 24

Galvanic corrosion (bimetallic corrosion) .. " 25

Crevice corrosion ,,, " , , " , ,.., 26

Pitting corrosion " " 27

Erosion corrosion 29

Selective corrosion (dealloying corrosion) 30

Stress corrosion cracking , , , ,,31

lntergranutar corrosion (intercrystalline corrosion) 32

Corrosion fatigue , , , ,. , ,. 32

Corrosion in different envirionments , ' 33

Corrosion in air ' , ,. , 33

Corrosion in water...... .. , 33

Corrosion in soil , , , " 34

Literature......... 35

2 Protectfon against coltosion ,...................................................................... . 36

Introduction , 36

Correct selection of materials 36

Steel 36

Weathering steels , 37

Stainless steels , 39

Titanium and nickel alloys " " 41

Copper and copper alloys 42

Zinc ,." , , _ , 42

Aluminium , , 43

Constructional design to reduce corrosion 44

Crevices " 44

Geometrical effects " .. " " 44

Metallic joints 47

Design to prevent unnecessary turbulence 49

Using paints and coatings 49

Paints , , , , 49

Paint system selection and use of EN ISO 12944 50

Linings (organic) 54

Metal coatings , , , 54

Electroplating 54

Dipping in molten metals.. 55

Thermal spraYing (metallization) , , 56

Cathodic protection 56

How does this type of cathodic protection work? " , 56

Practical measurements , " "., ,., , , , .. , ' .. 58

Using sacrificial anodes .. 60

Cathodic protection with impressed currenL , 62

Combination of cathodic protection and paint coating systems . .. 63

Overprotection " '3~

Corrosion inhibitors _ , + ••••••••••• r. __ ••••••• _ ••••••• _ ••• " E·::

Corrosion monitoring -::-:;

Literature , -:

3 Surface preparation and application equipment 69

Introduction 69

Surface preparation equipment 70

Wirebrushes " 70

Scrapers 71

Electric and pneumatic power tools 72

Mechanical grinding equipment 73

Grinding roundels, grinding wheels and grinding pads 73

Chipping hammers and needle guns 75

Flame-cleaning equipment 76

Equipment for dry open-nozzle blasting 76

Ejector equipment 76

Pressurized pot '" 80

Application equipment , 94

Paint brushes , 94

Paint rollers '" 95

Painting mitts/gloves 96

Spray equipment 97

Conventional spray equipment 98

Automatic gun 99

Cleaning and maintenance '" 100

HVLP spray equipment , 103

High pressure (airless) spray equipment '" 104

Compressed-air driven piston pumps 104

Non-pneumatically driven piston pumps 106

Electromechanically driven piston pumps 107

Electrohydraulic driven piston pumps 107

Diaphragm pumps 107

Pulse chamber 108

Reduction valve 108

Water separator 109

Oil-mist lubricator '" 109

Oil cup 109

Coarse filter '" 109

Fine filters '" 110

Paint hoses 110

Swivel coupling 111

Airless guns 111

Paint supply in the spray head 111

Paint inlet through the handle '" 112

Extension pole guns '" 112

Nozzles 113

Standard nozzles , 113

Reversible tips 114

Adjustable nozzles 114

Fine finish nozzles 115

Selection and maintenance of nozzles 115

Air-assisted airless spraying 116

Cleaning and maintenance of spraying equipment 1: -

Maintenance 1:8

Literature 112

4 Pretreatment 120

Introduction ::'2()

Cleaning and surface preparation 120

Degreasing 122

Degreasing in water-soluble, alkaline chemicals 123

Use of emulsifying solvents 124

Solvent-based degreasing 124

Degreasing in trichloro ethylene vapours 126

Mechanical and thermal surface preparation 127

Abrasive blast cleaning 128

Flame cleaning 131

Water-based cleaning methods 132

High pressure water cleaning and water jetting 133

Pickling 135

The pickling process 136

Chemical conversion coatings 138

Phosphatizing 138

Chromatizing 140

Chromatizing of zinc 140

Chromatizing of aluminium 141

Rust removers or rust cleaning agents based on phosphoric acid 141

Wash priming 142

Literature 144

5 Application of coatings and linings 145

Introduction 145

Rigging 146

Containment of the area 146

Masking 147

Ventilation 147

Checklist for safety equipment.. 152

Preparation of the paint 153

Application 154

Application with paint roller and paint gloves 154

Conventional spraying 155

The conventional spray gun 155

Pressure pot spray system 156

Airless spraying 157

Safety precautions 159

Spraying technique 160

Spray pattern defects 161

Spray testing 162

Faulty spray pattern in connection with conventional spraying 162

Adjustments of faults 163

Other types of faults 163

Defects in the paint or varnished surface 164

Defective spray patterns associated with high pressure spraying 155

Corrective actions 167

Air-assisted high pressure and HVLP high pressure 167

Electrostatic spraying (Wet varnish/paint) 168

Preheating 169

Literature 1. 70

6 Paint coating materials 172

Introduction 172

How does the paint coating system work? 173

Paint composition 173

Binder 173

Pigments 176

Extenders 178

Solvents 179

Additives 181

Paint types 181

Primers 182

Organic zinc-rich paints 182

Inorganic zinc-rich paints, zinc ethyl silicate 183

Zinc alkali silicate 184

Shopprimers 185

Iron oxide shopprimer 185

Zinc-rich shopprimers , 186

Wash primers 186

Rust converters 187

Physically drying paints 187

Chlorinated rubber paints 188

Vinyl paints 189

Acrylic paints 190

Water-borne paints 191

Bituminous paints 193

Tar paints 194

Oxidatively curing paints 195

Alkyd paints 195

Urethane alkyd paints 196

Epoxy ester paints 197

Silicone paints 197

Chemically curing paints 198

Epoxy paints 198

Coal tar epoxy paints 200

Polyurethane paints 201

Solvent-free epoxy / tar epoxy paints 202

Epoxy and polyurethane mastic paints 203

Siloxane paints 204

Polyester glassflake paints 204

Cementitious paints 205

Antifoulings , '" 206

Selection of paint coating system 207

Literature 209

7 Coating failures 210

Introduction 210

Loss of adhesion 211

Peeling 211

Saponification 212

Liftings 213

Defects in the surface 214

Vacuoles/voids and blistering 215

Craters or popping 217

Fisheyes 219

Pinholes 220

Cracking 221

Checking , 221

Cracking 222

Cosmetic defects 224

Wrinkling 224

Bleeding 225

Blushing ' 226

Water stains 227

Chalking 228

Application defects 229

Dry spray/overspray 229

Orange peel 230

Sags and curtains 231

Coatings remaining soft 232

Rough surface areas or contamination in the surface 233

Degradation of coating '" 234

Identification of coatings defects 235

Literature 235

8 Thermal spraying 236

Introduction 236

Thermal spraying methods 236

Powder flame spraying 237

Wire flame spraying 238

Arc spraying '" 241

Plasma spraying 242

High velocity oxy-fuel spraying 243

Detonation spraying '" , 244

Restoration and enhancing 244

Protective equipment for thermal spraying 244

9 Passive fire protection 246

Introduction 246

Demands to fire protection 246

Main types of coatings 247

Organic coatings 247

Inorganic coatings 248

Paints 249

Pretreatment and corrosion protection 249

Requirements to pretreatment 249

Corrosion protection in case of epoxy coatings 250

Corrosion protection in case of inorganic coatings 250

Preparation of substrate, fitting of pins and wire mesh and application 250

Epoxy coatings 250

Inorganic coatings 252

Demands to passive fire protection 253

What are the types of fires? 254

What are the materials able to tolerate? 254

Fire classes 255

Literature 257

10 Concrete repair 259

Introduction 259

Concrete, composition and properties 260

Carbonation '" 262

Corrosion of the reinforcement steel 264

Condition survey 264

Carbonation depth '" 267

Cover depth 267

Chloride contents 268

Corrosion degree on reinforcement steel and steel profiles 268

Extent of cracks, crevices and corner damage 269

Efflorescence 269

Strength and porosity of concrete 269

Previous repairs , 270

Surface preparation for concrete repairs 271

Cleaning of concrete surfaces 271

Removing deteriorated concrete 271

Cleaning of the reinforcement steel 273

Anticorrosion treatment of the reinforcing steel 274

Bonding coat 274

Filling of repair areas 275

Surface treatment 275

Paint selection 276

Electrochemical concrete rehabilitation 277

Literature 279

11 Other coatings and linings 280

Introduction 280

Powder coatings 280

Tar and asphalt coatings 283

Wax :' 283

Tape 284

Hot-melt coatings ., , .. 284

Rubber linings , .. 285

Metallic coatings , 286

Electrodeposited metal coatings 286

Dip-spin method , " .. 287

Hot dip galvanizing , , ,.288

Literature , , 289

12 Quality management systems, specifications,

procedures and documentation , , , .. 291

Introduction , , , , , , 291

Quality management systems , , " 291

Quality management systems standard , , .. 292

ISO 9001:2000 , , 292

Scope and application 293

Quality management system , , 293

Management responsibility , 293

Documentation requirements , , , , .. , 294

Customer focus , 294

Management review , , .. " .. 294

Internal audits , ,., 295

Human resources , , 295

Design and development 295

Identification and traceability , 295

Product realization " , , .. 295

Control of nonconforming product 295

Corrective actions , , 296

Quality control , '" 296

Specifications and procedures , " 297

What is a specification and what does it consist of? , 297

Extracts from a specification concerning surface preparation of steel ,., 298

Procedures , , 299

Communication , , , .. 299

lie ports , 300

Daily log 301

Progress reports " " " .. " 303

Nonconformity reports " " " "" " 303

Technical reports " " 303

13 Inspection methods and equipment " 310

tntroduction ,., 310

tnspcction routines 310

Inspection of the substrate ' "" .. ,,"" 311

Assessment of rust grades of steel " " "'" .. ,, 312

Assessment of visual cleanliness " .. " .. " """" .. ,, .. ,,'''' 313

Chcnucal cleanliness " 318

~"iI'strcite roughness , 324

Comparators 324

Determination of roughness 325

Determination of the climatic conditions 330

Sling psychrometer 331

How to measure the relative humidity of the air and the dew point

temperature? 333

Control of the liquid paint 334

Condition in the can 334

Viscosity 335

Density 335

Volume solids 335

Control of the paint film 336

Measuring the wet paint film 336

Calculation of paint film thickness 337

Calculation of paint consumption 340

Measuring dry film thickness 342

Cutting instruments 347

Adhesion 348

Cross Cut test. ISO 2409 349

X-cut Test 349

Pull-off test ISO 4624 350

Pull-off testers 351

Pinholes, voids and other coating defects 354

Curing 357

Identification of unknown paint 358

Coating condition survey prior to maintenance painting 359

Evaluation of degradation of painted surfaces 360

Testing at the paint manufacturer 363

Mechanical properties 364

Elasticity 365

Gloss 365

Colour 366

Opacity 366

Accelerated testing 366

Outdoor exposure test 367

Literature 368

Appendix to Chapter 13 370

Appendix 1 ISO 8501-1 Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness 370

Appendix 2 ISO 8501/ Suppl:1994 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness

- Informative Supplement to part 1: Representative photographic examples

of the change of appearance imparted to steel when blast cleaned with

different abrasives 371

Appendix 3 ISO 8501-2 Preparation grades of previously coated steel

surfaces after localized removal of previous coatings 372

Appendix 4 ISO 8501-3 Preparation grades of welds, cut edges and

other areas with surface imperfections 373

Appendix 5 ISO 8501-4 Preparation grades of coated and uncoated steel

substrates after removal of rust and previous coatings by high-pressure

water-jetting 374

Appendix 6 ISO TR 8502-1 Field test for soluble iron corrosion products 375

Appendix 7 ISO 8502·2 Laboratory determination of chloride on

cleaned surfaces 376

Appendix 8 ISO 8502-3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared

for painting (pressure-sensitive tape method) 377

Appendix 9 Determination of relative humidity and dew point on steel

surfaces prepared for painting 378

Appendix 10 ISO 8502-6 Extraction of soluble contaminants for analysis

- The Bresle method 379

Appendix 11 ISO 8502-9 Field method for the conductometric

determination of water-soluble salts 380

Appendix 12 Use of ISO 8503-1 to determine the roughness on

blast cleaned steel surfaces 381

Appendix 13 Use of wet film gauges in accordance with ISO 2808

to determine the wet film thickness of coatings 382

Appendix 14 Adjustment of dry film thickness gauges based on

magnetic pull-off principle 383

Appendix 15 Adjustment of dry film thickness gauges based on

magnetic induction principle 384

Appendix 16 Measurement of, and acceptance criteria for, the dry film

thickness on rough surfaces (ISO 19840 (in progress)) 385

Appendix 17 Measuring dry film thickness by destructive means

(ASTM 0 4138) 386

Appendix 18 Measuring adhesion using the Cross Cut Test (ISO 2409) 387

Appendix 19 Measuring adhesion using the tape test (ASTM 0 3359) 388

Appendix 20 Adhesion testing using pull-off test equipment (ISO 4624) 389

Appendix 21 Holiday detection of coatings using the low voltage

wet sponge method (ASTM 0 5162) 390

Appendix 22 Holiday detection of coatings using the high voltage

spark test method (ASTM 0 5162) 391

Appendix 23 Measuring MEK resistance of ethyl silicate (inorganic)

zinc-rich primers by solvent rub (ASTM 04752) 392

14 Health, safety and environment 394

Introduction 394

Health and safety laws and regulations 395

Company procedures for compliance with laws and regulations 396

Safety from accidents and injuries 396

Scaffold work 398

Working with blast cleaning and grinding equipment 400

Working with airless equipment 404

Electric equipment 404

Working in confined areas and tanks 405

Physical working environment factors 406

Noise 406

Light 408

Climatic conditions 409

Strain 409

Chemical hazards in the working environment 411

Solvents 411

How do solvents affect the body? 412

Oust 413

Occupational exposure limits for substances in the workplace air 414

Skin-corrosive and sensitizing substances 415

Labelling of chemical products 419

Occupational air requirements 421

Safety Data Sheets (SOS) 422

Fire hazard 423

Flammable and explosive substances 423

Technical fire prevention measures 426

Fire extinguishing 428

Measures for improving the working environment. 429

Assessment 429

Action plans 434

Changing working procedures 11\'1

Substitution of hazardous products 11"\,1

Personal protection equipment ILl')

Respiratory protection 4: l~)

Environmental problems 4:lH

Environmentally hazardous waste 4:lH

Actions in case of spillage and leaks 4:Jtj

15 Economy and cost calculations 441

Introduction 441

Cost factors 442

Area calculations 443

Plates 447

Area of a tank surface 447

Surface preparation costs 449

Paint costs 450

Cost estimates 452

Comparison of various alternatives 460

Literature 462

Index 465

1 Corrosion

Introduction

Annually corrosion costs society vast sums. In the Western World the costs have he en estimated to constitute approximately 3-4% of the gross national product.

A major part of the damage is due to too little knowledge about corrosion and t he conditions which cause corrosion. If the selection of materials is not considered carefully enough, the result can be extensive corrosion damage. It has been estimated that improved knowledge about corrosion and corrosion protection can reducc costs by approximately 15%.

In case of corrosion protection by means of paint coatings the applicator and the i nspcctor are important. In order to ensure that the job is carried out correctly they IlllISt have a good understanding of subjects like corrosion, surface preparation .rud protection against corrosion. Later in the book these subjects will be discussed I II grealer detail.

What is corrosion?

I t I \ a common opinion that corrosion is the same as rust, which is not entirely true. I<II\t 1,\ the corrosion product formed when iron and steel corrode. But many other uuucrialx are also attacked. The patina on copper and white rust on zinc are wellkllll\\11 examples. These are also corrosion products. Consequently, corrosion is 11r" deterioration or breakdown of materials due to a reaction with the environ- 11"'/11 I k.\ides destroying metals, corrosion also contributes towards breaking down l'nlll'l'l'll' and plastic materials.

Why. then, are a number of construction materials around us broken down, and how litles this happen? If we look at the metals, most of them are produced by

1 CORROSION 15

applying large amounts of energy to the raw material, the ore. The state in which the metal is found in nature is generally said to be its most stable state or form. As ore, the metal is usually combined with oxygen, carbon, sulphur, and other elements.

Sheets

Energy :ture / Pipes Water

Manufac/

Raw material

(iron ore) ~ 'i11I11Ii!!!!I!!I!!!!!Iliilllliiiill!!i!!!II!!!11I@Uh'W Rust

Figure 1.1 Production and deterioration by corrosion of iron/steel

In the manufacturing of metals energy is applied to the raw material, ore. During the process the ore melts and the metal is separated from the slag products. Milling takes place while the metal is in a red-hot state.

During milling the red-hot steel gets into contact with air and a thin layer is formed on the surface. This layer is usually called mill scale. Mill scale is brittle and only protects the metal as long as it is intact. If the steel is left outdoors, the mill scale will eventually crack and the steel begin to rust.

By this breakdown, the corrosion, steel is transformed into rust. Chemically speaking, rust has almost the same composition as ore. The process has now come to a close. It started with ore and has now ended up with rust. The iron is again at a lower and more "natural and stable" state of energy.

Metal production can be compared to a ball placed at the foot of a hill. By applying energy we move the ball uphill. When the ball is placed on the ground at the higher level, it will start rolling until it reaches the lowest level and stops.

In nature

Pure metal

o Stable condition

~

C1l c w

Ore

Figure 1.2

This is what happens:

The ball, which was at a stable level, was transferred to a non-stable level. Due to physical reasons the ball rolls down the hill and finally comes to a halt at the foot of the hill. The ball will again be at its most stable level.

16 CORROSION PROTECTION

In principle, this is also what happens during the production of metal. To extract the metal, found only in limited quantities in the ore, energy is required. Due to the energy expended, the metal in the ore is transferred from its stable level to a nonstable level. The metal has now been extracted from the ore, but external conditions like moisture and oxygen cause the corrosion process to start. The corrosion process is a natural process which under the right circumstances (i.e. oxygen supply and high humidity) tries to convert the metal back to its most stable state, which is ore. The chemical compositions of ore and the corrosion product are very much alike.

If we want to preserve the metal, something must be done. In order to prevent the corrosion process from starting, we use paints, coatings and linings, or other barriers to stop any direct contact between the metal and the environment.

Oxygen Water

\ J

Rust

Mill scale

Figure 1.3 Eventually mill scale will crack and the steel begin to corrode

Corrosion theory

In order for a metal to corrode the surface of the metal must be covered by an electrically conductive liquid or substance (electrolyte) and oxygen. Water, either fresh water or sea water, and soil are examples of electrolytes. Pollution in the air may dissolve in water and make it conductive.

Metals have a tendency to release electrically charged atoms (ions) when in contact with water. For some metals this tendency is weak, for example in the case of platinum and gold. Such metals are called noble metals.

Other metals release a large number of ions in contact with water, for example aluminium and zinc. Such metals are called ignoble or base metals.

If we immerse two different metals in a conductive liquid (an electrolyte) without any electrical connection between them, both metals corrode at a certain rate. But if the metals are joined together electrically, the rate of corrosion increases on the less noble metal. How fast the corrosion takes place depends on a number of factors, including the metal types, for how long humidity is present, pollution on the surface, etc.

Table 1.1 gives the corrosion rate in urn/year (thousandth millimetre per year) for the metals steel, aluminium, copper and zinc after two, five and ten years' exposure at a testing station on the west coast of Sweden. The corrosion of the metals takes place at very different rates, which is mainly due to the formation of oxide films and corrosion products on the metal surfaces. It can also be noted that a porous corrosion product like rust to some extent results in a reduced corrosion rate over time (given in urn/year).

1 CORROSION 17

Table 1.1 Rate of corrosion in pm/year for different metals after 2, 5 arul I (i \"'/1/1 of exposure in a marine environment [1 J

2 years 5 years 10 years
Steel 51.1 32.8 20.7
Aluminium 0.48 0.76 0.35
Copper 1.8 1.1 0.71
Zinc 3.6 2.6 1.7 In order to explain this in more detail, think of an example where iron is in cout.nl with copper in an electrolyte. When an iron atom leaves the metal surface. il rl' leases two electrons and becomes an iron ion. The sites where this takes place ;11\' called anodes. The anode is consumed by corrosion. The electrons pass through I ill' iron to the copper - the cathode. At the cathode hydroxyl ions are formed, which combine with the iron ions. After this, a reaction takes place with oxygen in the air to produce rust, which may be called water-containing iron oxide.

Copper (cathod

~
Voltmeter
-
- -
- ,~ -

I _~'Y~<O

j
..-
e) R~ Iron (anode)

Figure 1.4 Corrosion of the less noble of two metals increases if the metals are connected in an electrolyte

Zinc case

Switch

Paper

';''''''dt-- Ammonium chloride and zinc chloride

Figure 1.5 A dry cell battery illustrates the corrosion process


A simple illustration of the corrosion process is provided by the activity within a dry cell battery. The dry cell battery consists of a carbon or graphite rod in a substance able to conduct electricity (an electrolyte). This substance is enclosed by a zinc case. The carbon or graphite rod is more noble than the zinc case.

If a small light bulb is inserted between the poles of the battery, it will light up.

The battery supplies the power. When in use, the battery is being discharged. This is because the zinc case (the anode) corrodes. If the process is allowed to continue long enough, the battery will eventually stop working and could start to leak. The corrosion process has corroded the zinc case surrounding the electrolyte. Consequently, the less noble of the two metals in contact has broken down and, being the anode, zinc has delivered the energy to the cathode.

However, in order for corrosion to take place, it is not necessary that dissimilar metals are joined, as in this example. It is a well-known fact that steel rusts if exposed outdoors in wind and weather. The reason is that steel is not microscopically uniform. It contains a number of small areas with noble and base particles. On unpainted steel mill scale, graphite grains, or other noble particles tend to become small cathodes, while the bulk material (the steel) becomes the anode. These areas form among themselves small corroding "batteries". The corrosion attacks ignoble areas on the steel (anodes). At the cathode there is no breakdown of the metal, but the solution around the cathode becomes alkaline.

+ (Cathodes)

- (Anodes)

Figure 1.6 A steel surface consists of numerous areas with noble and base particles. Among themselves these areas form small "batteries"

In simple terms, the corrosion process can be described as follows:

iron + oxygen + water --7 iron ions + hydroxyl ions --7 iron hydroxide (rust)

The iron ions and the hydroxyl ions react with one another and form rust.

At the cathode there may also be other reactions than the formation of hydroxyl ions. In acidic solutions (acids) hydrogen gas is formed. Deposit of noble particles from a solution at the surface of the metal may also be a cathode reaction.

It is important to note that if we can prevent the metal surface from getting into contact with air (oxygen) and an electrolyte (water), we are actually able to prevent corrosion.

This is to a great extent utilized in practice. Just think of closed water-filled systems where there is little exchange of the water, for example in central heating systems (radiators) in blocks of houses and office buildings. The limited quantity of

1 CORROSION 19

oxygen present in the water when the system is taken into use is quickly consumed due to corrosion. When the oxygen has been consumed, the corrosion attack within the system ceases.

There are many ways in which we can prevent metal surfaces from getting into contact with moisture. For example, surfaces can be painted or applied with other types of coatings. But it is also practically possible to remove or reduce humidity in closed-in constructions to such an extent that the formation of a conductive water film is not possible. This principle is used world-wide on bridges made as steel box girder constructions. Outside, the steel construction can be applied with a duplex system in the form of thermally sprayed zinc coating and paint, but inside the steel is only primed. A dehumidifying system ensures that the relative humidity inside the structure is constantly approximately 40%. The idea is that at such low relative humidity the formation of an electrolyte inside is not possible. This prevents any internal corrosion.

Electrochemical series

The corrosion resistance of a metal indicates the ability of the metal to resist corrosion in a defined environment. How resistant metals or alloys are, depends on factors such as the type of metal and the environment to which it is exposed.

In all metals or alloys (mixtures of metals) a certain amount of energy is stored.

This amount of energy can be measured in volt. These measurements are usually called potential or voltage measurements.

The difference in potential between two metals can be measured by a voltmeter.

However, in order to measure the potential of the metals, either alone or together, a reference electrode must be used. A reference electrode serves as a kind of zero point. Such a reference electrode is called the standard hydrogen electrode, often abbreviated SHE. It has a potential of 0 V in a defined solution at 25°C.

Reference electrode

Figure 1.7 Potential measurement with reference electrode

For potential measurements in sea water the reference electrodes listed below are used. When a certain reference electrode is referred to, the chemical names or the abbreviations in the parentheses are occasionally used.


Table 1.2 Potentials for different reference electrodes in relation to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)

f-'-'R:--._ef,_"e'-'-re""nc_::c::_:e::__:::e,_"le:_o:c""tr_:-o-"'d:--._e Electrolyte __ Potentia I versus SH E (V)_

Zinc Sea water approximately -0.78 V

Silver/silver chloride (SSC) Sea water approximately +0.25 V

Copper/copper sulphate (CSE) Sea water approximately +0.32 V

Calomel (SCE) KCI approximately +0.245 V

It can be seen that a reference electrode of zinc is negative compared to the standard hydrogen electrode, and that the other three are more positive.

Metals and alloys can be ranked in electrochemical series according to their corrosion resistance. Such electrochemical series are established by measuring the potential of a metal or an alloy in a defined environment. The most widely known and used series is the galvanic series in sea water. A closer look at the galvanic series quickly reveals which of two joined metals will corrode.

Table 1.3 shows that both zinc and aluminium and their alloys are less noble than steel. If two metals are placed in electrochemical contact, the less noble metal will suffer increased corrosion. This circumstance is of great practical importance, for example in connection with corrosion protection. For this reason, alloys of zinc, aluminium and magnesium, which are all less noble than steel, are used for cathodic protection of steel structures.

The lowest possible rate of corrosion is desired when two metals are joined. In order to achieve this, the metals must be insulated from each other in such a way that they are not in direct electrical contact. If this is not possible, it must be ensured that their relative positions are not too far apart in the electrochemical series. The driving force behind corrosion processes has been mentioned, i.e. the differences in potential between the metals. The greater the difference in potential, the fiercer the attack will be on the less noble of the two metals.

To a very large extent the corrosion attack on a metal also depends on the medium or environment to which it is exposed. Aluminium alloys and stainless steel alloys do not corrode to any great extent when exposed in urban or industrial atmospheres. However, the attack may be important if the same alloys are exposed to for example sea water.

In the galvanic series a few metals or alloys are listed twice. This is due to the fact that some metals are covered by a thin and protective oxide film. As long as this oxide film is intact, it helps the metal to remain passive. If the film has been removed or damaged, for example through abrasion, the position in the galvanic series changes. The metal now has a higher tendency to corrode.

Metals with such an oxide film include stainless steel, nickel alloys and aluminium alloys. If there is plentiful supply of water and oxygen, these oxide films are self-repairing. Under layers of dirt and pollutants the supply of oxygen may become too low. In such sites the oxide film is not repaired and corrosion may occur.

Under such conditions, some process industries have experienced problems with crevice and pitting corrosion of "ordinary" stainless steel. This has resulted in a change to higher grade stainless steel types, for example ASTM S31254.

1 CORROSION 21

Table 1.3 Galvanic series in flowing sea water (2.5-4 m1s), temperature range 11- 30°e. Potentials are measured versus saturated calomel reference electrode (SeE) [2J

Crevice and pitting corrosion are types of corrosion which cause localized corrosion attacks on metals. The attack often starts where there is a poor exchange of electrolyte in narrow crevices or in pits. This type of attack often takes place very quickly and may result in the metal corroding completely through.

Galvanic corrosion is also found if the external conditions between two equally noble metals result in a difference in potential. Such a difference may occur due to a difference in oxygen concentration, for example on piles submerged in sea water.


Galvanic corrosion is a type of corrosion which occurs when there is metallic contact between two metals in a corrosive environment.

The selection of appropriate materials requires thorough knowledge of metals and alloys and their behaviour in different environments.

Corrosion environment and pH

Indoors, in dry rooms, there is little danger of corrosion because there is no continuous electrolyte being formed on the surface. In the case of outdoor exposure, the corrosion attack depends on the environment. The more polluted the environment, the faster the corrosion attack will be. Many of the industrial gases emitted into the atmosphere are transformed into acids or alkalis. Such solutions attack metals as well as other construction materials.

In order to indicate whether a solution is acidic or alkaline, the pH value of the solution is measured. The pH value is usually measured within a range from 0 to 14. Pure water has the pH value of 7, which is a neutral solution. If a pH value of less than 7 is measured, it is an acidic solution. The closer to 0, the more acidic the solution. Rain water often has a pH value around 5 because it has taken up acidic pollution.

The pH scale is logarithmic. This means that for every single point above or below a pH value of 7, the solution will be ten times more concentrated. A solution with a pH value of 5 is consequently lOx 10 = 100 times more concentrated than a neutral solution with pH value 7.

Acidic ----- ----_~ Alkaline

Neutral

o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Figure 1.8 The pH scale

Alkaline substances have pH values from 7 to 14. Examples of such substances are sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, lye), ammonia and cement.

Acidic substances have pH values from 0 to 7. Examples of such substances are hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid. Their area of use includes pretreatment (pickling) of steel before hot dip galvanizing.

The corrosion attack on metals is often intensified in acidic and alkaline solutions. Both aluminium and zinc sustain very severe attacks in contact with alkalis. However, if steel is immersed in an alkaline solution, the steel is passivated. A thin iron oxide film is formed on the surface which offers good protection against corrosion, and the rate of corrosion is reduced considerably. Reinforcing steel bars are well protected and kept passivated by the alkaline environment in concrete.

The decisive factor for the corrosion process is whether water from rain, dew or condensation due to a high relative humidity of the air is present on the metal surface. However, the consequences may vary considerably.

When it rains, contaminants like salts and dirt collected on the surface will be

1 CORROSION 23

washed away. But in case of high humidity or condensation on the steel, such contaminants are not washed off. Contaminants in the form of dust and salt attract moisture (they are hygroscopic), and this prolongs the time of wetness.

For this reason, structures in an environment of high humidity, but little precipitation, may sustain severe corrosion attacks.

Aluminium

Zinc

Steel

Iron oxide Alkaline solution

Figure 1.9 Contact with strong alkalis will cause attack on both zinc and aluminium, but not on steel

Corrosion types

So far the deterioration of materials by the process of corrosion has been described in very general terms. In the case of corrosion on metals, the attacks are usually given a more detailed characterization, primarily based on the appearance characteristics of the attack. A more detailed description will now be given of some of the most common types of corrosion found on metals.

Uniform corrosion (general corrosion)

When corrosion develops at approximately the same rate over the entire metal surface, it is called uniform corrosion.

This type of corrosion results in a fairly even breakdown of the metal. An attack like this causes both anode and cathode reactions to occur on the same metal. Areas of different nobleness can be found due to particles of foreign metals being present in the metal surface or in the electrolyte.

Technically speaking, this type of corrosion is not very problematic. The lifetime of various alloys in various environments can be calculated.

If the attack takes place at a rate of approximately 0.1 mm/year, it will take 20 years before a metal thickness of 2 mm has corroded away completely. Normally requirements to both strength and lifetime are taken into consideration and the metal thickness increased by a corrosion allowance.

r---------------,

I I

Figure 1.10 Uniform corrosion


An old galvanized roof where the zinc has corroded away is an example of uniform corrosion. Attacks on low alloy and weathering steels are often of this type. This corrosion type can be seen on most metallic materials.

Uniform corrosion can be reduced by selecting the right material

adding inhibitor (to systems carrying liquid) using cathodic protection

using coatingsllinings

Galvanic corrosion (bimetallic corrosion)

One of the most widely observed corrosion types, and often the most dangerous type, is galvanic corrosion. This type of corrosion occurs when there is metallic contact between two metals in a corrosive environment. The corrosion is accelerated on the base metal and is reduced on the noble metal.

Cathode Anode

Figure 1.11 Galvanic corrosion

The attack on the base metal, the anode, is most severe close to the point of contact and decreases with increased distance from it.

The driving force behind galvanic corrosion is the difference in potential between the two metals. The attack is severe if metals located far apart in the electrochemical series are joined together.

The appearance characteristics of the attack depend on several factors. The relative area sizes of the anode and cathode and the conductivity of the electrolyte are among the most important factors. A large cathode coupled to a small anode often leads to a faster and more severe corrosion attack than in the case of a small difference in area.

The offshore oil industry has experienced problems with some types of welding electrodes used for welding of carbon steel. By accident insufficiently alloyed electrodes compared to the pipes were used. This resulted in complete corrosion of the welded joints in record time and extensive damage to the materials. The reason is galvanic corrosion caused by a large cathode area (the pipes) and a small anode area (the welds).

The galvanic series in sea water (see Table 1.3) was mentioned above. To a certain extent this series provides a possibility for predicting the risk of galvanic corrosion. Below some examples of various types of attack caused by galvanic contact between dissimilar metals will be discussed.

The Statue of Liberty in New York City was completed in 1886. The copper statue was supported internally by a framework of iron and steel. The copper skin and the steel were originally insulated from each other by means of asbestos fabric impregnated with shellac. Over the years the asbestos fabric had deteriorated and started to work as a wick between the metals. In the early 80's the steel framework

1 CORROSION 25

had become extensively damaged due to galvanic corrosion. The corrosion attack on the steel and cracking of the rust had caused deformation of the copper skin in a number of places.

During the restoration an effort was made to prevent galvanic corrosion. Most of the steel was replaced by stainless steel alloys and the metals were insulated from each other by means of Teflon gaskets/inserts. [3]

A number of wheel houses on ships are made of aluminium. This has resulted in galvanic corrosion in the interface between steel and aluminium, but the problems have now been reduced by changing the joining techniques and by using anticorrosion paints.

Galvanic corrosion can be reduced by

using filler metals for welding which are nobler than the parent material changing the materials used in order to avoid harmful contacts between noble and base materials

insulating materials from each other using metal coatings or paint coatings

avoiding the deposit of nobler metal ions on the surface.

Crevice corrosion

Narrow crevices exposed to a liquid, typically water-containing solutions, may be open enough to allow the liquid to penetrate, but still so narrow that the liquid becomes stagnant within them. If this is the case, crevice corrosion may occur.

The driving force for this type of corrosion is a difference in oxygen content inside and outside the crevice.

The most pronounced crevice corrosion occurs on metals which are passive or easily passivated, such as stainless steel, aluminium and steel in predominantly alkaline environments. For example in sea water the passive oxide layer on some metals may be broken down by aggressive chloride ions.

Crevice corrosion occurs in flanged joints, under rivet heads and screw heads, in overlaps and when the metal is covered by for example dirt, sand, corrosion products or marine growth.

The crevice becomes the oxygen depleted area, i.e. the anodic region

Water more rich in --1---oxygen becomes the cathodic region

Cathodic reaction: 1/202 +H20+2e=20H-

Figure 1.12 Crevice corrosion


In some cases crevice corrosion in flanged joints or beneath rubber hoses mounted by clamps onto stainless steel piping in sea water has had an extent of several rnillimetres per year. The reason is that sea water has penetrated but the exchange has not been frequent enough, which again leads to too low oxygen content to maintain the oxide film.

... ~.-~.- ... ~~ ..

.. .. ". ~.

11- ---- ------ -- ------ --·-----·····-····-········t~

i

Stainless steel pipe with sea water i

i

: 1 :

> ~

.- -.' ":i ... " ..... __ w\\-J

.'

' .

. '

. Sand

~.m:~. ~ ...

.""

:.: Sand" "'" _ .. '

~~AY~

Sand

Crevice corrosion

Figure 1.13 Crevice corrosion on stainless steel

Crevice corrosion can be reduced by a number of practical precautions:

Use welding instead of flanged joints and bolted joints whenever possible. Minimize the number of sharp edges, comers and possibilities for liquid pockets.

Drain areas which are not continuously filled with liquid. Do not use packings that absorb water.

Take solid particles and suspensions which may adhere to the walls into consideration.

Pitting corrosion

Pitting corrosion is a type of corrosion which involves localized attacks on metals. The attack is in the form of localized pits. This corrosion type may arise on a number of metals, but it is often found on metals with a passivating oxide film. like aluminium and stainless steel. Such attacks may result in extensive damage. Often

1 CORROSION 27

the diameter of the corrosion pits is relatively small, but they grow in depth. The pittings may also be covered by corrosion products, which makes them difficult to spot.

Figure 1.14 Pitting corrosion

The relative sizes of the cathode and anode areas also determine the corrosion rate. The larger the cathode area relative to the anode area, the more severe the attack. The problem is also related to defects either in the oxide film or otherwise in the material. Attacks on stainless steel are often more severe than on ordinary steel. If the oxide film is attacked by chloride ions, it will be on weak spots in the film. The difference in area between the cathode and the anode is consequently very big. Ordinary steel has considerably more defects and the cathode and anode areas will be more equal in size. The oxide film on the stainless steel has few defects and acts as cathode to the metal.

The corrosion rate inside each pitting can be considerable and may cause the material to corrode through relatively quickly. Pitting corrosion is often seen in conditions where the metal is passive.

Pitting corrosion may also act like bimetallic corrosion. This happens when the water contains traces of more noble metal ions which are deposited on the metal surface. Major corrosion attacks may take place when copper ions are deposited as metallic copper on aluminium and steel.

Also a fairly noble material like copper may experience pitting corrosion. In copper pipes this may be due to the water quality or deposits from the water. Also residues in the pipes of carbon-containing drawing agent from the manufacturing process may be the reason. Heating of the pipes during their fabrication causes it to carbonize and a thin layer of carbon or graphite may be left on the walls of the pipe. Graphite is more noble than copper. The difference in area size between cathode and anode is big, and often major corrosion attacks are seen.

Some materials are highly resistant to pitting corrosion. They are usually characterized by a high content of chromium, nickel and molybdenum. Other metals are susceptible to this type of corrosion in chloride-containing environments and are. for example, not used in sea water nor in the chemical process industry.

In chloride-containing environments ordinary stainless steel usually has too little resistance against corrosion. On the other hand, special high alloy, stainless and acid-resistant steels, copper-nickel alloys and nickel and titanium alloys can be used with excellent results.

Pitting corrosion can be reduced or prevented by selecting more suitable materials

changing the corrosion environment


Anode Cathode Anode

Electrolyte with high conductivity

Anode

Cathode

Anode

Electrolyte with low conductivity

Cathode

Anode

Cathode

Figure 1.15 The corrosion attack is determined by the relative area sizes of the cathode and the anode, and by the conductivity of the electrolyte

Erosion corrosion

Erosion corrosion is a type of corrosion which occurs when a metal is exposed to mechanical abrasion and a corrosive environment at the same time. Liquid or gas flowing at high velocity in pipes may cause erosion corrosion. Turbulence is formed in the pipes. The mechanical impact causes the protective surface layers to be worn off or damaged at the surface.

Erosion corrosion may occur on most metals, but copper alloys are especially susceptible to this type of corrosion attack. Depending on the temperature of the fresh water, the maximum water velocity in non-replaceable distributing pipes is 1- 2 m/s, perhaps slightly higher on coupling pipes, before erosion corrosion arises.

Copper alloys are also widely used for transport of sea water. These velocities for sea water should not be exceeded:

copper alloys aluminium brass copper-nickel alloys

1 mls

1.8 mls 2.5-3.5 mls

Erosion corrosion is often due to the fact that the construction has an unsuitable design. Inside the pipe the corrosion can be caused by uneven weldings or pipes, inserted by welding, which jut in too far and thereby cause the flow of the water to change. Over time this results in a sort of undermining of the material. The attack is often shaped like a horse shoe.

1 CORROSION 29

Seen from above

Figure 1.16 Erosion corrosion on copper

Selective corrosion (dealloying corrosion)

Selective corrosion can appear on brass and cast iron if they are exposed in sea water. This type of corrosion causes one of the alloying elements to be preferentially attacked. The attack may be local or uniform over the entire surface. As a result, the geometry of the object may remain unchanged, but since one of the elements has been removed, it leaves a porous material with little or no mechanical strength. Well-known examples of selective corrosion are the dezincification of brass and the graphitization of cast iron.

Brass is an alloy of zinc and copper. Certain brass alloys with a high content of zinc are susceptible to selective corrosion. If such an alloy is used in sea water, the zinc will corrode and leave a porous matrix of copper. Consequently, the brass has lost its strength. Once the attack has reached this stage, only small impact is required to cause for example a pipe to break. When brass is dezincified, the attack can be seen as small reddish-brown areas on the brass. Here the zinc has corroded and the visible spots are the porous matrix of the copper.

No corrosion

Selective corrosion (pitting corrosion)

Selective corrosion (of the surface)

Selective corrosion (of all the material)

Figure 1.17 Selective corrosion


Cast iron has a high content of carbon. Graphitization results in corrosion of the iron, leaving a porous matrix of carbon in the material. As a result of the attack the iron in the cast iron will disappear and leave a dark area consisting of graphite (carbon). This may happen if cast iron is immersed in sea water.

Stress corrosion cracking

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a term given to inter- or transgranular cracking of metals by joint action of static tensile stress and a specific environment. This type of corrosion is very common in many industries.

Great concern has been given to SCC both on onshore and offshore locations.

Different types of metals or alloys will be more or less sensitive than others to a given solution or environment.

Metal

Carbon steel Copper alloys Stainless steels

Solutions causing see Nitrate solutions (N03-) Ammonia solutions (NH3) Chloride solutions (CI-)

Insulated stainless steel pipes for the transport of fresh water or sea water at temperatures of approximately 60°C are particularly susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. Such pipes are often insulated with cellular glass insulation. Before applying the insulation, the stainless steel is often sweep-blasted with a fine mineral abrasive and then painted with epoxy or similar coatings. It is common practice to specify paints without zinc metal or chlorine-containing constituents.

The risk of stress corrosion cracking on stainless steel can be reduced by stressrelief annealing to remove residual stresses from welding or cold-work.

Cracking

--

Static stress

Figure 1.18 Stress corrosion cracking on stainless steel in chloride-containing environment at 60°C

1 CORROSION 31

lntergranular corrosion (intercrystalline corrosion) Intergranular corrosion is localized attacks on or around the grain boundaries of a metal with little impact on the rest of the surface. All metals are composed of microscopic metal grains. Intergranular attack occurs along the grain boundaries of the metal.

This type of corrosion especially affects austenitic stainless steel with a carbon content of approximately 0.05-0.08%, for example of the ASTM 304 and ASTM 316 types. These types of steel may be susceptible to corrosion attacks if they have been subject to heat treatment within the temperature range of 400-800°C. The heating causes a deposit of chromium carbide on the grain boundaries. This deposit takes place at the expense of a small zone on the grain boundary where chromium contents are reduced. In this little zone the material loses its "stainless-ness", so to speak.

Intergranular corrosion of austenitic steel often takes place in connection with welding. The areas around the welds are often subjected to the relevant temperature range for a short period of time. This results in a localized attack around the weld, on both sides of it.

Intergranular corrosion usually occurs in very specific environments, for example chloride-containing environments. In order to avoid this type of corrosion it is common practice to select a material quality like ASTM 304L or 316L with a low content of carbon (lower than 0.03% C), or other alloys stabilized with titanium or niobium which bind carbon and form titanium or niobium carbide instead of chromium carbide.

Figure 1.19 1ntergranular corrosion

Corrosion fatigue

When a metal is subjected to either temporary or continuous stresses, cracking may suddenly occur above a certain stress level. This may take place in spite of the stresses being considerably smaller than what is otherwise known to be the tensile stress of the material. This is usually calledfatigue. When this fatigue takes place in a corrosive environment, it is called corrosion fatigue. In the case of corrosion fatigue the material may be broken down earlier than in the case of ordinary fatigue.

Corrosion fatigue causes cracking of the material and total destruction may be the result. Microscopes are often used for the evaluation of the surface of the fracture. In this case lines can be observed on the smooth part of the surface. so-called striations. The striations have the same curvature towards the starting point.


-

..- Dynamic stress ~

Figure 1.20 Fatigue corrosion

Corrosion in different environments

Corrosion in air

Corrosion of unpainted steel or other metals takes place at a relative humidity higher than approximately 60-70%. Because the air contains oxygen, the decisive factor for the corrosion is how long the metal surface is wet. The length of time when the surface is wet is usually called the time of wetness. The time of wetness is defined as the period of time when the relative humidity of the air is above 80% and the air temperature above o°e.

In urban and industrial atmospheres there is a particularly high amount of solid particles in the air, including soot, sand and chloride and sulphate salts. Such salts are hygroscopic (attract water) and water soluble. Thereby they increase the corrosion in air.

In some cases it is also a determining factor for the corrosion attack whether the water on the metal surface is due to condensation or rain. In very polluted environments rain will wash away contaminants. Condensation rarely creates so much water that the contamination is actually washed off the surface. Corrosion attacks caused by condensation may be more severe than those caused by rain water.

The corrosion rates of for example aluminium alloys, stainless steel, copper alloys and zinc are generally lower than of steel exposed to the air.

Corrosion in water

Structures to be immersed in water are often built of metallic materials. There are two main types of water: fresh water and sea water. Corrosion attack in water depends on the temperature, pH value and oxygen and salt contents of the water.

Fresh water

In areas of the world where the drinking water is soft, with a low calcium content. the water is corrosive. At a number of waterworks attempts have been made to reduce the internal corrosion of the water piping system. Such attempts include increasing the calcium contents and the pH value of the water. Hard water is less

1 CORROSION 33

corrosive than soft water. This is due to the content of calcium and magnesium salts in the water. If the content of such salts is sufficiently high, there will be a deposit of for example calcium carbonate, which reduces the rate of corrosion.

Sea water

As opposed to this, pure sea water in the oceans of the world has a constant composition and corrosivity. The salt content is approximately 3.5% and pH 8.1. [4] From the chloride contents of the sea water a relatively high corrosion rate for steel should be expected. But to some extent the contents of calcium and magnesium salts reduce the attacks. Such salt layers have a protective effect. This is especially the case in connection with cathodic protection where the formation of hydroxide results in increased pH value and deposit of calcium and magnesium salts on the surface.

Corrosion is oxygen dependant and will be severe in the splash zone since the water is continuously enriched with oxygen. At the same time the salt deposits are washed away, and the effect from the deposited salt layer is reduced.

Also the velocity of flow may be of importance for the attack on some alloys. A high flow velocity causes the protective layer of corrosion products to be worn away. In extreme cases also parts of the actual material may be tom away. Especially copper alloys are susceptible to this type of corrosion, which is called erosion corrosion. On stainless steel the risk of such attacks is very small. At too low velocity of flow or in stagnant liquids crevice corrosion may occur.

Corrosion in soil

Structures which are fully or partly buried in soil will be exposed to corrosion. The attacks in soil will to a very large extent depend on the type of soil and humidity, salt and oxygen contents, pH value, etc., and may be quite extensive.

In order to reduce the extent of the corrosion it is important that the soil around buried structures is well drained. This is the case of gravel, sand and moraine. In such types of soil the oxygen contents are consequently high.

Ground level

Soil, sand, gravel

Oxygen contents: High

Electrode reaction: 02 +2H,D+4e'---740H"

: ....

Sand, gravel

Low High

Fe---7Fe2++2e" °2+2H20+4e"---740H Pb---7Pb2+ + 2e"

etc.

Figure 1.21 Corrosion attack in soil


In mixed clay-containing soils variations in the oxygen contents may occur. Clay lumps near the surface result in low supply of oxygen. In such places there is a risk of localized corrosion attacks.

Structures to be placed "fully or partly in contact with soil over a prolonged period of time, should if necessary be protected. This especially applies to steel, which is often protected by thick organic coatings of coal tar or rubber. Alloys of lead and copper have better resistance to corrosion in soil.

Literature

Torsten Johnsen and Cecilia Aronsson: Korrosionshastigheten hos [dstelement. Slutraport, KI -report 1995:7. Korrosionsinstitutet, Stockholm

2 LaQue, F. L., Marine Corrosion - Causes and Prevention, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1975

3 R.. Baboian, E. Blaine Cliver, E. Lawrence Bellante: The Statue of Liberty Restoration. Proceedings of the Statue of Liberty - Today for Tomorrow Conference. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas, 1990

4 Einar Mattson: Electro kemi och korrosionslara. Bulletin no. 100, Korrosionsinstitntet, Stockholm, 1987.

1 CORROSION 35

2 Protection against

•

corrosion

Introduction

In the previous chapter various types of corrosion and influence from the environment have been discussed. We will now have a closer look at other methods of corrosion prevention:

correct selection of materials appropriate construction design use of paints and coatings cathodic and anodic protection conditioning of the environment

Correct selection of materials

A number of handbooks contain tables showing whether a metal/alloy is suitable for a given corrosive environment. Information on the corrosion rates of a number of metallic materials in connection with various concentrations of chemicals and temperatures may be listed. Based on information in the handbooks, experiences from projects etc., suitable metals/alloys are selected. Conditions such as lifetime requirements and accessibility for replacement are also of great importance.

Many factors play a part in the selection of materials. The final selection is often made on the basis of considerations related to corrosion engineering and the economy.

Further considerations may concern various combinations of materials and the risk of special types of corrosion under the given environmental conditions.

Various metals and their areas of use will be given a short description below.

Steel

Pure iron finds insignificant technical use. On the other hand, iron alloyed with carbon and smaller amounts of the elements manganese and silicon constitutes the


most widely used metallic construction material.

Types of steel where the tensile strength properties are mainly determined by the carbon contents are called carbon steel or unalloyed steel. Steel (carbon steel) has a carbon content of up to 1.3%, while in the case of cast iron it is even higher, between 2-4%. Apart from carbon, such steels also contain minor quantities of sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and manganese from the manufacturing process.

Other elements can also influence the properties of the steel. For example, the silicon content is very important for the thickness of the zinc coating produced by means of hot dip galvanizing.

By alloying steel (carbon steel) with small quantities of the alloying elements chromium, nickel, molybdenum, phosphorus and vanadium a large variety of steel qualities is obtained. Such steel qualities are usually called low alloy steels. The total contents of the alloying elements rarely exceed a few per cent. The corrosion resistance of unalloyed steel and low alloy steel is more or less the same.

Steel used for building constructions have excellent mechanical properties, but will corrode in the atmosphere at humidities above 60-70%. The rate of corrosion is influenced by factors such as time of wetness, pH value and air pollution.

During milling (rolling) of the steel mill scale is created. Mill scale will act as a cathode on the steel, if not completely removed. At first mill scale acts as a barrier and reduces the corrosion of the steel, but when the mill scale cracks and flakes off, the corrosion rate of such exposed localized areas will increase due to unfavourable cathode-anode ratios. The rust formed provides only slight protection of the steel.

Structural steel and plates of large thicknesses are usually supplied hot rolled, whereas thinner sheets (below 4 mm) are cold rolled. The thin sheets do not have III i II scale.

Due to corrosion, but also for cosmetic reasons, it is common practice to proy ide the steel with some sort of protective treatment. In most cases this is accomplished by painting the steel.

Mill scale

Figure 2.1 At outdoor exposure mill scale cracks and steel corrodes

Weathering steels

Weathering steel is a special type of low alloy steels which, when exposed outck iors. has better resistance against corrosion than ordinary structural steels.

The improved resistance is a result of the weathering steels having been alloyed \\ ith slightly higher amounts of chromium, phosphorus and copper.

2 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION 37

The weathering steels rust during an initial period of 1.5-4 years in roughly the same way as carbon steels. During this period a uniformly dense and dark rust layer called patina develops on the surface. The dense rust layer now causes corrosion to take place at a slower rate. [1]

Rust (porous)

Rust (dense)

Figure 2.2 After a few years a dense rust layer (patina) is formed on weathering steels

Due to the decorative rust layer and lower rate of corrosion it is not common practice to paint weathering steel. The construction design is of the utmost importance. Discoloration of light-coloured materials such as concrete is a problem if rain water is not drained effectively from the weathering steel.

Corrosion (11m)

200

300

100

o

3

5 Years

Figure 2.3 Corrosion of Atmofix 52A and an unalloyed reference steel exposed outdoors in highly polluted atmosphere [1 J


On surfaces which are constantly damp or exposed to a marine environment no patina will be formed. Weathering steels are consequently more suitable for structures which are exposed to alternate periods of wetness and dryness.

Weathering steels are probably more widely known by their trade names, such as Cor-Ten A and B, Patinax 37, Atmofix 52, etc.

In the USA approximately 2000 bridges built from weathering steel during the period around 1960 to 1980 have not been painted. After some time extensive corrosion problems have been observed which will result in a considerable reduction of the calculated lifetime of the structure if nothing is done about it. Blast cleaning to Sa 2Y2 and subsequent application of epoxy mastic systems is now being considered. [2]

The term Sa is one of four degrees of cleanliness defined in connection with hlast cleaning. A degree of cleanliness of Sa 2Y2 corresponds to very careful blast c leaning of the steel to the extent that almost all rust is removed.

Stainless steels

As opposed to low alloy steels, stainless steels contain substantial amounts of alloying elements in the range of 15-30%.

Generally, the various types of stainless steels are grouped after their crystalline xtructure, such as ferritic, austenitic, and ferritic-austenitic. Differences in the structurc result in differences in their corrosion properties. In chloride-containing envin HI ment with a risk of pitting and crevice corrosion, steels of an austenitic structure :IIC often preferred over ferritic or ferritic-austenitic structures.

The table below gives a summary of some of the most common stainless alloys, their crystalline structures and grades according to various standards.

Table 2.1 Common terms for various high alloy steels in accordance with EN, /\.\TM and UNS

EN

ASTM UNS Structure %C %Cr % Ni %Mo
(average) (average) (average) (average)
016 430 S43000 Ferritic 0.04 16.5
301 304 S30400 Austenitic 0.04 18.1 8.3
307 304L S30403 Austenitic 0.02 18.1 8.3
436 316 S31600 Austenitic 0.04 16.9 10.7 2.6
432 316L S31603 Austenitic 0.02 16.9 10.7 2.6
539 904L N08904 Austenitic 0.01 20 25 4.3
547 S31254 S31254 Austenitic 0.01 20 18 6.1
652 S32654 S32654 Austenitic 0.01 24 22 7.3
462 S32205 S31803 Duplex 0.02 22 5.7 3.1
410 S32750 S32750 Duplex 0.02 25 7 4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4

'1 'he main alloying element in stainless alloys is chromium. When chromium is used lor alloys, a thin and protective chromium-oxide film is formed on the surface of


the metal. The alloy must as a minimum have a chromium content of approximately 11 % to prevent rust from appearing on the steel. Stainless steel must have access to oxygen in order to maintain the oxide film.

Besides alloying stainless steel with chromium, also nickel and molybdenum are added. An example of a stainless steel of this type is steel with approximately 17% chromium, 11 % nickel and 2.6% molybdenum, see Table 2.1.

Many countries have standards for stainless steels. The terms ASTM 304 and ASTM 316 from American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) designate examples of stainless steels. It is quite common to describe stainless steel as 18/8 steel. The figures indicate the contents of chromium and nickel, respectively, in the steel. Molybdenum can also be added. An alloy with 17% chromium, 11 % nickel and 2.6% molybdenum corresponds to ASTM 316.

Other steel qualities have better corrosion resistance to sea water compared to the types mentioned above. The material ASTM S3l254, often referred to as 254 SMO or 6 Mo, is a high quality steel alloy containing 20% chromium, 18% nickel and 6.1 % molybdenum. When this material was first introduced on the market, tests showed good corrosion resistance against crevice corrosion at temperatures up to approximately 40°C. However, subsequent practical experience has shown that the material has been subject to pitting/crevice corrosion even at lower temperatures.

The corrosion resistance of ASTM S31254 in for example sea water is much better than that of an "ordinary" stainless steel, for example ASTM 304. This is due to the high alloy contents. Under particularly corrosive conditions also ASTM S3l254 may have too little corrosion resistance, and other materials must be chosen.

Formability and weldability are greatly improved when nickel and molybdenum are added.

It is a general misconception that stainless steels do not corrode. In sea water a number of these alloys will suffer extensive corrosion. Despite the fact that alloys with a chromium content of minimum 12% result in steel qualities which do not rust, these types will nevertheless be subject to corrosion.

Passive condition

Active condition

Figure 2.4 Active and passive condition


In chloride-containing environments localized corrosion attacks will occur. Pitting . and crevice corrosion may result in complete perforation of pipe walls or severe attacks on seal faces on flanges.

Intercrystalline corrosion is a type of corrosion which may appear on stainless steels with a high carbon content (0.05-0.08% C). Welding of stainless steels with a high carbon content may cause precipitation of chromium carbides, leading to depletion of chromium to below 12% in the metal adjacent to the precipitates, which is thus no longer "stainless". Ifthe steel is exposed to an aggressive environment, such sites may become anodic to the rest of the metal, and may corrode.

This type of corrosion attack can be reduced by selecting stainless alloys with low carbon contents « 0.03%) or possibly adding small quantities of titanium or niobium in order to prevent the formation of chromium carbide. Alternatively, the steel can be heat treated at high temperature and cooled very rapidly so that no chromium carbides can be formed.

There are many areas of use for stainless steels, from household articles (cutlery, saucepans, etc.) to use for the transportation and storage of aggressive liquids, including chloride-containing substances.

Water, salts

Pitting corrosion

Oxide film

Figure 2.5 Pitting corrosion on stainless steel

Titanium and nickel alloys

Titanium alloys have excellent corrosion resistance when exposed in both marine and industrial atmospheres. They are also suitable for use in fresh water and in sea water.

Due to high initial costs the use of titanium alloys has been limited. But under demanding conditions the selection of titanium alloys may be advantageous because they have a number of excellent properties. This has been the case in the process industry which has had good experience with the use of titanium for pumps, valves, etc. Also the oil industry has started to use titanium, for example for heat exchangers.

Nickel alloys are considered among the most corrosion-resistant alloys in existence. Such alloys are used in particularly aggressive media, and when long lifetimes are required. They are extremely resistant towards sea water with high velocity of flow. In stagnant and slow sea water they may be subject to pitting and crevice corrosion. [3]

You may have heard mention of materials such as Monel, Chlorimet, Hastelloy Band C, and Inconel, which are all examples of nickel alloys.


Copper and copper alloys

Copper is a relatively noble, but soft metal. By alloying copper a large number of alloys with many different areas of use are produced. Well-known alloys are brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin), just to mention a few.

The rate of corrosion of copper in air is low, approximately 0.5-2.5 urn/year.

This is due to the fact that the corrosion product formed on copper is very dense and durable. Most people have probably at some point in time seen the green patina, verdigris, on objects made of copper.

The use of copper for construction has a long tradition. Copper alloys are often used for roofs, mountings, statues, etc.

Copper and copper alloys are also widely used for water-bearing pipes, condensers and heat exchangers as well as for components like valves, pumps, etc.

When selecting materials, attention must be paid to the medium which the alloy will get into contact with. This is perhaps especially important in connection with the transport of fresh water and sea water in the pipes. Copper pipes used for hot and cold water piping and hot water appliances are well-known.

For transport of sea water more resistant copper alloys should be chosen. Alloys of copper-nickel or aluminium-brass are often used for this purpose.

Copper alloys are generally sensitive to the velocity of flow in the pipes. At a too high velocity, erosion corrosion may arise. In order to avoid such damage on "ordinary" copper pipes, the flow velocity of the sea water should not exceed approximately 1 mJs. In the case of copper-nickel the upper limit is considered to be approximately 3.5 mJs.

Besides erosion corrosion, copper alloys are also attacked by pitting corrosion.

Selective corrosion may occur on various brass alloys.

The tendency of fouling is smaller on copper than on other metals. Consequently, copper alloys are extensively used in water-bearing pipes, and for the same reason copper-containing antifouling paints are used on ships' hulls.

Zinc

When we consider the areas of use of hop dip galvanized steel, this is utilized for a number of purposes where long lifetime without extensive maintenance is required. Apart from the advantage of a low corrosion rate of hot dip galvanized steel in a number of atmosphere types, the zinc coating also provides corrosion protection of the steel in case of damage. A maj or part of the steel used for power masts, railings, lamp posts, crash barriers, etc. is hot dip galvanized. It has been estimated that approximately 40% of all zinc produced on a world-wide basis is used for corrosion protection of steel. [4]

Zinc coatings can be applied to steel by various methods that will be discussed later. Depending on the method of application and the thickness, zinc coatings may provide excellent protection to steel for many years, depending on the exposure environment.

Corrosion on zinc in air is generally slow. In urban and industrial atmospheres it takes place at 1-10 um/year, In rural and marine atmospheres it is even lower and only approximately 0.5-2 urn/year.

Sacrificial anodes made of zinc are used for cathodic protection of steel.


Aluminium

When aluminium is exposed to the air, a thin oxide film will quickly form on the surface. The oxide film is only approximately 0.011Jll1 thick, but protects the metal effectively against corrosion.

In the case of aluminium alloys, improved properties in respect of ultimate strength, ductility, corrosion performance, etc. can be obtained.

Aluminium alloys have become popular for many applications, including roof panels and facade cladding. The average rate of corrosion over a 20-year period will even in industrial atmosphere rarely exceed Lum/year for such alloys. Often minor pitting corrosion attacks occur. Such attacks can be difficult to spot with the naked eye. The corrosion rate of such attacks usually decreases with time. In the case of pitting corrosion the following maximum depths of the pittings after 20 years in different atmospheres have been measured [5]:

rural atmosphere 10-55 IJll1 urban atmosphere 100-190 11m marine atmosphere 85-260 11m

As aluminium is relatively ignoble, there may be a risk of galvanic corrosion in contact with more noble metals such as steel, stainless steel and copper. The metals should therefore be insulated from each other. Naturally, the prerequisite for galvanic corrosion is the presence of an electrolyte at the point of contact. In spite of I he metals being insulated from each other, corrosion may occur on the aluminium. This may happen if the aluminium is exposed to copper-containing water. In this iaxc, the copper is deposited on the surface. The copper particles form small cath(Ides and the result may be serious corrosion damage.

Aluminium alloyed with 4.5% magnesium and 1 % manganese, among other clements, is called sea water-resistant aluminium. The alloy has high resistance to l'( urosion in a marine environment. For many years sea water-resistant aluminium II;IS been used for the hulls of high-speed vessels. For protection of flare booms on ollshore platforms sea water-resistant aluminium is applied by means of thermal spraying.

When an aluminium hull is painted at and below the water line, antifouling paints should not be applied directly on top of the aluminium because they are usually based on copper pigments. Damage to the paint results in an unfavourable II i lfcrence in area between the copper-containing paint (the cathode) and aluminium. 'I'll ismay cause corrosion of the hull.

Aluminium is not suitable for processing and storage of inorganic acids, with I Ill' exception of concentrated nitric acid and sulphuric acid. However, it may be sulficiently resistant to withstand several organic acids. Alkalis also attack aluIllinium, but inhibitors, for example silicates, added to diluted alkaline solutions reduce such attacks. An inhibitor is a substance which retards the reaction speed in II process.


Constructional design to reduce corrosion

In order to prevent corrosion we must have knowledge about the selection of materials and the importance of constructional design.

There are numerous examples of constructions which have been quite satisfactory, both in respect of strength and aesthetics, but where nevertheless the structure has had weaknesses. Unsuitable designs may cause entrapment of water, dirt and pollution. This results in extensive maintenance costs. Consequently, we must try to reduce corrosion at an early stage, preferably already on the drawing board.

Crevices

Construction designs often create areas with narrow crevices. Crevices may be created in many ways, for example by fastening parts by spot welding or bolts. In areas with difficult access, this will give rise to problems.

In such a case rust formation constitutes a high risk of expansion and rupture.

This is due to the fact that rust takes up a larger volume than the steel from which it is formed. The result may be deformation of thin sheets etc. There are several ways to avoid the formation of crevices. In many cases crevices can be avoided if materials are welded together instead of flanged and bolted. Another possibility is to deliberately make the crevices bigger to enable easier and better maintenance work.

Also steel structures at the ground level may be subject to splashes and collection of moisture. In many cases the steel can be protected by embedding it in a concrete foundation or by applying extra thick coats of paint in such areas.

Outdoor exposure

Steel

I Deformation due t--:=-~=-----. to corrosion products

I I

'-'

Figure 2.6 Corrosion products have a higher volume than metal. This may result in deformation

Geometrical effects

The geometrical designs should be as simple as possible. The simpler the surfaces, the easier it is to carry out surface preparation and paint application. This makes cleaning and later maintenance easier and reduces the risk of corrosion. Quite many problems are caused by variations in profile shapes. This is why large areas are easier to prepare and paint than for instance sections which are welded, riveted or bolted together.

It is difficult to obtain sufficient film thickness on sharp edges. If edges are


rounded in connection with painting, the paint coating will be more even and better than on sharp edges. Many specifications now include the requirement that edges must be rounded and have a radius of minimum 2 mm.

Paint

Sharp edge:

low thickness on edges

Rounded edge: even thickness

Figure 2.7 Sharp edges should be rounded in order to obtain a sufficiently thick paint coating

Unsuitable

I

Usable

Residual moisture Draining hole

Unsuitable Usable

Residual moisture

Figure 2.8 Designs and shapes which are difficult to maintain and/or collect dirt lind moisture should be avoided

The international standard EN ISO 12944-3 "Design considerations" explains, both in text and figures, that in connection with the planning of constructions important aspects are whether they function properly and have adequate stability, strength and durability. The entire design must be planned and must include surface prep a-


ration, painting, inspection and maintenance.

Especially the aspects of design and access must be considered of the utmost importance in order to obtain the best possible base and possibility for maintenance later on. In connection with projects it is still possible to meet inappropriate designs like those shown in the Figures 2.8, 2.10, and 2.11.

Narrow gaps, crevices and lap joints are places which are always subject to corrosion attacks because moisture, dirt, etc. are collected in such places. In some cases sealants should be used in order to reduce the risk of corrosion, or possibly welding should be carried out once more. Any openings in for example stiffeners, frames or similar structural members should have a gap of minimum 50 mm to provide access for sufficient surface preparation and application of an anticorrosive paint.

Bottom flange

Figure 2.9 Stiffener design recommended for corrosion protection

With due consideration of the risk of corrosion the design should also be in accordance with the recommended corrosion-protective treatments. It must be possible to carry out proper maintenance with blast cleaning and airless spray application. It should also be ensured that the design preferably eliminates any entrapment of moisture and dirt. [6]

Heat loss through support

Insulated support

and causes corrosion

Figure 2.10 in tanks incomplete insulation of supports may result in internal condensation and risk of corrosion

In buildings where plating is used attention must be paid to the risk of thermal


hridges at low outdoor temperatures. Thermal bridges may cause a risk of condensation on the inside of the plating. If suitable damp-proofing and insulation materials are used, this may be prevented. In order to avoid similar problems, for example in tanks, the entire tank and supports must be insulated. Tanks should also be designed in such a way that draining is possible. Otherwise, any liquid retained in the tank may cause a risk of corrosion.

Unsuitable

Better

Best

Cannot be emptied completely

Completely empty

------

Figure 2.11 Tanks should be designed in such a way that no liquids are collected:

Metallic joints

I n many cases damage is due to more or less noble metals being in direct contact with each other. This causes a risk of galvanic corrosion. The larger the potential d i tference between the metals, the faster the corrosion rate on the ignoble metal. If at all possible, care should be taken to keep the metals completely insulated from each other.

Figure 2.12 Direct electric contact between different metals can be prevented by means of insulating gaskets


When welding, it is of great importance to select the correct welding electrode. It must be ensured that the weld does not become anodic in relation to the parent material. If the welds are less noble than the parent material, the welds may be severely attacked.

In the offshore industry accidents have occurred due to use of wrong welding electrodes. As a result of this the welds corroded rapidly and leakages occurred . . The cause of this damage was galvanic corrosion caused by the large and unfavourable difference in size between the area of the pipes (the cathode) and the area of the welds (the anode).

Before painting welds it is important that the welds are prepared in such a way that they are suitable for being coated. The surface preparation should include removal of irregularities and weld spatter by grinding, and removal of weld smoke residues by fresh water hosing. Depending on the agreed specification, the extent of work applied to the grinding may vary. Specifications may include relatively simple information such as "weld seams to be treated in a suitable manner ... " without any specific requirements to the way they look. This may of course result in discussions and disputes in a project.

The NACE standard RP 0178-2003 "Standard Recommended Practice: Fabrication Details, Surface Finish Requirements, and Proper Design Considerations for Tanks and Vessels to be Lined for Immersion Service" is an excellent tool. [7] The standard contains detailed text and illustrations describing welds prepared by grinding. The standard also incudes a molded plastic replica with examples of butt, fillet and lap welds. Completely untreated welds have been coded F, and after this the welds have received better and better grinding. On welds ground to the degree of A all weld spatter and irregularities have been removed and the surface has been ground completely even.

Electrolyte

\

The welding material is less noble than steel

Figure 2.13 It is important that no welds are less noble than the surrounding material

Weld beads

and weld smoke

Uneven weld

;;WI!iJtJHtliMIiimiiiNlIiiliRlIhlMti •• &.w:ulli

Ground weld

Figure 2.14 Residues of weld smoke and weld beads provide an unsuitable substrate for painting.


Design to prevent unnecessary turbulence

In flowing media, for example in liquid-bearing pipes, erosion corrosion may arise.

Strongly susceptible to this are pipes, bends, T-pieces, heat exchanger pipes, etc. carrying mixtures of water and solid matter. It is very important that the pipes have a suitable design in order to avoid unnecessary turbulence.

Figure 2.15 shows that insertion of pipes by welding should be carried out in such a way that any unneccessary change of the flow within the pipe is avoided. Pipes should be designed in such a way that any dimensional changes are gradual. Use of right-angled bends where a change of flow may cause erosion corrosion should also be avoided.

Figure 2.15 Sharp bends are areas at risk in pipes

Using paints and coatings

Paints

The most widely used method for protecting steel is by use of paints. When paint, or a similar coating, is applied, a film is built up to prevent corrosive gases or liquids from getting into direct contact with the metal.

Generally, a corrosion-protective paint can be said to protect the steel in three different ways:


1 Paints can protect steel against corrosion by excluding water and air from the surface. The paints arc said to protect by means of barrier protection. Although some water vapour and oxygen will diffuse through the coating, barrier coatings generally have low permeability. Typical barrier coatings are two-component epoxy and polyurethane paints, vinyl and chlorinated rubber paints, and tar-based paints, just to mention a few.

2 Paints can also protect steel against corrosion if special pigments are added to the paint which provide an inhibitive effect to the steel, for example by inhibiting the corrosion process by passivation. Paints with such pigments must not be too dense. Water must be able to permeate and react with the pigments in order for them to contribute to the corrosion control. You may have heard mention of pigments providing protection of steel in this way. Previously, the most widely used pigments included red lead and zinc chromate. Due to health hazards these pigments are very little used today. Instead the pigment zinc phosphate is used to an increasing extent.

3 Paints may protect steel against corrosion by "sacrificing" themselves. This is called the cathodic effect. Paints used for this method of protecting steel are the zinc-rich paints. The zinc in the paint is sacrificed and provides the necessary protection to the steel.

The barrier formed when we apply paint is relatively thin. The film thickness required for protecting the steel depends on the environment the metal is exposed to. When exposed in air, paint systems in a total film thickness from approximately 100 11m up to 300 11m are usually applied.

The paint must often be selected according to several requirements to the paint.

Residual rust may be present on areas of a structure with difficult access. On such areas a paint type is chosen which is tolerant of a rusty surface. On areas where regular maintenance is required, it is advantageous to chose a maintenance- friendly paint.

Consequently, there are many circumstances to take into consideration when selecting paints. However, the most important property of an anticorrosion paint is its resistance towards moisture and water. Water has an impact on almost all organic materials and is close to being a universal solvent.

Paint system selection and use of EN ISO 12944

The selection of paint systems for major projects within the onshore or offshore industries can be based on the standard EN ISO 12944 "Paints and Varnishes - Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures by Protective Paint Systems". [8]

EN ISO 12944 consists of 8 parts in total and was published in 1998. According to the European Committee for Standardization, CEN (Comite Europeen de Normalisation), a large part of the European countries have committed themselves to implement this standard, resulting in EN ISO 12944 also becoming national standards.


I~'N ISO 12944 "Paints and Varnishes - Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures hy Protective Paint Systems H

Part 1 General introduction

Part 2 Classification of environments

Part 3 Design considerations

Part 4 Types of surface and surface preparation

I 'art 5 Protective paint systems

Part 6 Laboratory performance test methods

Part 7 Execution and supervision of paint work

I 'art 8 Development of specifications for new work and maintenance

There are different ways of protecting steel structures from corrosion. EN ISO 12944 deals with protection by paint systems and covers, in the various parts, all Icatures that are important in achieving adequate corrosion protection.

The standard deals with a number of surfaces consisting of unalloyed or low a Iloy steel and their treatment, for example by thermal spraying, hot dip galvanizing, surfaces painted with prefabrication primer, zinc-electroplated surfaces, etc.

ISO 9226: 1992 "Corrosion of metals and alloys - Corrosivity of atmospheres

Determination of corrosion rate of standard specimens for the evaluation of corrosivity" classifies the environment according to 6 atmospheric corrosivity catcgories. The same classification is used in EN ISO 12944 where the following terms are used:

Atmospheric corrosivity category

('I very low

('2 low

('3 medium

('4 high

('5-1 very high (industrial)

('5- M very high (marine)

Additionally, three corrosivity categories have been defined for structures immersed in water or buried in soil. In the case of structures immersed in water or buried in soil the corrosion is of a general nature. It is therefore difficult to indicate any specific corrosivity categories.

Corrosivity category Im 1

1m2

1m3

Environment Immersed in fresh water

Immersed in sea water or brackish water Buried in soil

The standard defines the corrosivity categories based on mass or thickness loss after first year of exposure of standard test specimens made of unalloyed carbon steel or zinc. Both typical interior and exterior environments have been described.

Examples of the various corrosivity categories as well as examples of paint systems within each category are given below. Many other modifications or combinations are possible.


Corrosivity category Cl

Interior: Heated buildings with clean atmospheres (offices, shops, schools or hotels)

Exterior: .

Aggressivity: Insignificant

Paint systems: None, systems in C2 can be used for aesthetical reasons

Corrosivity category C2

Interior: Unheated buildings where condensation may occur (depots, sports halls)

Atmosphere with low levels of pollution (rural atmosphere) Low

Exterior:

Aggressivity:

Paint systems:

Alkyd systems:

Acrylic, chlorinated rubber, PVC:

Epoxy, polyurethane:

Zinc epoxy:

Zinc ethyl silicate:

2-5 coats (80-200 11m) 2-4 coats (100-160 11m) 2-4 coats (120-160 urn) 1-2 coats (80 urn)

1 coat (80 11m)


Interior: Production rooms with high humidity and some air pollution (food processing plants, production halls)

Urban and industrial, moderate SOz pollution,

coastal areas with low salinity

Medium

Exterior:

Aggressivity:

Paint systems:

Alkyd systems:

Acrylic, chlorinated rubber, PVC:


Zinc epoxy + acrylic, chlorinated rubber:

Zinc ethyl silicate + epoxy + polyurethane:

3-5 coats (200 urn)

3-5 coats (200-240 urn) 3-5 coats (160-240 urn) 1-2 coats (160-200 urn) 3-4 coats (160-200 11m)


Interior: Chemical plants, indoor swimming pools, coastal shipyards

Exterior: Urban and industrial, moderate SOz pollution,

coastal areas with moderate salinity Aggressivity: High

Paint systems:

Alkyd systems: 3-5 coats (200 11m)

Acrylic, chlorinated rubber, PVC: 3-5 coats (200-240 urn)

Epoxy, polyurethane: 3-6 coats (200-320 urn)

Zinc epoxy + epoxy + polyurethane: 4-5 coats (160-320 urn)

Zinc ethyl silicate + epoxy + polyurethane: 3-4 coats (240 urn) Zinc ethyl silicate + acrylic, chlorinated rubber, PVC:

3-4 coats (240 11m)


Cnrrosivity category C5

Interior: Buildings or areas with almost permanent condensation and highly polluted atmosphere

Industrial areas with high relative humidity and aggressive atmosphere

Coastal and offshore areas with high salinity Very high

Exterior: I:

M:

Aggressivity:

Paint systems:

Chlorinated rubber systems:


Zinc epoxy + coal tar epoxy:

Zinc ethyl silicate + epoxy + polyurethane:

Epoxy solvent-free:

3-4 coats (200 urn)

3-6 coats (300-500 urn) 4 coats (400 urn)

3-5 coats (320 urn)

I ~2 coats (800 urn)

The corrosivity categories listed above are all intended for corrosion protection of steel under atmospheric conditions. However, in case of selection of paint systems lor structures or objects to be immersed in fresh water or sea water or to be buried ill soil, the following categories apply:

Paint systems for the categories water and soil, Im l, 1m2, and 1m3

Exterior: Immersed in fresh water or sea water / brackish water or buried in soil

Paint systems:


Zinc epoxy + coal tar epoxy:

Epoxy solvent-free:

Coal tar epoxy:

Coal tar polyurethane:

2-4 coats (360-380 urn) 5 coats (540 urn)

1-2 coats (800 urn)

1- 5 coats (360-1000 urn) 2 coats (400 urn)

The durability of the paint systems depends on factors such as surface preparation, conditions during application, quality of application, paint system, exposure conditions, etc.

Within each corrosion class the paints systems are divided into 3 durability classes: class L (low), class M (medium) and class H (high). The durability is described by the following intervals:

Low (L) Medium(M) High (H)

2-5 years 5-15 years

more than 15 years

The durability time is not linked to any "guarantee time", but is a consideration which can help the owner set up a maintenance program. The following conditions largely apply to all systems:

surface preparation requirements primer types

number of coats and total film thickness


What are the influences by factors such as surface preparation, selected paint system, and dry film thickness on the durability of a paint system?

Studies often show that the higher the requirements to surface preparation, system build-up as well as number of coats and total film thickness, the longer the durability of the paint system.

Linings (organic)

Not all surfaces are suitable for the use of paint as protection. There may be several reasons for this, including extensive mechanical or chemical impact, difficult areas, or economic considerations.

Linings largely protect the metal in the same way as paints by forming a barrier between the ambient environment and the metal.

The term lining is often associated with higher film thicknesses than when using paint. Some of these linings can be applied in thicknesses of several millimetres, some may be several centimetres thick.

Among the organic lining types currently in use are tar coatings, asphalt, various plastic coatings, bitumen, grease-like coatings, tapes, etc.

The methods of application oflinings are numerous. Asphalt and tar linings are spray-applied, while various types of plastic and bitumen linings are wrapped around pipes in automatic machines. To a certain extent this is also the case of grease-like linings and other tapes.

Metal coatings

A widely used method for corrosion protection is to apply a thin layer of another metal to the metal to be protected.

Very many structures around us have external surfaces consisting of a metal coating. Familiar examples are hot dip galvanized lamp posts, crash barriers, garbage stands, and chromium-plated and nickel-plated parts on cars.

Metal coatings are applied by various methods. They can be applied electrolytically (aqueous metal solutions), by dipping in molten metals (hot dip galvanizing) or by thermal spraying (metallization).

Electroplating

Metal coating of small steel components is done by means of electrolysis. Electrolysis utilizes an electrolyte with metal ions, anode and cathode, and a power source. By this method, dissolved metal ions from the electrolyte are deposited on the steel surface. The coatings applied to metals by means of electrolysis can be both more noble and less noble than the metal to be protected.

For example, if zinc is applied on steel, the zinc will function as a sacrificial anode layer. If damage occurs down to the bulk metal, the zinc layer will corrode and not the steel. The thickness of electrolytic zinc layers is usually low, approximately 5-20 urn.


Chromium and nickel layers are usually applied for aesthetical reasons. The thickness of the layer is usually 5-40 ~m for nickel and 0.3~2 f1111 for chromium. Such layers are more noble than steel, and in order to protect against corrosion they must be absolutely dense and holiday-free, If coating damage down to the steel occurs, the nickel/chromium layer will become the cathode and the steel anode. In other words, there is a high area ratio between the cathode and the anode. This results in increased corrosion of the coated metal in the damaged area.

Steel

Zinc

Nickel Steel

Figure 2.16 Damage of the nickel/chromium layer down to steel may result in severe pitting corrosion of the steel

Dipping in molten metals

;\ 11 other method for coating steel is dipping it in a bath with molten metal. The most widely used method is hot dip galvanizing.

By dipping steel in a bath with molten zinc, a zinc layer of considerably higher thickness can be obtained than is the case of electroplated steel. The zinc thickness depends on the steel type. On unkilled steel zinc coatings above approximately 70 pill are rarely seen. On silicon-killed steel a zinc thickness of over 200 f1111 can be obtained.

Even though dipping in molten zinc is the most common protection process, steel can also be applied with coatings of aluminium, aluminium-zinc alloy and lead by dipping it in molten metals of these types.

The corrosion rates of metal coatings depend on the ambient environment. A zinc coating of 75 f1111 can protect steel in an inland area for 20 years, perhaps longer, but when exposed in aggressive industrial atmosphere the protection may perhaps only last for approximately 10 years.

Zinc

Iron-zinc alloy

Steel

Figure 2.17 Cross cut of the coating on hot dip galvanized steel


Thermal spraying (metallization)

Another method for coating steel is by spray applying either a metal wire or metal powder melted by a gas flame or an electric arc in a spray gun. The most common metals sprayed on for corrosion protection of steel are zinc and aluminium and their alloys.

Thermal spraying of zinc in connection with corrosion protection of bridges has generally been combined with paint systems. A common thickness of the zinc coating is 100-150 J.IIIl plus approximately 200 urn paint. The lifetime of the zinc coating is extended quite considerably when overcoated. In Norway some structures have been in use for more than twenty years, more or less without any damage. Such systems employing thermal spraying and paint systems are usually called duplex systems.

Within the offshore oil industry thermal spraying has been in use for many years. In case of thermal spraying of pure aluminium and aluminium alloys a coating of 150AOO J.IIIl is usually applied as well as a paint system. If the temperature of the structure is below approximately l20°C, an epoxy or polyurethane system in a thickness of approximately 200 J.IIIl is usually applied. When the temperature is higher than this, heat-resistant paints are used, for example aluminium silicone paints in a thickness of approximately 50 urn.

Cathod ic proctection

Cathodic protection can, in short, be described as a process where the metal to be protected becomes the cathode in a galvanic cell. As mentioned above, the cathode is not attacked by corrosion. The attack takes place at the anode. In practice, this is utilized by putting the metal to be protected into galvanic contact with a less noble metal (the sacrificial anode) or by using impressed current.

Cathodic protection, both in theory and in practice, has been known since 1824 when Sir Humphrey Davy described this form of corrosion protection. The method is used for the protection of ships, offshore platforms, and oil and gas pipes in sea water, etc. The method is also used to prevent localized corrosion on aluminium and stainless steel alloys. In recent years cathodic protection has also been used for protecting concrete constructions.

How does this type of cathodic protection work?

The rate of corrosion of a metal in an electrolyte to a very high extent depends on the potential of the metal. The attack on the metal can be reduced by making the metal more negative, i.e. lowering the potential.

As a further illustration, a diagram showing the potential (voltage) relative to the pH value for iron in water will be discussed. The diagram is called the Pourbaixdiagram after Marcel Pourbaix who invented it. Similar diagrams are also available for other metals.

The solid lines in the diagram indicate a transition to areas where the steel either


corrodes, is passive (slight corrosion) or is immune (no corrosion). The dashed lines show the lower and upper stability limits for water. Below the lower line water is transformed into hydrogen gas (H2), above the upper line water is transformed into oxygen gas (OJ Whether the metal corrodes or not (see the diagram) depends on the potential of the metal and the pH value of the solution.

E (volt) SHE

16

pH

Figure 2.18 Pourbaix-diagram for steel in water

111 the Pourbaix-diagram reference is made to the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE). Whenever potentials are to be measured under practical conditions, it is always necessary to use other sorts of reference electrode, for example copper/ copper sulphate, silver/silver chloride or zinc.

The reference electrodes will have this potential in relation to the standard hydrogen electrode, see also Table 1.2:

Silver/silver chloride in sea water (SSC) Copper/copper sulphate in sea water (SCE) Zinc in sea water

+0.25 volt +0.32 volt -0.78 volt

Example

I f steel is immersed in sea water with a pH value of 7, a potential of the steel of approximately -OAO volt versus SHE will be measured. This potential corresponds to the approximately -0.65 volt versus the silver/silver chloride electrode and the saturated calomel electrode shown in the galvanic series in Table 1.3. The point is plotted on the Pourbaix-diagram, and we will now take a look at what happens if the conditions around the steel are slightly changed.


a) If we lower the pH value, making the water more acidic, this will result in continued corrosion since the steel remains within the corrosive area. The corrosion rate increases with the reduction of the pH value.

b) If we increase the pH value, the water becomes more alkaline, and the steel is moved into the area where it is passivated. The corrosion rate is reduced, but not entirely stopped.

c) If we apply a more positive potential, the metal will again be transferred to the passive area. This method does not make the metal immune against corrosion, but a layer is formed on the metal surface which reduces the rate of corrosion. This is called anodic protection.

d) If we apply a more negative potential, the steel will be seen to move down into the immune area. In the border area where corrosion stops at -0.65 volt measured versus SHE slight corrosion may still arise, but at potentials lower than -0.65 volt measured versus SHE the metal dissolution will be close to zero. This type of protection is called cathodic protection.

It has now been demonstrated that it is possible to protect steel by changing the potential in a more negative direction. The above example is for steel/water but in principle it also applies to steel in sea water.

Practical measurements

For practical corrosion protection of steel in sea water we may for example use sacrificial anodes in order to lower the potential of the steel down into the immune area. The pH value of sea water varies only slightly and is usually around 8. As illustrated in Table 1.3 the potential of steel in sea water is approximately -0.65 volt versus SCE (saturated calomel electrode) and SSC (silver/silver chloride electrode). Under these conditions the steel will corrode.

The established potential criterion for obtaining protection of steel at normal temperatures in sea water is -0.80 volt versus SSC and SCE, which corresponds to -0.87 volt versus CSE (copper/copper sulphate), see Table 1.2.

The potential of a piece of zinc in sea water measured in the same way is approximately -1.0 volt, see Table 1.3. Under these conditions the zinc will corrode.

If zinc and steel are electrically connected, the potential will adjust to a potential between the potentials of each of the metals. A potential of -0. 85 volt versus SSC is easily obtained and the corrosion of the steel is stopped. However, after the coupling the zinc will corrode - sacrifice itself - at a higher rate.

From the diagram it can also be seen why reinforcing steel in concrete does not corrode. At a pH value of 12-13 the steel is passive. It is not until a pH value of around 9-9.5 that corrosion of the reinforcing steel occurs.

The more negative the potential of the steel, the lower the rate of corrosion. It is not necessary to achieve a potential of the steel lower than -0.80 to -0.85 V versus SSC in order to obtain satisfactory protection. At even lower potentials hydrogen gas is formed which may result in hydrogen brittleness of the steel. Paint systems on steel will form blisters under such conditions and the coating will detach completely due to extensive formation of hydroxyl ions (OH-).


Cathodic protection is used to protect structures both in water and soil. Both ell vi ronments provide the necessary distribution of protective current in such a way Iltat the structure is sufficiently protected.

-0.85 V sse

Reference electrode

i'igllre 2.19 Cathodic protection of steel in sea water

'I 'Ill' Norwegian Oil Directorate has provided some guidelines for the dimensioning (II cathodic protection of both uncoated and coated steel in sea water. In the North Sea the following protective current requirements have been established:

Tohl c 2.2 Guidelines for selection of current densities in order to dimension cathodic protection of uncoated steel at sea water temperature [9 J

Area (ON) Current density, mAjm2
Initial capacity Average current Final capacity
density for weight
calculation
in mid-operation
Uncoated steel
Southern part of North Sea
(up to 57) 150 85 100
Northern part of North Sea
(57-62) 180 85 120
Bottom sediments
sand, clay 20 5 5
silt 40 10 10 2 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION 59

An offshore structure should reach the desired protective value within three months after having been permanently erected. In order to achieve this a high initial capacity is necessary. A high initial capacity results in the formation of calcareous deposits on the steel surface. For this reason, a lower average current density is required to maintain the protective potential.

Guidelines for the selection of current density at the dimensioning of cathodic protection of thin film coated or painted steel surfaces are given in the table below:

Table 2.3 Guidelines for selection of current densities in order to dimension cathodic protection of th in film coated steel surfaces at sea water temperature [9 J

---_--- .-~~.-
Lifetime Current density, mA/m2
(years) - - ----_ Final
Initial In mid-operation
-- --- -
5 25
10 4 6 12
20 4 15 30
30 4 22 60
40 4 35 90 Cathodic protection of metals can be obtained by means of two methods:

1 The metal to be protected is coupled to sacrificial anodes of a less noble metal, like for example zinc, aluminium or magnesium.

2 The metal to be protected is coupled to an external power source, usually a DC rectifier. Often inert, permanent anodes of lead, graphite, magnetite, platinum or platinized titanium are used. Inert anodes are anode types which are consumed at a minimum rate over time.

Using sacrificial anodes

As mentioned above, cathodic protection works because the metal in the galvanic coupling becomes the cathode. Which material can then become the anode in such a circuit or such a system? From the galvanic series in sea water all alloys which are more ignoble than steel can theoretically be used. However, usually anodes made of aluminium, zinc or magnesium are used.

The question arises, is it really as simple as this? The answer is both yes and no.

An aluminium anode weighing for example 100 kg mounted on an offshore oil platform will not reduce the corrosion on the platform to any great extent. Therefore, it is important during the dimensioning of the cathodic protection to consider the relative area sizes of the cathode and the anode. The protection depends on the distance between the anode and the area to be protected. Consequently, the positioning of the anodes is often based on previous experience. In recent years, simulation/calculation models for cathodic protection have been worked out by means of advanced computer programs.

In case of cathodic protection by means of sacrificial anodes the anodes supply


the current necessary to protect the steel. If the anodes work satisfactorily, they will eventually be totally consumed. After some years it will be necessary to replace the unodes, However, this depends on how much current the structure requires over ti IIIC.

..::..--~-")

l'glI/"C 2.20 Cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes

;\ luminium anodes are commonly used for under water protection in the offshore IlIdlistry. This is mainly due to the weight savings obtained compared with zinc. TIll' current output from aluminium anodes is higher than for zinc anodes. This is uuportant with a view to the lifetimes of the anodes and how often they need to be i(·placcd.

Magnesium anodes cannot be used for cathodic protection in sea water. The ',(' II corrosion of magnesium in sea water is very high. On the other hand, magneSIIIII) wire finds widespread use for stripping of tanks on board ships. Stripping is I Ill' removal of rust and mill scale. Large quantities of magnesium wire are welded In lite steel surface in for example ballast tanks. After the wire has been fixed the uuikx are filled with sea water, which acts as the electrolyte. The steel becomes 11I)'illy overprotected. The overprotection causes the formation oflarge volumes of hydrogen gas at the surface, causing mill scale and rust to detach from the surface. Proper cleaning with high pressure hosing before subsequent surface preparation IIlIti painting of the tanks is of course a must. Consequently, the use of this type of 1111( 1(les is limited to water tanks or pipelines in soil. In case of protection in soil, the uuodcx (zinc or magnesium anodes) are usually placed in a coke filling mixed with gypsum and common salt to ensure suitable conductivity.

( )11 vessels both the method of attachment and the shape of the sacrificial anodes lire (II' major importance due to the drag of the ship in the water. The best method is to weld on the anodes in preference to attaching them with screwed-on fasteners which may be shaken loose.

III case of cathodic protection in sea water calcium and magnesium salts are deposited which have a protective effect and with time reduce the current requirerucnts.

The West Sale B-platform in the British sector of the North Sea was put into npcration in 1966. Here a combination of paint and cathodic protection was used. I) udcr water the platform was painted with coal tar and additionally protected by 23() zinc anodes with a total weight of a little more than 19 tons. After almost 20 yea rs in service this was still reported to provide protection of the platform [10].


Figure 2.21 Risers on the Oseberg-platform protected by use of coal-tar epoxy, epoxy and sacrificial anodes of aluminium

Cathodic protection with impressed current

The principle of an impressed current installation is quite similar to that described for the sacrificial anodes, however, some differences should be noted. A system based on impressed current is more complicated and more expensive to install than the systems with sacrificial anodes.

The necessary protection is provided by the permanent anodes through a rectifier transmitting direct current. One great advantage of the impressed current installation for cathodic protection is the use of anodes which are scarcely consumed. The anode material is more noble than the metal to be protected. It is subject to very little attack. Anode materials often used are graphite, magnetite, platinum and platinized titanium.

Protection with impressed current is used for a number of purposes, including the protection of pipelines, steel pilings in soil, floating docks, etc. Impressed current installations are today very rarely used on offshore structures. But CONOCO's


Murchison-platform in the North Sea having a surface area of 80 000 m2 is protected by one hundred anodes, and fifty reference electrodes are in place r 11]. Previous projects with impressed current installations have experienced problems with breakdown of current-carrying cables to anodes and broken down anodes. As a result of these circumstances protection with sacrificial anodes is often chosen.

2 - Reference electrodes 3 - Control unit

4 - Registration unit 5 - Rectifier unit

6 - Galvanic connection between rudder and hull 7 - Slip-ring on propeller shaft

Figure 2.22 Impressed current cathodic protection installation on a ship

III order to obtain even protection of a painted ship's hull the anodes are fitted below the waterline along the ship's side. On suitable sites reference electrodes are placed. They are used for monitoring that the ship has the right protection. Current! voltage are automatically adjusted on the basis of the readings taken.

The anodes are insulated from the underlying paint system by use of an anode shield created by a 0.8-2 mm thick layer of epoxy filler applied in a diameter of 2- 3 metres around the anodes. This is done in order to prevent the paint system from breaking down due to the alkaline environment developed around the anodes. ElecIronic control makes the system self-regulating. And if defects arise, for example damage to the paint coating system, the current supply is automatically increased.

It is not unproblematic to use impressed current installations for the protection of buried pipelines. It is important that the buried anodes can supply current over large distances. Usually a coke or coal filling with gypsum and salt is used to increase the conductivity.

It was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter that cathodic protection had been used for protecting reinforcing iron in concrete constructions. Impressed current installation is used as a protective system on bridges and road systems worldwide.

When impressed current is used, it is possible to change the potential if need arises. This cannot be done in the case of sacrificial anodes.

Combination of cathodic protection and paint coating systems

Before the Oseberg B-platform was built, very few submerged steel parts of the


fixed platforms in the North Sea were painted below the water line. They are solely protected by cathodic protection with sacrificial anodes. In spite of the deposit of calcium on the unpainted steel, a large number of anodes are required for cathodic protection.

For the most recent offshore projects, systems combining paint coatings and cathodic protection have been used under water on platforms in the North Sea. Tn order to save weight and to obtain an expected lifetime of forty years, the jacket of the Oseberg B-platform was painted with coal tar epoxy in a total of 400 !JIl1 [12]. At the same time such a combined protective system reduces the quantity of sacrificial anodes required. Cathodic protection is in many cases used as a supplement to ensure satisfactory protection of the steel in case of damage to the paint coating film.

In order for a paint coating system to be suitable together with cathodic protection, the following conditions must be fulfilled:

The paint coating selected should be able to withstand alkalis as alkalis will be formed at the cathode. Epoxy, coal tar epoxy and vinyl coatings are suitable in combination with cathodic protection. Additionally, also asphalt coatings are used. However, the binders of drying oils, alkyd, phenolic resins, polyester and epoxy ester and modified chlorinated rubber paints are broken down in contact with alkalis.

Rectifier

Paint coating film

~

Steel

Permanent anode

Painted steel

Hydroxide formation. the paint coating blisters

Figure 2.23 Overprotection

Overprotection

In summary, cathodic protection is a technique used for reducing corrosion. Sacrificial anodes or noble permanent anodes supply sufficient amounts of cathodic current for the dissolution of metal at the anode to be insignificant.

In case of correct cathodic protection of steel in sea water, a voltmeter, inserted between the steel and a reference electrode (SSe), should show a potential between -0.80 and 0.85 volt. If the potential is further reduced, down towards -1.00 volt, overprotection may arise. Overprotection causes the formation of hydroxyl ions (OH-) and hydrogen gas (H).


This phenomenon is usually called cathodic disbonding. Cathodic disbonding often appears as blistering together with the formation of white or beige calcareous deposits on and around the damaged areas. How extensive the calcareous depositing is, will depend on the hardness of the water. Normally the paint system will not detach, but the blistering is relatively dense.

Cathodic dis bonding may arise both in the case of sacrificial anodes and impressed current with potentials exceeding approximately -1.15 to -1.20 volt measured versus CuS04. [13]

The formation of alkali (OH-) in the blisters protects the steel. If the blisters are hroken, for example in connection with the docking of a ship, the steel under the paint system can be observed to have a grey appearance. Rupture of the blisters increases the area to be protected and the power supply requirements increase.

-0,60

Severe corrosion

protection

-0,85

Slight overprotection

-1.1

Overprotection and possible paint coating damage

·1,5

Figure 2.24 Potentials of steel measured versus a copper/copper sulphate reference electrode

Corrosion inhibitors

A corrosion inhibitor is the common term for a chemical or substance added in small quantities to the corrosive medium to reduce or obstruct a corrosion process.

Some people may perhaps link the use of inhibitors to the addition of chemicals to pickling (acid) baths in order to limit the corrosion attack on steel. But the inhibitors find a wider area of use than that, including the use in connection with oil production and in the cooling water of circulating piping systems.

Depending on whether they affect the anode or cathode reaction, they are called anodic or cathodic inhibitors. The purpose of an anodic inhibitor is to retard the reaction taking place at the anode: the metal dissolution. The cathodic inhibitor


must retard the reaction at the cathode: the oxygen reduction. A few substances can inhibit both reactions.

What do the inhibitors consist of? And how do they work? The inhibitors are often chemicals like chromate, nitrite, phosphate or polyphosphate. They may have many different ways of working. Some form a thin film on the surface to inhibit the reactions. Others are absorbed at anodic areas of the surface.

Cathodic inhibitors are often called "safe", for even if too small amounts of inhibitor are added so that not all cathodic areas are eliminated, at any rate some of the active cathode surface will be reduced. Too little addition of anodic inhibitor may be "dangerous", because in this case not all anodic areas are removed. As a result, the corrosion will intensify at the remaining areas.

How much the rate of corrosion will be retarded when adding the inhibitor depends on how effective it is. It is important to continuously control how much inhibitor is present in a system. In this wayan eye can be kept on whether there is sufficient inhibitor available to protect the metal.

Corrosion inhibitors are used in a number of areas:

in acids for cleaning of steel surfaces for mill scale and rust before hot dip galvanizing (pickling)

in anti-freeze (ethylene glycol) for cars

in the coolant used for the cutting, turning, milling and drilling of metals

The paint industry also uses inhibiting pigments which, in the same way as described above, are to provide the metal with an effective protection. As examples of such pigments iron oxide and zinc phosphate can be mentioned.

Corrosion monitoring

Corrosion attacks may occur in spite of all the best efforts done to prevent it. It is therefore important to have control routines which include inspection and monitoring in order to prevent a structure from breaking down.

Visual inspections carried out on a regular basis are important parts of the monitoring process. But in order to be able to carry out visual controls we depend upon the access possibilities for taking a closer look at for example damaged areas. This is not always possible. Examining corrosion attacks inside process systems presents a problem.

In order to discover corrosion attacks on inaccessible areas, for example inside piping systems, other methods must be employed.

There are many different ways of determining the condition of the material. One way is ultrasonic measurements. This method is used for searching for cracks or pittings on metals. The instruments used are small and the readings are taken on the outside of the pipes.

In liquid-carrying systems weight loss coupons can be utilized. This method involves inserting small coupons or specimens of the same material quality as the pipe into the flow of liquid. The coupons are placed parallel to the direction of flow in such a way that the corrosion attack will be equivalent to the one on the pipe


wall. After a period of time the samples are examined. The weighing enables us to determine the weight loss of the metal. This can then be converted into a corrosion rate of for example millimetres per year. The method is relatively time-consuming if reliable results are to be obtained.

Linear polarization probe

Closing valve

Closing valve

Figure 2.25 Measuring methods for control of corrosion rate

Two other measuring methods widely used are measurement of electrical resistance and polarization resistance.

When measuring electrical resistance the resistance of a small sample, often a thin wire, of the metal is measured. A probe of the metal in question is placed in the corrosive liquid. As the wire corrodes, the resistance of the wire increases due to the cross-section of the wire becoming smaller. The increase in resistance becomes a measure of the corrosion. This method tells us how much of the metal has corroded. But the method provides no information on which type of corrosion is occurring on the wire or in the system. This method is often used in connection with dosage of water treatment.

The method does not require so long exposure times to provide results as when the weight loss is calculated.

The measurement of polarization resistance is an electrochemical method where a probe is provided with two electrodes of the material to be examined. The probe is mounted inside the system and a DC voltage applied between the electrodes. The method provides an instantaneous value of how fast the metal corrodes. The method depends upon the liquid having a sufficiently high conductivity.

Both of the latter methods have gained great practical importance, in particular for the monitoring of corrosion on offshore installations.

Literature

Gullmann, Jan; Knotkova, Dagmar et al; Weathering steels in building - cases of corrosion damage and their prevention; Research cooperation between the Swedish Corrosion Institute and G'V, Akimov's State Research Institute for the Protection of Materials, Czechoslovakia; Bulletin No. 94, Stockholm 1985.

2 John W. Peart: Unpainted weathering steel bridges. Corrosion mechanisms and maintenance alternatives. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings. January 1991. Pages 36-42.


3 E. Bardal: Korrosjon og korrosjonsvern. Tapir, Trondheim 1985.

4 EV Schmidt: Exterior Durability of Organic Coatings, PM] International Publications Ltd., Surrey 1988.

5 E. Mattsson: Elektrokemi och Korrosionsldra, Bulletin nr.l00. Stockholm 1987. 6 K.A. Chandler and D.A. Bayliss: Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures.

Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London 1985.

7 NACE Standard RP 0178-2003. Standard Recommended Practice: Fabrication Details, Surface Finish Requirements, and Proper Design Considerations for Tanks and Vessels to Be Lined for Immersion Service.

8 EN ISO 12944:1998 "Paints and Varnishes - Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures by Protective Paint Systems ".

9 Oljedirektoratet: Veiledning for korrosjonsbeskyttelse av innretninger.

10 D. Fairhurst: Konferansen - UK Corrosion 84 - Lecture 111, ICorrSt. Birmingham, England.

11 K.R. Trethewey and]. Chamberlain: Corrosion - For students of science and engineering. Longman Group UK Limited 1988.

12 R.E. Lye: A Corrosion Protection System for a North Sea Jacket. Materials Performance, May 1990, pages 13-18.

13 ]PCL, Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, June 1990, pages 9-11.


3 Surface preparation and application equipment

Introduction

This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part is about surface preparation equipment. To a very large extent the condition, location and required degree of cleanliness of the substrate determine which equipment must be used for the surface preparation. There is a wide variation in the various groups of equipment, from the use of wirebrushes and scrapers for simple pretreatment to the use of blast cleaning equipment where the requirements for cleanliness and capacity are high. Water blasting equipment (ultra high pressure water jetting equipment) removes, in an environmentally friendly way, water-soluble contaminants together with rust and old paint without the use of abrasives.

The second part discusses application equipment. Also in the case of this group of equipment there is a wide distance between extremities. On the one hand, we have hand tools like brushes, rollers, mitts or gloves, and, on the other hand, advanced multi-component spray systems and fully automated, robotized plants for paints and powder coatings.

Increasing environmental awareness and stricter regulations of the emission of hazardous, volatile components in paints and varnishes have forced the manufacturers of paints and application equipment to new thinking. Within industry, shipping and the offshore oil industry large quantities of paint are spray-applied, and today solvent-less or solvent-free paints are used to a very great extent. The manufacturers of spray equipment have developed the equipment to be suitable for these, often highly viscous, paints and made it more powerful, and in some cases they can offer heating devices in order to lower the viscosity and thereby improve spray ability and flow properties.

Within finishes paints, where the requirements to the result of the application are very strict, the content of harmful solvents has been very high in order to obtain optimum flow properties. In order to reduce the volume of harmful solvents emitted it has now become possible to use water-borne finishes to replace some of the

3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT 69

solvent-borne types. The manufacturers have developed spray equipment which produces less spray fog than conventional equipment. This has been achieved by combining airless equipment and conventional equipment (low pressure equipment), reducing the atomizing pressure and increasing the volume of air of conventional spraying. In some cases the atomizing air is heated.

Surface preparation equipment Wirebrushes

Hand tools used for steel structures are wirebrushes, scrapers, hammers and needle guns. In addition, various types of grinding paper and pads are used.

Two to six row, single-hand wirebrushes and long-handled large brushes are available. The most common single-hand brushes have two, three and four rows. The two row types are used for comers and crevices. They are toe small and soft for large areas where brushes with more rows or long-handled brushes should be used. The biggest brushes have a large area of contact to the substrate. Great power must be applied if the brush is to do more than just "skim" across the rust. This is also a problem even when using long-handled brushes where the handle is held with two hands all the time. If multi-row brushes are used, it is also difficult to clean grooves and pits in the substrate. On such sites the tip of the brush must be used.

Brushes without a raised handle are worn mostly at the front. This is because these brushes must be slightly tipped when used in order to avoid bruised knuckles. After some time in use 2-3 em at the front of the brush will have lost the steel bristles or have too short bristles. The resulting bared end makes it impossible tc wirebrush inside corners. We can solve the problem either by cutting off the bared end as far as to the "fresh" bristles, or we may simply replace the brush.

Figure 3.1 1fthe wirebrush has a "straight" handle, the brush is tipped forwarc and the wire bristles are worn mostly near the tip

Wirebrushes with a raised handle are worn more evenly because the brush can b: held flat against the substrate without the hand grazing the surface.

Figure 3.2 Wire brushes with a raised handle can be heldflat against the substrat without bruising the knuckles. The wire bristles will be worn more evenly

In narrow crevices, holes and notches special brushes are used. Within the shippin industry these are usually called notchling brushes.


Figure 3.3 The notchling brush resembles a small round painting brush

No matter how thoroughly wirebrushing is carried out, it is impossible to remove all rust. The best result is obtained when the rust to be removed only consists of a thin layer. If wirebrushing is done on thick rust layers, the result may easily be burnishing instead of rust removal.

Scrapers

The more rust and old paint to be removed, the more cutting power must be employed. In this case a scraper can be among the tools to use. Both wirebrushing and scraping should actually be carried out irrespective of whether there is much or little rust and old paint to be removed.

Mainly, three types of scrapers are used: angle scraper, triangle scraper and tungsten carbide scraper.

Angle scrapers in different sizes are the scrapers most widely used for steel substrates. They have two edges. One is held at an angle of 90° against the substrate, I he other from 0° up to 60°. Angle scrapers are sturdy and the larger versions can in many cases be used for striking or scraping off weld spatter. A disadvantage of these scrapers is that they become blunt more quickly than the tungsten carbide scrapers.

rr-:::====::::~ Angle scraper

L""", scraper

(J- Tungsten carbide scraper

--~

Figure 3.4 Scrapers

The angle scrapers must be sharpened by means of a file. In practice this will prove to be quickly done if a file is carried in the pocket.

The triangle scrapers have three edges. Consequently, the scrapers remain sharp longer than the angle scrapers. However, triangular scrapers are not used very extensively for steel. They may be perceived as having too little weight. The blades are relatively thin. They can be sharpened but are also replaceable. Some scraper designs are not robust enough. The sharp comers of the blades are handy for cleaning of crevices.


Scrapers with tungsten carbide blades are the sharpest and cut most effectively.

They remain sharp for a long time, but are easily broken when scraping off protrusions etc. When thick rust layers and thick coats of old paint are to be removed, also these scrapers may be felt to be too light. Effective scraping demands that the scraper is held with both hands. This also applies to the triangle scrapers.

Electric and pneumatic power tools

When major jobs are to be carried out, compressed-air powered (pneumatic) machines are most commonly used. The electrically powered tools are sensitive to the fine dust produced during the wirebrushing. In addition, they are quite easily overloaded. The compressed-air types are robust, allow heavy loads and are not sensitive to dust. The machines must be lubricated with pneumatic tool oil. The oil both lubricates and prevents any moisture in the compressed air from freezing. A lubricating cup or oil-mist lubricator can be mounted on the air inlet. The oil can also be fed directly into the air line, but it is easy to fill in too much. If too much oil is introduced, the excess oil will be carried out of the machine together with the exhaust air. Oil will then be sprayed onto cleaned surfaces or surfaces to be treated. It is often difficult to detect the oil because it may appear in spots or as a thin film on the surface. In either case, all oil must be removed before any paint is applied.

On the machines (both electric and pneumatic) so-called cup brushes are mounted.

They are available in different sizes and are selected on the basis of the machine power and the condition of the surface. The peripheral speed of the brushes should be between 25 mls and 35 mls. They can be made from many single, crimped wires or wires twisted together in knots. Knotted cup brushes are usually more stiff than those with single wires. The wire diameter can be within the range of 0.3 mm and 0.5mm.

Figure 3.5 Pneumatic tool with cup brush

The tool must not be pressed so hard against the surface that the wires are flattened. If a severely rusted substrate is being brushed, there is a great risk that the surface will become burnished. The degree of burnishing increases with decreasing stiffness of the brush, and if the bristles are flattened out. A burnished surface results in poor adhesion of the paint, and the major part of the rust remains attached to the surface.

In addition to the particles ripped from the surface during the brushing, eventually also bristles from the brush will come off. Consequently, it is not enough to protect only one's eyes with goggles. Bare skin must be covered because loose wires may penetrate like needles.


Mechanical grinding equipment

For removal of rust and old paint flexible fibre discs mounted on a rubber roundel are used. The flexible fibre discs are provided with glued-on abrasives in the shape of larger or smaller grains. Grains with a diameter from 0.25 mm to 0.4 mm are widely used. When welding seams are to be ground and protrusions etc. to be removed, hard discs are used.

For mechanical grinding largely the same machines are used as for mechanical wirebrushing. A disadvantage of mechanical grinding is that it is impossible to clean craters and pits in the surface. Besides, melting paint will get stuck on the disc and "seal" it.

Mechanical grinding usually produces a cleaner surface on smooth substrates t han mechanical wirebrushing.

Grinding roundels, grinding wheels and grinding pads Scotch-Brite Clean N Strip roundels and wheels are eminently suited for the removal of rust, old paint, oxide films and temporary chromate protection on galvanized steel. The materials used in the grinding roundels and grinding wheels have an open construction, are flexible and without metal particles. The ground-off material does not stick and consequently does not seal off the roundels or wheels. Scotch-Brite is also available as grinding pads.

Grinding paper and pads are useful tools for removal of loosely adhering rust and may also be used advantageously for roughening of painted surfaces before the fresh coat is applied.

Figure 3.6


Figure 3.7 Scotch-Brite Clean N Strip grinding wheel

Figure 3.8 Scotch-Brite roundels


Another type is the pneumatic chisel. The chisel itself is mounted inside the tubular tool body where it is moved quickly back and forth by a small air motor. The chisels may have edges of different widths depending on the size and shape of the substrate.

The needle gun is the most widely used pneumatic impact tool for the removal of rust and old paint. The tool is very similar to the pneumatic chisel, but is often rather bigger. Instead of a chisel a large number of needles do the actual job. The number of needles can be from 20 to just over 100. Their lengths are from 480 to 500 mm and the diameter from 2 to 4 mm. The needles move independently of each other. Consequently, it is easy to get to clean cavities, comers, angles, bolts, rivets, nuts, welding seams and other irregularities.

In contrast to the pneumatic rust hammers and chisels, which may leave ugly marks in the steel if not cautiously used, the needle guns are more "gentle", also in the case of rather rough treatment.

Flame-cleaning equipment

In principle, flame-cleaning equipment is similar to equipment used for flame cutting. It consists of cylinders for fuel gas (acetylene) and oxygen, pressure regulators, supply hoses and a nozzle. The nozzle has a special design for flame-cleaning. Usually its width is from 50 to 200 mm. To the front of the head are a number of orifices where gas mixtures stream out. When the nozzle is lit, a thin flame (welding flame) is produced in each orifice. In some cases round nozzles or nozzles with a different design are used. In order to obtain a good result the pressure and the mixture of gases must be regulated correctly.

[}::~

Oxygen Acetylene

Figure 3.11 Flame-cleaning equipment

Equipment for dry open-nozzle blasting

Dry open-nozzle blasting is carried out by using equipment powered by compressed air. In principle, two types of equipment are available. They work, respectively, according to the

ejector principle

pressure chamber principle

Ejector equipment

Most units of this type are closed cabinets with cleaning and recovery/recirculation of the abrasive. The operator carries out the blast cleaning and handles the workpieces


through two openings in the front panel of the cabinet. Some of the units are more or less automated or robotized.

In the case of blasting in the open air it is extremely difficult, not to say impossible, to recover, clean and recycle the abrasives. As a result, other and less expensi ve types of abrasives are used in the case of open-nozzle blasting than for blasting inside cabinets.

During the blasting process, the equipment draws in the abrasives from a bag, a container or a cup mounted underneath. This equipment is best suited for small and less demanding blasting jobs.

Figure 3.12 illustrates schematically how an ejector system is designed. It operates in such a way that the abrasive is drawn from a container by underpressure formed by a high- velocity jet of air between the air nozzle and the blasting nozzle. The abrasive then hits this stream of air and is propelled against the workpiece. The acceleration (velocity increase) of the abrasive takes place during the time it takes lor it to pass through the blasting nozzle. This time is too short for the abrasive to reach the same velocity as the compressed air. In other words, the compressed air is 1101 capable oftransmitting all the velocity (kinetic energy) to the abrasives.

The abrasives will be found to have approximately 40% lower speed when leavIIlg the nozzle in an ejector system compared to a pressure chamber system. In the I ircssure chamber system the mixing of abrasives and compressed air takes place at 111l' outlet of the dosage valve. Consequently, on its way through the hosing system (blasting hoses) the compressed air has sufficient time to transmit almost all its k i netic energy to the abrasives.

As mentioned above, the abrasives are drawn from a container in the ejector system. This may be in the shape of a conical hopper, cylindrical or box-shaped, or simply the container in which the abrasives are supplied. This all depends on which I ypc of equipment is used.

A common feature of all the types is that the suction is produced by underpressure, II/(' ejector effect. If the hopper is tight, without any supply of air, the transportaI i()11 of abrasives will only proceed until the hopper is empty of air. Without a supply of additional air or "false air", a vacuum is built up in the hopper, and the I ruusportation stops.

Compressed air

Air nozzle

Suction nozzle

Figure 3.12 Schematic representation of suction-feed blasting system, ejector principle

The same would happen with equipment drawing the abrasives from a bag. When the suction nozzle (pipe) is thrust into the abrasives, care should be taken to avoid too densely packed abrasives around the head. Nor must the suction pipe get stuck


to the bottom of the bag. Manufacturers of the equipment have solved some of these problems by making an adjustable opening in the suction pipe to admit false air.

The same problems mentioned here will be known from vacuum-cleaning of carpets. If we are not careful, the mouthpiece will stick fast to the carpet. The vacuum-cleaner tube is also provided with an adjustable opening (valve) for admitting false air.

Some of the blasting cabinets are provided with equipment both for ejector and pressure blasting.

The abrasives used in the ejector systems are usually fine-grained. They can be glass beads or aluminium oxide with diameters down to for example 0.2 mm. As the grains are so small, they pack closely together and there is very little room for air between them. As a result of this, the abrasives easily become densely packed in the container and in the intake system. Packing and blocking of the system are usually caused by a too big quantity of abrasive having been drawn in. Humidity within the system may be another cause of this.

As mentioned above, most ejector installations are of the cabinet type. They can be bench-top models or larger floor models.

Table 3.1 lists technical data for three different-size cabinets. They are all made

after the same design and consist of

the cabinet itself with "blasting chamber" blasting gun

air gun for removal of dust container for the abrasives

dust collector/filter for removal of dust and cleaning of abrasives working lighting

various electric motors

electric/pneumatic controls

Additionally, a compressor is required that can supply a sufficient amount of air at the necessary pressure. For special purposes tumble baskets and turntables can be supplied as well as guides for horizontal or vertical movements of the gun, fixed guns and other more or less automated or robotized equipment. The cabinets can be equipped with two or more guns.

Today, such a rich variety of cabinets is available that abrasive blast cleaning of manually handled workpieces is covered. In addition, specially designed systems can be supplied if for example the treatment is part of a mass-producing line in a workshop.

Excepting the automated and robotized systems, the operators carry out the blast cleaning and handling of the items through two openings in the front panel. The openings are usually fitted with two long rubber gloves. The gloves can also be detachable. They protect the operators' hands from being injured by the abrasives. A window allows the operator to constantly monitor his or her activities, or supervise the automated blasting. Normally blasting is stopped and started by means of a pedal switch.

Some cabinets have a door at either side for placing of the workpieces. Others have a door at the front while on others the entire top can be tipped up.

The abrasives are cleaned and recirculated in the cabinet blasting process. The cleaning process removes, with rather varying effect and quality, dust, spent or


broken abrasives and tom-off particles from the surface of the workpieces.

Abrasives used for blasting in cabinets are glass beads, broken glass and ceramics aluminium oxide, corundum

stainless steel

cast iron and steel

nutshell

plastic granulate

Table 3.1 Technical data

Cabinet, type 1 2 3
External Width in mm 1270 1530 2000
dimensions Depth in mm 960 1260 1380
Height in mm 1240 1740 1880
Blasting Width in mm 740 990 1390
chamber Depth in mm 760 1000 1230
Height in mm 490 710 810
Blasting gun Air nozzle 0 mm 3 4 4
Blasting nozzle 0 mm 6.5 10 10
Nozzle material Ceramics Steel Boron carbide
Air required at 5 bar 22 m3/h 52 m3/h 52 m3/h
Lighting - fluorescent tube 1 x 20W 2 x 20 W 2 x 40W
Dust collector, type PS 2.5 PS 5 PS 10
Filter area 2.5 m2 5 m2 10 m2
Air volume - outlet 150 m3/h 300 m3/h 600 m3/h
Motor effect, fan 0.25 kW 0.55 kW 0.75 kW
Filter cleaning Automatic Automatic Automatic
Weight Net 280 kg 350 kg 590 kg
Gross inc!. packing 330 kg 400 kg 680 kg Glass beads and aluminium oxide (corundum) are perhaps the abrasives most commonly used in the cabinets.

If it is a requirement that the surface is not too rough but is rather to look finely "sanded" or just matted down after the blasting, small glass beads are used. They


mostly remove surface contamination only and very little of the actual material.

However, if it is a requirement to remove both contaminants and provide the surface with a certain roughness, sharp-edged corundum is used. For this purpose, sharp-edged abrasives of steel or iron can also be used, but the grains are heavy and more difficult to accelerate in an ejector plant.

For shot peening balls of glass or steel can be used. The glass beads are fairly easily broken down at blasting pressures above 4.5-5 bar.

If ejector equipment is used for blast cleaning in the open air, the following

abrasives are used garnet

iron slag

copper slag

nickel slag aluminium silicate

They are relatively inexpensive and are usually not recycled.

Ejector equipment is not suitable for blast cleaning of large constructions or for removing heavy layers of rust, mill scale or paint. For such purposes the impact and thereby also the capacity, is too small. Several examples have been seen where companies have undertaken to perform blast cleaning jobs on large constructions by using ejector equipment. Usually these companies have had little or no experience with blast cleaning. And each time it has been the same story:

After much trouble and many delays, little progress, and many working hours spent the company has had to borrow, rent or resort to buying pressurized blast pot equipment, which has actually more than five times the capacity of ejector equipment. But lack of experience with the new equipment and too little knowledge of blast cleaning in general have caused new problems. The result has usually been an enormous loss on the job. It goes without saying that the company should not have accepted the job in the first place.

When blasting takes place in a closed-in cabinet, apart from long rubber gloves also safety goggles or shield must be worn to prevent abrasives from getting in the eyes. We must also be prepared for dust and protect ourselves with a dust filter mask. Additionally, the equipment produces quite a lot of noise. Consequently, hearing protection is also necessary.

If blasting is carried out in the open, we must also use a pressurized mask with supply of clean breathing air, disposable dust filter mask, hearing protection, gloves and working clothes/protective clothes which can withstand the blasting action of the abrasives.

Pressurized pot

Design and mode of operation

This system works according to a principle which is completely different from the ejector system described above where the abrasives are drawn directly from a container. In this case the abrasive is fed from a pressurized pot (blasting pot) through a metering valve into the blasting hose. In order for this to happen, the pot must have the same pressure as the blasting hose. The compressed air then conveys the


abrasive to the nozzle. The abrasive/air mixture is accelerated and propelled against the workpiece.

Accordingly, the blast pot is a pressure tank. Manufacture, use and maintenance must be carried out properly and in accordance with relevant national and international rules and regulations.

The first patented pressurized blasting equipment was introduced at an exhibition in New York in 1871. The equipment was designed by B.C. Tilghmann. It was constructed and worked almost like a blasting unit today. The drawing shows a pot using sand from about 1890. This can be used to illustrate the design of a pressure pot unit. As can be seen, the compressed air is distributed both to the blasting hose and to the pot. This in order to ensure that the pressure is the same in the pot as in the hose. The abrasives will then run at an even flow through the metering valve and into the jet of air. When the abrasives are used up, the air supply is shut off both to the blasting hose and to the pot. Then the valve/cap at the top of the pot is opened and the air released. In this way the pot is depressurized more quickly than when the air is released through the blasting nozzle. The pot is now pressure-free and fresh abrasives can be filled in.

Abrasive refi II

Abrasives

Valve

Nozzle Abrasive metering valve

~c::::jJ BE ?

Valve

Figure 3.13 Early design blasting unit

Very few changes have actually been made to the blasting unit itself during the more than hundred years elapsed since Tilghman designed his units. However, some developments have taken place.

Today, all blasting units have a cylindrical shape. The bottom part is conical (cone-shaped), and ends in a pipe stub where the metering/sand valve is connected. The cone wall is so steep that the abrasive can flow down by its own weight. See Figure 3.14.

The top of the unit is also conically shaped like the bottom part and with an opening in the middle for refilling abrasives. Around the opening, on the underside


of the top plate, a thick rubber packing is fitted. This is often shaped like an O-ring. When the tank is pressurized and the unit started, the air pressure lifts the conical pop-up valve (closing valve, cone) to fit closely against the rubber packing. If the metering valve is open, abrasives will now flow into the blasting hose. When the abrasive/air mixture flows evenly from the nozzle, the blasting can start.

Cover

Abrasive screen

<t>-iIft-'-+-- Manometer

Remote control valve (pneumatic)

Compressed air inlet

Inspection door

hose

~ Nozzle (venturi type) Nozzle holder

Control handle/ "deadman handle"

Figure 3.14 Mobile, modern compressed-air blasting unit with pneumatic remote control

The pop-up valves may vary in shape and design. They are conical and may be more or less pointed. Some may have a cut-off top. Today, practically all cones have a core of steel or iron coated with hard-wearing rubber.

When the refill of abrasives takes place from a bag or by manual filling from a container, it is common practice to fill to right below the pop-up valve. In any case, the abrasives should preferably not cover the entire valve. It will then fit closer to the O-ring and wear will be less.


An uncoated metal valve with a very pointed top has commonly been used in units with continuous filling. In such units the abrasives are stored in a bin mounted on top of the blasting unit. When the operator stops blasting and the unit is depressurized, the abrasives automatically flow from the bin into the unit. When the operator starts the unit again, the cone must force its way through the abrasives in order to fit tightly to the packing. This wears both the valve and the packing.

Today, users of automatic blasting units report that they use the ordinary rubher-coated pop-up valves in their blasting systems. They seal well and wear is not particularly extensive.

Metering valve

A selection can be made between several types of abrasive metering valves. If a certain valve is chosen, this is usually done on the basis of the type of abrasive to be used. However, the choice also depends on whether the valve is to open and close automatically. Whether the valve is automatic or not, does not depend on the abrasives hut on the equipment.

Blasting pot

- . '.

.,_ Compressed air

Figure 3.15 Cross-section of blasting pot with Miser metering valve

I f blasting is carried out with sand or slag, a Miser-type metering valve is often mounted on the unit. Figure 3.15 shows that it consists of a house which can be dismantled. The house contains two plates with an orifice hole in each of the plates. They are mounted at the end of a stem. One plate is fixed while the other is movable with the stem. The stem extends beyond the housing. At the end a regulating handle is fitted.

If the handle is moved, one of the plates is moved as well. When the handle is in mid-position, the orifice holes in the plates fully overlap. In this case a full opening


is formed. The more the handle is taken to one of the sides, the less overlap of the orifices is produced. The handle and the orifice should be adjusted in such a way that the valve is fully opened in mid-position and completely shut with the handle in an extreme position.

On Miser-type valves a guide pin is often mounted on the regulating handle. The guide pin can be marked with a scale showing the position of the orifices relative to each other - i.e. the valve opening. In addition, the handle can be screwed fast to the guide in such a way that the adjusted setting does not change.

In units for blasting with metallic abrasives other types of metering valves are used than the Miser-types. They are usually called steel grit valves as many people, erroneously, call all metallic abrasives "steel grit", especially the sharp-edged types.

The steel grit valves can be distinguished from the Miser valves by the way the volume of abrasives is regulated and how the abrasives flow into the air jet.

Figures 3.16 and 3.17 show two of the most common methods of regulation:

Valve house

~ Coot" I knob

Abrasives in

Plunger

Abrasives out

Figure 3.16 Metering valve with rubber case for vertical passage of metallic abrasives

Abrasives in

Abrasives in Double rubber diaphragm

<,

J:'IlC"~~~

Clean out plug

~

Abrasives out

~

Abrasives out

Figure 3.17 Abrasive control valve with ball shaped valve for vertical passage of metallic abrasives


One valve contains a rubber case. The valve is mounted in such a way that the abrasives flow directly from the blast pot through the opening of the rubber case. By means of a plunger fitted to a spindle with a regulating knob at the end the opening of the rubber case can be changed. If the spindle is screwed in, the plunger will squeeze the rubber case together. Thereby, both the opening and the volume of abrasives that can pass through are reduced.

The other steel grit valve is regulated by adjusting the opening between a ballshaped valve and a valve seating. Obviously, a small opening results in only a small volume of abrasives passing through.

In this steel grit valve the parts which are in contact with the abrasives should be made of hardened, highly abrasive-resistant steel, or be coated with other abrasiveresistant materials.

The abrasives flow through the Miser valve and into the blasting hose at the optimum angle of approximately 300. That is as parallel to the air jet as possible without the angle of tilt becoming so small that the abrasives stop running. Thereby the grains pick up speed more easily from the compressed air. This benefit is not obtained if the abrasives flow at right angles into the air jet.

Apart from the Miser valves, several of the metering valves can be fitted with remote control and automatic closing valves. They work purely pneumatically or electro-pneumatically and are often accessories to blasting units with automatic stop and start, so-called remote control.

The purely pneumatic valves are controlled by compressed air which is conveyed in hoses all the way from the stop and start valve on the nozzle to the metering valve. Consequently, the time it takes before the metering valve reacts depends on the distance to the stop/start valve. In many cases this time can be quite long.

Contrary to this, the electro-pneumatically controlled valves react very quickly.

When the operator presses the remote control switch, he or she turns the current on or off to the magnet valve that switches the controlling air to the metering valve on or off.

In some cases defects have occurred in electrical components on units for blasting with metallic abrasives. The defects have arisen because metal particles or dust have penetrated the equipment and caused short-circuits or other defects.

When the operator stops blasting by means of the remote control, the automatics first close the abrasive control valve and then the compressed air. Thereby the blasting hose is emptied of abrasives. When blasting is resumed, it is not necessary to put into motion "dead" abrasives which would otherwise have been present in the hose.

After the blasting has finished, the automatic metering valve can be closed, but the compressed air inlet held open. It is then possible to use the pure compressed air for blowing away abrasives and dust.

Abrasive/air mixture

Adjustment of the required volume of abrasives and the valve opening is in many cases done on the basis of experience. However, the safest method is to carry out preliminary tests. The trial blasting should be carried out on the same substrate as the later, actual blasting. It is important that the optimum abrasive/air mixture is used. By that is meant that maximum production is obtained with minimum consumption of abrasives.


The volume of abrasives necessary for accomplishing this depends on the constructional design - closed, narrow spaces

condition of surface - for example rust degree

abrasive - type, grain size, and dust contents

dust formation, lighting conditions, visibility

compressor pressure

hose length, dimension and loss of pressure nozzle type and size

operator

A few indications of incorrect air/abrasive mixture are high air noise (whistling, squealing) when the abrasive supply is too small, and if it is too big, the mixture is ejected unevenly and intermittently from the nozzle. At the same time, there are jerks and blows in the blasting hose.

Blasting hose

The transportation of the abrasive/air mixture from the mixing valve to the nozzle is done through the blasting hose. On the way through the hose a loss of pressure occurs. The pressure loss increases with increasing length of the blasting hose. Also, the pressure loss is higher in a hose with a small internal diameter (interior width) than in one with a wide internal diameter.

The blasting pressure can be measured by using a needle manometer inserted right behind the nozzle.

Nozzle holder

Compressed air

o 0 i5

Figure 3.18 Needle manometer. The needle is inserted slantwise into the blasting hose with the air jet

Consequently, it is important to put the blasting pot in a location where the blasting hose can be as short as possible. In practice, this follows as a matter of course. The blasting starts with as short a hose as possible. Later on extension hoses are added according to requirements until the blasting effect becomes too poor as a result of the loss of pressure. We must then try to move the pot to a position closer to the blasting place.

The nozzle orifice determines the dimension of the blasting hose. As a rule of thumb it can be stated that the internal diameter of the hose should be three times that of the nozzle orifice. Consequently, for an 11 mm nozzle a blasting hose with minimum 33 mm internal diameter should be selected.

The hose to which the nozzle is connected is called the whip hose. The other


blasting hoses are called extension hoses. The extension hoses and the whip hose are connected by means of special quick couplings. These should definitely be fitted on the outside of the hose. In that case they do not reduce the internal hose diameter nor do they disrupt the jet of abrasives/air. The wear on them is also negligible.

lli.Z· 1.1,4'

-
<ll ....
+'
::>
c
E
1ii
a.
'00
.,_
0
<I)
~
:.:J , .. -: /'
V -: V
,/'
V /'
V V V
,/
V L
V ./ ./
v
»<
,//' / ./
~ V LV
/' ,/
V/ /' ~ .. Y
,/ /
/'
. 1"

01 .02 .~"'''''''.OI.' .2 . .2 •. S .•.• 1 2: , .. S •

Pressure loss in bar per 30 m hose

Figure 3.19 Loss of pressure in hoses (internal, smooth)

Figure 3.20 Extension of hoses

a Extension with internal tubes reduces the diameter in the hose and disrupts the jet of air and abrasives

h Optimum extension method by external coupling

The couplings are made of plastic, aluminium, bronze and cast iron. They are fastened to the hose by means of screws. It is an advantage if the couplings are provided with internal thread. They can then be screwed to the hose, and it is easier to make the hose ends fit tightly to the rubber gasket at the front edge of the coupling.

It is important to secure that the extensions are not pulled apart. Some couplings are provided with lock-springs which keep the hoses from pulling themselves out of


the coupling. Often couplings can be seen wired together with steel wire as a safeguard.

A safety device must also be present to prevent the hose from sliding from the coupling if the screws should fail. For this purpose clamps with chains or cables are available. The clamps must be fastened on the hose behind the coupling and fastened together by chains or cables. If an accident should occur, the safety device keeps the hose in place in the coupling. At any rate the hose ends are prevented from whipping about.

o

a)

b)

Figure 3.21

a Quick couplings for extension of blasting hoses b Nozzle holders

c Gasket for quick coupling d Gasket for nozzle holder

e Screws for fastening of quick couplings and nozzle holders to the hose

Figure 3.22

a Safety chain with clamps b Safety cable

c Safety sleeve with two loops

When the air/abrasive mixture passes at high velocity along the surface inside the blasting hose, the mixture may become electrically charged. The discharge takes place when the mixture hits the surface, which is usually connected to earth. The


discharges (sparks) are an ignition source in addition to the sparks produced when the abrasive particles hit the surface. The discharges may also ignite critical dust or gas mixtures in other parts of the surroundings or within the actual unit.

Consequently, the entire unit must be properly earthed up to and including the nozzle. Copper wire is therefore inserted between the casing layers of the blasting hoses. The copper wire is to conduct the static electricity to earth. Contact through all extensions is therefore necessary. In some cases it has been necessary to put out a separate earth cable along the blasting hose. Both the internal rubber lining in the hose, rubber and external covering must to some extent be electrically conductive.

The operator can be affected by the static electricity because he or she is usually connected to electrical earth.

Nozzles for blast cleaning

Table 3.2 Air consumption in cubic metres per minute in Venturi nozzles

Nozzle diameter Nozzle pressure in bar
3.5 4.2 4.9 5.6 6.3 7.0
3.2 mm 0.32 0.37 0.42 0.48 0.52 0.57
5.0 mm 0.73 0.84 0.92 1.06 1.15 1.26
6.4 mm 1.32 1.51 1.71 1.90 2.07 2.27
8.0 mm 2.16 2.49 2.83 3.16 3.53 3.84
9.5 mm 3.02 3.53 4.00 4.51 4.84 5.49
11.0 mm 4.12 4.76 5.43 6.08 6.72 7.11
12.5 mm 5.46 6.27 7.06 7.84 8.65 9.46
15.9 mm 8.62 9.97 11.31 12.66 14.11 15.34
19.0 mm 12.10 14.11 16.02 18.03 19.38 21.95 Table 3.3 Short nozzles

Diameter Length Inlet Air consumption
at 7 bar
6mm 80mm 25 mm 2.8 m3jmin
8mm 80 mm 25 mm 4.8 m3jmin
10mm 80 mm 25 mm 6.8 m3jmin 3 SURrAc~ PR~PARATION AND APPLICATION ~OUII'MI':NT g9

Air line for remote control

Glass with safety foil

Breathing air supply line ---

Handle for stop and start of remote control

Light

Leather gloves

Blasting/whip hose

Blasting suit with leather apron

Figure 3.23 Fully equipped operator

Regulator for breathing air

Figure 3.24 Blasting helmet


Venturi nozzle

Figure 3.25 Common nozzles

0) The straight nozzle collects the abrasive particles at the centre of the blasting area (narrow fan). The exit speed has been measured to approximately 300 km/ hour at a pressure of 7 bar.

h) The venturi nozzle distributes the abrasives evenly over the blasting area. The exit speed has been measured to more than 700 km/hour at 7 bar. The nozzle provides a high production rate.

c) Venturi nozzle d) Short venturi nozzle e) Short straight-bore nozzle

m

Figure 3.26 Special nozzles for blasting in hollow spaces (pipes etc.) and other areas with difficult access


Figure 3.27 Internal blasting of pipes

e il~

Figure 3.28 Fixed nozzles (equipment for internal blasting of pipes with internal diameter from approximately 29 mm to approximately 300 mm)

Figure 3.29 Rotary equipment for internal blasting of pipes with internal diameters from approximately 160 mm to 1600 mm


Water bath filter

Vacuum hose

Abrasive blasting hose

Figure 3.30 Vacuum blasting equipment for dust-free blast cleaning

Hose

Water diffuser

Figure 3.31 Basic equipment for mounting on blasting nozzle to provide water vuppl» for dust-laying and wet abrasive blasting.

Nozzle tube

TTrHanill,

t

Trigger

Inlet for water from high pressure aggregate

Figure 3.32 a) Gun for high pressure water jetting

3 SURfACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT 93

Mixing chamber Abrasive/water mixture

Water inlet

Abrasive inlet

b) Gun/mixing chamber jor wet abrasive blasting

Application equipment

The second part of this chapter discusses application equipment. Application equi pment includes hand tools like brushes, rollers, gloves, and spray application equipment such as conventional spray equipment, HVLP equipment, airless sprayequipment, equipment for air-assisted airless spraying, and electrostatic spray equipment.

In addition to the actual application equipment also compressors, pressure regulators, air cleaners, hoses, agitators, protective gear and other necessary accessories are required.

Paint brushes

Paint application by brush is particularly suited for working the paint into irregularities in the substrate, for example manual welds. The brush is also a suitable tool for areas of difficult access. Such areas can be edges, comers and notches. Brushes are also used for touch-up painting and stripe coating.

Brush application results in thinner and more uneven layers than spray application. Normally not more than from 40 urn to 50 urn dry film is applied per coat. The thickness measured also varies with the coarseness of the brush marks.

A good part of the anticorrosive paints have poor brushabiIity. This is because they have a very short open time and set before they have been completely smoothed out. Some of the paints are so viscous and heavy to work that, apart from minor touch-up work, it is impossible to apply them by brush.

Quality brushes are made of bristles or hair from animals. The best brushes are made of pure bristles, preferably hog bristles. Natural hairs are hollow and flagged at the ends in two or three split-ends. The flagging also takes place as the brush becomes worn. Most brushes have a mixture of bristles and hairs. Bristles and hairs from animals withstand solvents, but not acids or alkalis.


In the case of synthetic brushes, the bristles can be of nylon, perlon or polypropylene. They withstand acids and alkalis, but are slightly less resistant to strong solvents.

Brush types used for anticorrosive painting are ring brushes

oval brushes

nat brushes, including radiator brushes

Ferruled brush Ring brush Oval brush Radiator brush

Flat brush

Figure 3.33 Brush types for application of anticorrosive paints

Figure 3.34 Before the brush is taken into use, loose bristles must be removed. This is done by pressing the brush against the palm of your hand and then twistillg it around.

i\ new brush should be left suspended in motor oil or lubricating oil for a few days before it is taken into use. After the oil treatment any surplus oil must be rinsed out carefully with for example white spirit.

In order to take good care of a brush used for many different types of anticorrosive paints, it must be thoroughly cleaned in a suitable solvent after use. This takes some time. Consequently, some people just throwaway the brush after use. For this reason, quite a number of cheap brushes or toss-away brushes are used.

Paint rollers

Paint rollers are available in different types and qualities. They consist of a bakelite cylinder with a glued-on nap. This nap can be made oflambswool, perlon or mo-


hair. Many anticorrosive paints are not very roller-friendly and highly viscous. Perlon rollers with a not too long nap are widely used within anticorrosive painting. For application of finishing coats a large number of mohair rollers are used. They have good resistance to solvents. The paint roller should not be used for application of primer coats.

Figure 3.35 Roller specially made for application of paint on largedimension pipes

Figure 3.36 Back roller is designed for use behind radiators etc.

Figure 3.37 In the pressure-fed roller

the paint is forced into the roller to enable continuous painting

Painting mitts/gloves

The painting mitt is used for painting pipes and handrails. It is made of lambs wool and is available with and without a thumb. The mitt may leave lint on the surface to be painted, and should not be used for application of primer coats directly on top of blast cleaned substrates.


Figure 3.38 Painting mitt with and without a thumb

Spray equipment

The two most important spray application methods, conventional spray (air atomization) and airless spray, also represent the two main principles in connection with spray application of paint. Conventional spray uses air for atomizing the paint, whereas airless spray utilizes high pressure combined with a small outlet orifice, nozzle orifice, to atomize the paint. See also Chapter 5 about conventional and airless spray application. The methods have their advantages and disadvantages. They are used for different areas and for different types of jobs, even if there are some overlaps.

Airless spray has obvious advantages within the fields of marine coating, offshore constructions, power plants, machines and equipment, and buildings, but is also used for industrial finishes on metals and wood as well as finishes on heavy vehicles, aircraft and railcars.

Airless spray is considerably faster than conventional equipment. Airless spray equipment has up to 10 times the capacity compared to pressure-fed conventional spray equipment (0.75-1.0 ltrs/min), measured as material output from the gun per minute. Another advantage is that airless spray produces less spray fog.

The advantage of conventional spray is that atomization is finer, resulting in better flow ability and a finer finish of the paint, and more glossy top coats. Consequently, the method is preferred where the requirements to appearance and gloss are high.

It should also be remembered that air is used for "atomizing" heavy and coarse materials like cement mixtures, cement-based fire protection and deck coatings, after the materials have been conveyed to the spray gun or spray gun-like equipment by means of screw or pump feeding.

Based on airless and conventional spray technologies new spray equipment and methods have been developed. The methods can be divided into the following groups:

Conventional spray (air atomization), basic method 2 Airless spray, basic method

:l Air-assisted airless spray (airmix, aircoat), combination of 1 and 2 4 Electrostatic spray, combinations with 1, 2 or 3

) HVLP (High Volume Low Pressure), modification of 1

6 HVLP - air-assisted airless spray, combination of 5 and 3

Dual or plural c orrrp orrcrrt a~rlcss spray un~is have been on the nmrket for severa1


decades. Their areas of use have been spraying of polyester and epoxy coatings/ paints with short pot life. Basically, the equipment consists of preheater, feed pump, main pump with high pressure cylinders, intermediate heaters, flush system, material hoses, mixing unit and the spray gun. The mixing of components takes place either in a mixing block mounted between the pump unit and the gun, or in the gun itself. The ability of the pumps to supply the different components in the correct mixing ratio and their mixing is now highly reliable.

The advantages of using plural component equipment have also been noted in cases where the pot life allows spraying with ordinary one-component equipment. Among other points of interest, there is economy in the fact that there is no waste of ready-mixed paint.

Conventional spray equipment

Conventional spray guns are divided into two types:

1 Guns provided with a cup mounted directly on top of or underneath the gun

2 Guns attached to separate, pressurized cans (2-2.5 litres), larger pressurized pots (lO-25litres are common) or feed pumps through hoses

These two types can again be split into

guns with internal or external mixing of atomizing air and paint guns with suction feed and pressure feed

guns for automatic spraying

Guns with suction feed may have paint cups mounted underneath or on top. The different suction feed guns have cans with a capacity of up to one litre and are used for minor spray jobs, for spraying of easily spray able paints and jobs with frequent change of paint types or colours. Guns with paint cups mounted on top can spray materials that are considerably more viscous than those with the cup underneath. If the gun is attached to a pressure cup, a pressure pot, or feed pump, the material is conveyed to the gun by means of pressure. Pressure-fed guns have a large capacity compared to the suction-fed and are used for spraying of large objects and serial production.

In the head of all types of spray guns for conventional spraying the most important parts are located: air cap (including the air distribution ring), nozzle and control needle. They are of decisive importance for the capacity, atomization and transfer efficiency. The combination of these important parts is determined by the material to be sprayed, how the paint is delivered to the gun, the shape and size of the spray area, the spraying capacity and requirements to result and finish. Air cap, nozzle and needle must be compatible.

Air caps with more or large orifices for the atomization air produce quick atomization and increased capacity compared to air caps with fewer and smaller orifices.

The paint to be sprayed passes through the nozzle and out into the air stream.

The nozzle is the seat of the paint needle which in its forward position stops the stream of paint through the nozzle.

Nozzles come in different orifice sizes for different materials and feeding sys-

terns. In the case of pressure feeding, nozzles with less paint flow are normally used than in the case of suction feeding.

Compressed air

If ordinary conventional equipment is used, the air used for transportation and atomization of the paint is supplied by a compressor. It is important that the air is clean and dry to prevent foreign matter like solid particles, oil or water from contaminating the paint or the object to be sprayed. The air must therefore pass through filtering equipment like oil or water separators where any contamination is taken up and removed from the air before it is allowed into the pressure pot or before it is used as atomizing air.

Air supplied directly from the compressor or the compressed-air system often has a pressure which is too high for use directly for material conveyance and atomization. Consequently, it must first be passed through a reduction valve which reduces the compressor/system pressure down to the working pressure required.

For HVLP (High Volume Low Pressure) equipment, which operates with a high volume of air and low pressure, the air can be supplied from a turbine or a compressor. If a pressure pot is part of the HLVP equipment, compressed air from a compressor is used for pressurizing the pot. The pressure in the pot forces the paint through the paint hose to the gun in the same way as the pressure pot on ordinary conventional equipment. Air from a turbine is clean and dry, whereas compressor air must be cleaned in the oil or water separator.

Automatic gun

The automatic gun is pneumatically operated. It has the same technical spray properties as the guns for manual spraying. The automatic guns are used for industrial purposes (serial production) where the parts are sprayed automatically while for example suspended from a conveyor.

'- Compressed-air

inlet

Air cap retainer ring

Figure 3.39 Automatic gun

! !URrAC~ PR[PARATIO~ A~D APPLICATION ~QUIPM!NT ~~

Cleaning and maintenance

Cleaning of the conventional spray equipment is naturally quite different from cleaning of airless equipment, but an important similarity is that all parts and components which have been in contact with paint or have been soiled must be cleaned. This applies to gun parts, hoses, cans and pots, and feeding pumps.

The unit must be flushed until all parts and components are clean, i.e. until the thinner sprayed from the gun is clean. Normally, it is not necessary to dismantle the nozzle during each cleaning. The many orifices of the air cap must be kept open. Metal objects should not be used for cleaning of nozzle or air cap. The equipment must be clean and dry when it is put away.

Maintenance of the gun usually consists of replacing heavy-wear parts like the nozzle/seat and the needle. Some wearing down of the trigger mechanism and spring will also take place over time. Threaded parts, springs and needle packings require a drop of oil from time to time.

Figure 3.40 Suction-fed gun with cup mounted underneath

Figure 3.41 Suction-fed gun with cup mounted on top

Figure 3.42 Pressure cup without paint regulator

Figure 3.43 Pressure cup with paint regulator


Figure 3.44 Pressure pot

Figure 3.45

(/) External atomization gun is a type where air and paint are mixed outside the nozzle. It is suitable for almost all paint types.

/1) Internal atomization gun is a type where air and paint are mixed inside the nozzle between the air cap and the nozzle. It is used for small compressor units. The capacity is high and it atomizes the paint finely.

Figure 3.46 Nozzle for suction feed. The nozzle creates a vacuum in the lIozzle orifice and the paint is siphoned from the container (cup) and out through the nozzle.

Figure 3.47 Nozzle for pressure feed. In the pressure-fed gun the paint is forced through the gun from a cup,

a pressurized pot or a feeding pump.

1 [UO[10[ [10CDI0lTIOIJ IIJO IDDLIOlTlOIJ COUIDU[IJT 101

Figure 3.48 Suction-fed gun with cup mounted on top. Sufficiently low-viscous paint flows down into the gun, while the vacuum formed in the nozzle orifice siphons the paint through the nozzle.

Compressed-air inlet

Figure 3.49 Cross-section of suction-fed gun

1 2

Figure 3.50

1 Air nozzle/air cap 2 Nozzle

3 Needle

3


HVLP spray equipment

HVLP is an abbreviation of High Volume Low Pressure. In contrast to spraying with conventional spray equipment where the atomization pressure is often within the range of 0.3-0.4 MPa, which creates drawbacks in the form of spray fog, bounceback and overspray, the HVLP systems operate with considerably lower pressure (below 0.1 MPa).

Normally this pressure cannot transport the paint from the pot to the nozzle nor atomize the paints to such a degree that they flow out to form an even film on the surface. But by adding large volumes of air the desired effect is achieved. The spray fan is "soft" and passes easily across the surfaces to be sprayed. Bounceback is at a minimum, also from inside corners, nooks and crevices. This makes spray application on such areas simpler. The soft fan and the easily controlled spray pattern enable spraying of panelling and window frames without (or with minimum) masking of adjacent areas.

The atomization air is supplied by compressor or turbine. HVLP systems with compressor-supplied atomization air were the first to appear on the market. Apparently the "new" technology with turbine-supplied atomization air has become popular. The air is heated when it leaves the turbine. This causes more solvents to evaporate before the paints reach the surface than in the case of ordinary compressor-supplied air. The reduced solvent contents in the paint film should reduce the risk of solvent retention even at high film thicknesses and additionally reduce the tendency 10 sag. Within the automotive finishing industry with high demands on finish some are sceptical and reluctant to use HVLP equipment because the flow properties of I he paints are slightly reduced.

The HVLP equipment has been further developed by the attachment of a high pressure pump to the system. The pump conveys the paint to the spray gun under a hydraulic pressure from 1.0 MPa to 13.0 MPa. Thereby the properties of the HVLP system and air-assisted airless spray are combined. When the paint is under hydraulic pressure, some atomization takes place when it passes the airless nozzle. After this large-volume air and low pressure will produce the final atomization.


High pressure (airless) spray equipment

Two types of high pressure airless pumps are available:

piston pumps diaphragm pumps

1 Air inlet

2 Air regulator

3 Water separator 4 Lubricator

5 Air motor

6 Oil cup

7 Pulse chamber with fine

filter

8 Paint outlet 9 Paint pump 10 Reliefvalve

11 Paint inlet. Usually a suction hose with coarse filter (screen) is connected here.

12 Paint hose

13 Flexible whip hose 14 Swivel coupling

15 Gun

16 Nozzle

17 Sound-muffled air exhaust (exit air) from the air motor

16

14

Figure 3.51 High pressure airless pump - compressed-air driven piston pump

Piston pump types Compressed-air driven Electromechanically driven Electrohydraulic driven

Diaphragm pump types

Hydraulic driven with electromotor Hydraulic driven with petrol motor

Compressed-air driven piston pumps

Compressed-air driven piston pumps cover most ground when it is a question of pressure and capacity. They can operate with atomization pressures of up to 42 MPa.

The pump consists of two main parts: the air motor and the hydraulic cylinder.

The main component of the air motor is the air piston. The valve mechanism governs the compressed air so that it acts alternately on the upper part and on the lower part of the piston. The air motor is coupled to the hydraulic cylinder by a transmission rod.


Air inlet

Air piston

Passages for air supply and exhaust air

Oil cup

Figure 3.52 Compressed-air driven piston pump

The hydraulic cylinder consists of a lower cylinder chamber (foot valve chamber), a piston, a piston rod, an upper cylinder chamber, an upper and lower ball valve (check valves) and upper and lower packing sets.

The lower packing set may be seated in a stuffing box or directly on the piston rod. In the former case the packing set is fixed. The piston rod then moves through the packing set. In the latter case the packing set follows the piston rod up and down.

When the pump is to be primed, the reduction valve is opened to allow air to pass into the motor. The air works alternately on the upper and lower parts of the piston in the air cylinder. The up and down strokes are transmitted to the hydraulic cylinder through the piston rod.

Underpressure is produced in the lower part of the cylinder when the piston rod moves upwards. When the inlet valve (lower ball valve, foot valve) opens, paint is siphoned into the chamber below the piston (foot valve chamber). At the same time, the ball valve in the piston closes. The paint in the upper part of the cylinder is

3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT 10:5

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