De Montfort University

ENGT5101 ELECTROMECHANICS

ENGT5101 Electromechanics

CAR BREAKING SYSTEM MODELLING AND CONTROL

Drum

Motor Gearbox

Load

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 ENGT5101 Electromechanics

Contents
Contents......................................................................................................................................................1
List of Figures...............................................................................................................................................3
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................4
Learning objectives..................................................................................................................................4
Breaking System..........................................................................................................................................4
Mathematical Model of the Breaking system..........................................................................................4
Simulink Model of the Breaking system...................................................................................................5
Breaking Torque & Caliper Pressure when step input is applied..............................................................6
Limitations on K & Improvement of Accuracy of Braking System..........................................................10
Wheel Dynamics........................................................................................................................................11
Moment of inertia of the wheel............................................................................................................11
Derivation of wheel dynamics with elemental analysis.........................................................................11
Car Body Dynamics....................................................................................................................................13
Mathematical modeling of car dynamics...............................................................................................13
Simulink model of car............................................................................................................................16
Tyre-Road Interaction................................................................................................................................21
Modeling of slip-friction co-efficient......................................................................................................21
Complete Simulink Model.....................................................................................................................23
...............................................................................................................................................................23
Smallest stopping Distance Model.........................................................................................................26
References.................................................................................................................................................32

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List of Figures
Figure 1:Model of Breaking Torque and caliper Pressure 4
Figure 2:Simulink Model of Breaking Torque 5
Figure 3: Simulink Model of Caliper Pressure 5
Figure 4: Breaking Torque as a result of step input Force for various values of Amplification Constant 6
Figure 5: CaliperPressure as a result of step input Force for various values of Amplification Constant 7
Figure 6: Breaking Torque as a result of step input Force for various values of Amplification Constant 8
Figure 7: Caliper Pressure as a result of step input Force for various values of Amplification Constant 9
Figure 8:Wheel Dynamics 10
Figure 9:Car Dynamics 12
Figure 10: Simulink Model of Car 15
Figure 11:Simulink Model of Wheel 16
Figure 12: Simulink Model of Car body 16
Figure 13: Car velocity when ramp input is applied for 0.2 sec 17
Figure 14: Wheel velocity when ramp input is applied for 0.2 sec 18
Figure 15: Relative velocity when ramp input is applied for 0.2 sec 19
Figure 16: Simulink Model including Tyre-Road interaction characteristics 22
Figure 17: Simulink Model of slip calculation 22
Figure 18: Simulink Model of co-efficient of friction 23
Figure 19: Simulink Model of Car ( Tyre-Road interaction) with and without servo assisted control 23
Figure 20: Relative of Model of Car ( Tyre-Road interaction) with and without servo assisted control 24
Figure 21:Smallest distance stopping car model 25
Figure 22: Car velocity for shortest distance stopping case 26
Figure 23: Wheel velocity for smallest distance stopping case 27
Figure 24: Relative velocity for smallest distance stopping case 28
Figure 25:C-efficient of friction for smallest distance stopping case 29
Figure 26: slip for smallest distance stopping case 30

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Introduction
This assignment is related to the modeling of car, wheel and breaking system. In first part, Car breaking
system is modeled. Breaking system has its dependence on wheel model and car model. The curve of slip
and co-efficient of friction is analyzed. This assignment provides comprehensive insight and
understanding of car stopping with and without the presence of servo-assister breaking mechanism.
Matlab, script files and simulink, is used as a tool in order to model the car breaking system.

Learning objectives
1) To understand the mathematical modeling of wheel dynamics, car body dynamics, tyre-road
interaction and servo-assisted breaking dynamics.
2) Learning of modeling of the car, wheel, tyre-road interaction and breaking system dynamics using
simulink and Matlab.
3) Effect of relative velocities on slip and thus on the co-efficient of friction
4) Linking the different models together in order to study the effect of breaking force with or
without servo-assisted breaking phenomenon

Breaking System
Mathematical Model of the Breaking system

The mathematical model is given by

d Tb
( 0.4+ 0.2 106 K ) +T b=( 0.011 K ) F
dt

Where T b is the breaking torque (Nm), F is the normalized force and following dimensions may
be assumed for a single wheel:

Ac Cross-sectional Area of brake Caliper= 0.01 m2

Rd Average Radius of disk= 0.225 m

5
K Servo Pressure Amplification constant= 1 10

F Co-efficient of pad friction= 0.35

Breaking system Model can also be written as:

dTb
=x T b + yF
dt

1 ( 0.011 K )
Where x= , y=
( 0.4+ 0.2106 K ) ( 0.4+ 0.2 106 K )

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T b= ( F R d A c ) P 2

d P2 y
=x P2 + F
dt ( F R d A c )
d P2
=x P2 +zF
dt

y
Where z=
( F d Ac )
R

Simulink Model of the Breaking system

Figure 1:Model of Breaking Torque and caliper Pressure

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Figure 2:Simulink Model of Breaking Torque

Figure 3: Simulink Model of Caliper Pressure

Breaking Torque & Caliper Pressure when step input is applied

The graphs of breaking torque and caliper pressure are obtained for different values of servo
Amplification constants

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Response of Breaking torque as a result of step input force F for different values of K
1200

1000 k=1e5
k=1e4)

800
Tb(Nm)

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec)

Figure 4: Breaking Torque as a result of step input Force for various values of Amplification Constant

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5
x 10 Response of Caliper presseure P2 for unit step Force for different K VALUES
14

K=1e5
12
K=1e4

10

8
P2 (N/m2)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(sec)

Figure 5: Caliper Pressure as a result of step input Force for various values of Amplification Constant

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Response of breaking Torque Tb for unit step input F for different K value
12000

10000
k=1e6
k=1e5

8000
Tb (Nm)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec)

Figure 6: Breaking Torque as a result of step input Force for various values of Amplification Constant

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6
x 10 Response of Caliper pressure for step appied force for different values of K
14

K=1e6
K=1e5
12

10

8
P2 (N/m2)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec)

Figure 7: Caliper Pressure as a result of step input Force for various values of Amplification Constant

Comments
The value of k is increased 10 times, breaking Torque and caliper pressure increases ten times. The value
of k is decreased 10 times, breaking Torque and caliper pressure decreased 10 times .So the pressure
amplification constant controls the final settling value of breaking torque and caliper pressure.

Limitations on K & Improvement of Accuracy of Braking System

Since breaking torque and caliper pressure cant be negative. So, amplification constant should be
greater than equal to zero. The effect of velocity t v fluid displacement x 2 should be added should
be incorporated in order to improve efficiency of braking system.

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Wheel Dynamics
Moment of inertia of the wheel

Wheel is assumed as a cylindrical rigid body in order to obtain the Inertia

2
M R
J w= w w
2

Where

M w = mass of wheel
Rw =Radius of wheel

Derivation of wheel dynamics with elemental analysis

Figure 8:Wheel Dynamics[2]

As the formula of Newtons 2nd law of Linear motion is Fnet =ma . Newtons 2nd law of rotational
motion says net torque on a rotating body: net =J w

According to the law sum of all the moments around point C (i-e centre of wheel)

M C=J w

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And considering around anti-clockwise direction as positive. FX is responsible for anticlockwise

rotation and T b is making clockwise rotation . is in direction of angular velocity and is taken as
positive.

F X RT b=J w

And rate of change of angular velocity is angular acceleration i-e

d
=
dt

So our required equation of wheel dynamics is hence proved as [1]

d
F X Rsign( )T b=J w
dt

Since, 0 , so this sign ( ) term is included in the model.

sign ( )=1if >0

sign ( )=1 if <0

sign ( )=0 if =0

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Car Body Dynamics

Mathematical modeling of car dynamics

Figure 9:Car Dynamics[2]

it is assumed in the problem that

Since body is moving in straight line so displacement is same as distance dx .

m=mass of car=1800 Kg

M=Mass of wheel=75 Kg

Radius of wheel= Rw =0.31 m

Fengine =0, F drag =0, F resistan =0

According to Newtons second law of motion F x=ma x

F bf F br =ma x ( A)

Where

Fbf =breaking force on front is opposite to direction of acceleration

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Fbr =breaking force on rear wheel is opposite to direction of acceleration

=Coeficient of fric tion

W =mg=weight of car

Since it is known that [2]

F x = F z

So breaking forces can be written as

Fbf =F zf

Fbr = F zr

So, the above equation (A) becomes

F zf +F zr =m ax

F
( zf + F zr )=m a x (1)

Since there is no vertical acceleration

F y =m a y =0
F zf + F zrW =0

F zf + F zr=W ..(2)

Since sum of all the moments around point C=0 and because there is no angular acceleration in this
case, =0

M C =I C =0
Both breaking forces on front and rear wheel are opposite to acceleration of car

Considering the rotation clockwise as positive

Y-components of moment = ( F bf + F br ) h
X-components of moment= F zr Lr F zf Lf

M C=I C =0
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( F zr + F zf ) h+ F zr LrF zf Lf =0 .(3)
Since pitch component due to acceleration is zero= y-component of moment =0

( F zr + F zf ) h=0
so

( F zr + F zf ) 0, h=0
The centre of gravity lies at centre of wheel base. So Lr=L f

Putting above values Lr=L f and h=0 in above equation (3) yields

F zf =F zr .( 4)

Hence it is proved that

F zf =F zr

So combining equation 1 & 2 & 4

ma x =W

a x ( t )=g

d v x (t )
=a x ( t )=g
dt

d 2 d x ( t)
=g
dt

The ODE relating the wheel speed , with respect to force Force, F x and breaking torque , T b
is

d
Jw =F x R w sign( )T b .(5)
dt

Where

T b=Rw Fb

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And

F x = F z

In this case

F z=(m/ 2+ M w ) g

So equation 5 becomes

d
Jw = F z R w Rw Fb
dt

d
=( F z R w Rw F b )/J w
dt

t
So the wheel Velocity ) is given by ODE with Fb ( t ) as input
v w (t )=Rw

d ( R w (t) )
=( F zF b (t)) R w 2 /J w
dt

Where

M R w2 m
J w=
2 (
, F z= + M g
2 )

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Simulink model of car

Figure 10: Simulink Model of Car

Figure 11:Simulink Model of Wheel

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Figure 12: Simulink Model of Car body

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ramp input breaking force is applied

101

100.8

100.6

100.4
Car velociy Vc(m/s)

100.2

100

99.8

99.6

99.4

99.2

99
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)

Figure 13: Car velocity when ramp input is applied for 0.2 sec

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ramp input breaking force is applied

100.001

100

99.999

99.998
Wheel velociy Vw(m/s)

99.997

99.996

99.995

99.994

99.993

99.992

99.991
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)

Figure 14: Wheel velocity when ramp input is applied for 0.2 sec

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-3
x 10 ramp input breaking force is applied
9

7
Relative Velocity Vc-Vw(m/s)

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)

Figure 15: Relative velocity when ramp input is applied for 0.2 sec

Comments:
Since, co-efficient of friction is zero. There is no stopping force to stop car. While, wheel Velocity will
decrease due the breaking torque being applied. Hence relative velocity will be equal to the negative of
wheel velocity.

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Tyre-Road Interaction
Modeling of slip-friction co-efficient

Slip characteristics are modeled using fifth order regression in Matlab. Two arrays of co-efficient of
friction and slip (each entry of against is noted from curve given).17 data points were
selected.

Data points of slip against co-efficient of friction is shown i table below.

0 0
0.01 0.1
0.02 0.2
0.022 0.3
0.04 0.4
0.05 0.6
0.1 0.97
0.15 1
0.2 0.99
0.3 0.92
0.4 0.89
0.5 0.86
0.6 0.85
0.7 0.83
0.8 0.82
0.9 0.81
1 0.805

After performing fifth order regression, the relation for

( )=47.3216 5 136.9849 4 +147.0004 371.2059 2 +14.7075 10.0202

The graph for =f ( ) is shown as follow

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fifth order meu vs lemda relationship

1.2

0.8

0.6
meu

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
lamda

Figure 16: Co-efficient of friction- slip curve for fifth order curve fitting

It can be seen that for values of slip from(0.145-0.26), is greater than zero which is not obviously
not possible .So, Malab user defined function is used to assign the value of =1 if slip is in this
range.

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Complete Simulink Model

Figure 17: Simulink Model including Tyre-Road interaction characteristics

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Figure 18: Simulink Model of slip calculation

Figure 19: Simulink Model of co-efficient of friction

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Figure 20: Simulink Model of Car ( Tyre-Road interaction) with and without servo assisted control

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Relative velocity as a result of Servo and Non Servo Breaking force inputs
100
Vr without servo control
Vr with servo control

80

60
Relative velocity Vr(m/s)

40

20

-20
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Figure 21: Relative of Model of Car ( Tyre-Road interaction) with and without servo assisted control

Comments:
It is assumed that Initial velocity of car is 100 Km/hr while initial velocity of wheel is 99 km/hr. Without
servo based control, as input step breaking force is applied at time t=0. Velocity of wheel quickly
approaches to Velocity of car (due to absence of servo braking mechanism i-e breaking torque value is
much smaller). Slip approaches zero very quickly, hence very low value of co-efficient of friction. Since
value of co-efficient of friction is so low (due to low value of slip) that it will take much longer time to
approach both wheel and car velocities to zero. So stopping time will be much longer.

On the other hand with servo assisted control, as wheel velocity quickly approaches to zero(due to the
presence of servo control braking mechanism i-e large value of breaking torque is applied as a result of
step force input) slip approaches value of 1 ,thus offering greater value of co-efficient of friction. Hence
car Velocity also approaches to zero in much less time than in non servo based control.

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Smallest stopping Distance Model

Ideally speaking , is close to 1 if slip is 0.2.it means that relative velocity of car and wheel should
be close to 20 and maintains itself there .So that, car faces maximum value. The stopping distance
will be minimum in this case.

But in this case, for =f ( ) .it is achieved by polynomial curve fitting of fifth-order, so it has its
limitations. It has its maximum value of co-efficient of friction when slip is in range (0.145-0.26).
Using the servo assisted breaking system, different values of pressure amplification factor yields various
values of relative velocity, slip and .By hit and trial method ,the value of K is chosen such that it
offers maximum value of co-efficient of friction. In this case, it is assumed that initial value of car
velocity is 100 Km/hr and initial value of wheel velocity is 99 Km/hr. The value of K=0.84 105 is
chosen by hit and trial method based on the maximum value for , offered during the whole
stopping journey.

The simulink model used for this case is similar to the one mentioned above. A little difference is
that now the initial condition for car velocity and wheel velocity is changed and only applied input
is torque to our system model is from servo-assisted braking system as shown in the figure below

Figure 22: Smallest distance stopping car model

The graphs of, relative velocity, car stopping velocity, wheel velocity and co-efficient of friction for
this case, are shown below.

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shortest distance stopping based on Servo Breaking force

100

90

80

70
Car velociy Vc(m/s)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Figure 23: Car velocity for shortest distance stopping case

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shortest distance stopping based on Servo Breaking force

100

90

80

70
Wheel velociy Vw(m/s)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Figure 24: Wheel velocity for smallest distance stopping case

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shortest distance stopping based on Servo Breaking force

14

12

10
Relative Velocity Vc-Vw(m/s)

-2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Figure 25: Relative velocity for smallest distance stopping case

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shortest distance stopping based on Servo Breaking force

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
meu

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Figure 26: Co-efficient of friction for smallest distance stopping case

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shortest distance stopping based on Servo Breaking force

1.2

0.8

0.6
lemda

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Figure 27: slip for smallest distance stopping case

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References
[1] http://www.goddardconsulting.ca/simulink-quarter-car-model.html#equation2 accessed at 10-12-
2016

[2] https://www.mathworks.com/help/physmod/sdl/ug/basic-motion-torque-and-force-modeling.html
accessed at 11-12-2016

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