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Section 1.4
Although a limit needs to approach a finite value for the limit to exist, it is often also useful
to know how f (x) increases or decreases as x approaches a certain value, even if the limit does not exist.
lim f (x) =
xx0
lim f (x) =
xx0
Graphically, a limit approaching at a point means the function has an asymptote at that
point. This is because the function may increase or decrease infinitely while approaching a point with-
out ever reaching, or "touching" the point.
To determine if f (x) approaches at a value, analyze the function near that point. For
example, if the numerator of a function stays constant and the denominator becomes very, very small,
then the limit will approach . For example, consider the following limit.
1
lim
x0+ x
Clearly, the function is undefined at x = 0, but one can take values of x close to 0 from the right
and plug them into the function. It is clear that the function grows at a very fast rate.
1
x x
1 1
0.1 10
0.01 100
0.001 1, 000
Since the function increases at an increasing rate without a maximum as x approaches 0 from
the right, we say:
1
lim =
x0+ x
However, notice that if we approach x from the left with negative values of those in the table,
there will be a negative denominator with the same numerator. This negative sign can be pulled
out from the whole fraction, and the ratios are the same as when approaching 0 from the right with
a negative sign. Thus, the function decreases without a minimum as x approaches 0 from the left.
Therefore, we say:
1
lim =
x0 x
1
This technique can be applied to more complicated rational functions. For example, consider the
limit below.
x+3
lim+ 2
x1 x 1
x+3
x x2 1
2 1.667
1.1 19.524
1.01 199.502
1.001 1, 999.500
Again, as x gets close to 1 from the right, f (x) increases without a maximum. It is possible
to make the function as large as you want by finding a value to the right of 1 for the function to be
evaluated at. Thus, we say:
x+3
lim+ 2 =
x1 x 1
This can also be done for non-rational functions. For example, f (x) = csc(x) has many discon-
tinuities. They happen at every x = n for integer values of n. This is because f (x) is not defined at
1
these points (recall csc(x) = sin(x) and sin(x) = 0 at every n). However, we can see what happens as
x approaches n for a particular n. For example, consider the limit below.
lim csc(x)
x2
Again, well make a table of values that get closer to 2 from the left.
x csc(x)
6 3.579
6.2 12.035
6.28 313.942
6.283 5, 396.445
The values decrease at without a minimum as x approaches 2 from the left. This means we say:
lim csc(x) =
x2
If this method is too tedious, it is possible to analyze the numerator and denominator of a ratio-
nal function and see which one tends to faster. For example, an exponential function grows faster
than a polynomial. A polynomial with a higher degree and a positive leading coefficient grows faster
than a polynomial with a lower degree and a positive leading coefficient. If the leading coefficient were
negative, the function would decrease at a faster rate. The following rules will guide your analysis of
the limits of rational functions.
2
Limits Evaluated at Infinity
lim f (x) = L
x
lim f (x) = M
x
Of course, it is impossible to evaluate f (x) at x = . However, analyzing the value f (x) trends
to is a matter of considering the components of f (x).
With polynomials, f (x) will always go to , depending on the coefficient of the highest power
term. For example:
lim x3 2x2 10x 7 =
x
This is due the the fact that the coefficient of the highest power term, x3 , is 1, a positive number.
This is true despite the fact that 2x2 and 10x go to as x goes to because x3 grows much
faster than x2 or x. Thus, subtracting some multiple of x2 and x from x3 is negligible at very high
values of x. This comes from the simple fact of arithmetic that multiplication by large numbers causes
a greater change than addition with large numbers. For example, consider the table below.
Clearly, x3 grows so quickly that the values of the other terms are insignificant, and the function
as a whole continues to increase without a bound. Notice that the quadratic term decreases at a
faster rate than the linear term, and the constant term doesnt change. This hints at the nature of
polynomials in general: the term with the largest power will determine the value of the limit at .
For limits that approach positive infinity, if the coefficient of the term with the highest power is
negative, the limit itself tends to negative infinity. For example:
Polynomials at negative infinity are more complicated. If the highest power is even, then the
sign of the coefficient of the term with the highest power matches the sign of the limit. If the highest
power is odd, then the sign of the coefficient of the term with the highest power is the opposite of the
sign of the limit. This can be difficult to remember in words, so refer the the rules on the next page.
3
Let f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + ... + an1 x + an such that a0 6= 0.
1. If a0 > 0:
lim f (x) =
x
2. If a0 < 0:
lim f (x) =
x
Essentially, because terms with higher powers increase or decrease at such a higher rate than
the other terms, they are the only terms that matter at . This means the limit can be evaluated
by ignoring all other terms in the polynomial. This can also be done for rational functions where the
numerator and denominator are both polynomials.
For rational functions of this form, simply consider the terms with the highest power for the
numerator and denominator. Then, cancel the terms as much as possible. The result should be a limit
that you know how to evaluate. For example:
Notice the result was a polynomial with an odd power (1) and a positive coefficient. Thus, from
the rules above, since x approached , the limit was .
If denominator has a higher power than the numerator as x goes to , the limit is always
0. This is because the denominator will continue to increase or decrease at a faster rate than the
numerator, so the ratio will become smaller and smaller and eventually approach 0. For example:
2x2 3x + 1 2x2 2
lim = lim = lim =0
x 3x3 3x2 + 4x 2 x 3x3 x 3x
If the powers of the numerator and denominator are equal, then the limit is the ratio of the
coefficients of the highest power terms of the numerator and denominator. For example:
4
This technique of analyzing the relative growth of each part of a function can be extended to
other families of functions. For example, an exponential functions will always eventually "overpower"
a polynomial. For example, let f (x) = ex x100 . The polynomial part of the function will be very
large, but eventually the exponential will be larger, thus:
lim f (x) =
x
As an exercise, to verify this, plug increasing values of x into f (x) as done with the polynomial
case before.
For exponential functions in general, notice that the function increases without bound (to infinity)
as x increases. However, although an exponential function will never equal 0, for very large negative
x, it will become very close to 0. Thus, for a positive constant n:
lim nx =
x
lim nx = 0
x
lim mx = 0
x
The graph of nx is a reflection of the graph of nx across the vertical axis. Thus, negating the
exponent will flip the limits. For a positive constant n:
lim nx = 0
x
lim nx =
x
lim mx =
x
For limits of compound functions at , find what the inside function approaches as x approaches
, and then use the rule for the outside function to guide you to the answer. For example, consider
the limit below. 3
lim ex 2x+1
x
First, remember that the limit of a polynomial only depends on the term with the highest power.
Then, recall that:
lim x3 =
x
Then, the exponent is a very large positive value. So, based on the rules above,
lim ex =
x
5
The Squeeze Theorem
Another rule for limits is the "squeeze theorem". The theorem says that if three functions satisfy
the following inequality:
f1 (x) f2 (x) f3 (x)
And the following two limits are true:
lim f2 (x)
xx0
This theorem can be useful for evaluating limits that would otherwise be obscure. For example,
consider the limit below.
sin(x)
lim
x x
This is a popular example when showing the power of the squeeze theorem. The sine function
jumps between 1, 1, and the values in between forever. How then is it possible to evaluate a limit
at infinity when the numerator doesnt approach a single value? This can be solved with the squeeze
theorem. First, realize that, due to the nature of the sine function, 1 sin(x) 1. Then, divide the
inequality by x to get x1 sin(x)
x x1 . Then, the middle function is the function we desire. To take
the limit of it, simply take the limits of the outer functions. If they are equal, then by the squeeze
theorem, the middle function will be equal to them as well.
1
lim =0
x x
1
lim =0
x x
Thus,
sin(x)
lim =0
x x
6
Examples
Here are a few examples to test the concepts provided in this section. Answers can be found on
the following pages.
7
Solutions
1. Notice that the left and right limit both increase as x approaches zero, unlike x1 in which the left
limit decreases. This is because x12 has a range of only positive values, because by squaring the
denominator it becomes positive and so does the entire fraction.
Thus, as x becomes closer to 0 from both sides, since 1 stays constant and the denominator gets
very small, the limit as a whole goes to infinity. That is:
1
lim =
x0 x2
3. Recall that only the terms of the numerator and denominator with the highest powers matter
for the limit since all other terms increase or decrease at such a relatively slow rate that their
contribution to the limit is negligible. Thus, it can be simplified to:
3x3 3 3
lim = lim =
x 2x3 x 2 2
.
4. To evaluate a compound function such as this one, first take the limit of the inside function. In
this case thats the exponent.
lim 3x2 3x + 1 = lim 3x2 =
x x
This is because only the term of a polynomial with the highest power matters for a limit. Then,
the coefficient of this term is negative and the x is going to , so the limit is . Then, consider
what happens to the function ex as x goes to , because the exponent of the original limit
goes to . We know that:
lim ex = 0
x
And thus: 2
lim e3x 3x+1
=0
x