BI Technologies R2R Resistor Ladder Networks

8-Bit and 10-Bit R2R resistor ladder networks for DAC and ADC applications.

Auto calibration circuits

Slope generators
Function generators
Motor speed control

Model BCN31Ladder 628 Ladder

Body Style 2512 SO-M
Number of Leads / Terminals 10 Terminal 16 Leads
Resistance
Range, Ohms 1K to 100K 1K to 100K
Temp. Coefficient, ppm/oC 100 100
Operating Temperature Range oC -40oC to +125oC -55oC to +125oC
Ladder Accuracy 8 Bit: 1/2 LSB 8 Bit: 1/2 LSB
Power Rating
Resistor Power 25mW 40mW
Package Power 400mW 640mW
8-Bit Ladder Networks in dual in line and single in line packages.
10-Bit Ladder Networks in dual in line, single in line and moulded surface mount packages. Please consult factory.

Ordering Information

BCN 31 Ladder 628 Ladder

Schematics

BCN 31 Ladder 628 Ladder

Introduction

Real world signals are analogue. Digital systems that interface with the real world do so using
analogue-to-digital converters (ADC). Conversion back to analogue is accomplished using digital-to-
analogue converters (DAC). The R2R ladder network is commonly used for Digital to Analogue
conversion and Analogue to Digital conversion by successive approximations. This application note
discusses the important parameters that should be considered when implementing DAC designs using
an R2R resistor ladder.

R2R ladder functional description

A basic N bit R2R resistor ladder network is shown in Figure 1. The digital inputs or bits range from
the most significant bit (MSB) to the least significant bit (LSB). The bits are switched between either
0V or VREF and depending on the state and location of the bits VOUT will vary between 0V and VREF.
The MSB causes the greatest change in output voltage and the LSB causes the smallest. The R2R
ladder is inexpensive and relatively easy to manufacture since only two resistor values are required. It
is fast and has fixed output impedance R. The R2R ladder operates as an array of voltage dividers
whose output accuracy is solely dependent on how well each resistor is matched to the others. The
resistors in the R2R network are printed directly onto a single substrate using a single film so they
share similar electrical characteristics they are also laser trimmed to provide the necessary precision.
These monolithic networks have an inherent accuracy advantage over discrete solutions because of the
tight ratio tolerances and low temperature coefficient of resistance tracking.

LSB MSB
Bit N Bit N - 1 Bit N - 2 Bit 3 Bit 2 Bit 1

2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R

R R R R R

2R R term ination V out

Figure 1. N Bit R2R Resistor Ladder

The termination resistor is always connected to ground and insures that the Thevenin resistance of the
network, as measured to ground looking towards the LSB (with all bits grounded), is R. The Thevenin
resistance of an R/2R ladder is always R regardless of the number of bits in the ladder. Figure 2 shows
a common implementation of the R2R resistor ladder network as a Digital to Analogue Converter using
an op amp output.This type of DAC is know as a multiplying converter. The output voltage is linearly
proportional to the digital input and the range can be adjusted by changing the reference voltage VREF.
The source impedance as seen by the op amp is always constant and equal to R regardless of the digital
input. The value of R can be made low to charge up the op amp input capacitance quickly and achieve

V ref

D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

Rf
2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R 2R

R 2R R R R R R V out

2R R term ination

( )
Rf D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
V out =- 2
+
4
+
8
+ +
32
+
64
+
128
+
256
D = 0 or 1
R 16

Figure 2. Multiplying converter

the required bandwidth. As a general rule the op amp bandwidth should be as small as possible (i.e. a
low pass filter) to pass only the expected changes in the digital input, any excess bandwidth only adds
noise to the output. The op amp should have good stability against temperature changes and supply
voltage variations.

The digital input is connected to the 2R resistances sometimes by means of a high-speed analogue
switch. The digital input voltage at D7 has twice the gain of the digital input at D6, and so on. This can
be demonstrated by using a repeated application of Thevenins theorem as follows. Consider an input
of 1 LSB that is D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 = 00000001 and VREF = 5V. Neglecting the source resistance
of the 5V input, Thevenins theorem applied to the 5V source and the bottom two 2R resistors replaces
them with a 2.5V source in series with a single (Thevenin) resistance of R as shown in Figure 3.
Repeated application of Thevenins theorem yields the result. The 8-bit resistor ladder network used in
this example has an output voltage of 0.0039V for a digital input of 1 LSB.

2R 2R 2R 2R
D7

R R R R
2R 2R 2R 2R
D6

R R R R
2R 2R 2R 2R
D5

R R R R
2R 2R 2R 2R
D4

R R R 2R
2R 2R 2R
D3

R R R
2R 2R 2R 0.625V
D2

R R R
2R 2R 2R
D1

R R 2R
2R R
D0

2R
5V 2.5V 2.5V

Figure 3. Repeated application of Thevenins theorem

Resolution

Resolution is the smallest standard incremental change in output voltage of a DAC. An n-bit DAC can
decode 1 part in 2n, therefore the LSB carries a weight of 2-n. For example, a DAC with 10-bit
resolution can resolve 1 part in 210 or 0.097% of the full-scale output voltage when the binary input
code is incremented by one LSB.

Accuracy

The accuracy of an R2R ladder is the percentage error in the output voltage and is usually expressed in
terms of least significant bits. For example, a +/- LSB.specification on an 8-bit ladder is the same as
+/- 0.195% full scale accuracy. We define output error as the deviation from an ideal output voltage
that would be provided by a perfect reference and DAC. We address absolute accuracy in this
application note, this means that everything is referenced to an ideal DAC output-voltage range. For
example, a 10 bit DAC code 1023 should produce an output of 1.023V with a reference voltage of
1.024V and any deviation from this is an error.
 1. Automatic Circuit Calibration DAC Air pressure sensor
Electronic air pressure sensors are Microprocessor

available at very reasonable cost and are D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 CH1

used in numerous commercial Error Adjustment

applications. Air pressure sensors are 20K 20K 20K 20K Test Point 20K 20K
20K 20K
sensitive strain gauges configured as 20K 10K 10K 10K 10K 10K 10K 10K R 15 R 14

resistor bridges. One leg of the bridge is a

Resistor Ladder Network
diaphragm that compresses and expands
with fluctuations in air pressure resulting
R 13
in small resistance changes. Since the
resistance change is small the system is R 12

required to have a very large gain. For R1

Instrumentation Amplifier

systems with a single power supply the R6 R7

instrumentation amplifier configuration R3

provides good common-mode rejection Resistor

C1
20K 20K
Bridge R 11

ratio CMRR and minimises the number of R4

passive components required to set the 20K 20K

gain. The gain is set so that it provides R5

C2
R 10

maximum output voltage swing while R8 R9

avoiding amplifier saturation. System

errors such as temperature drift and sensor R2

offset can cause the output voltage to

saturate and as a result it is necessary to
provide a calibration mechanism. Calibration can be realised using potentiometers however they are undesirable in
production designs. The part cost is higher than a fixed resistor and a pot requires human intervention thus it is
preferable for adjustments to be made in software. Provided the current air pressure is known, then it is possible for
the microprocessor to determine the calibration constants automatically and store them to memory. An R2R resistor
ladder network controlled by the microprocessor forms a DAC that adjusts for the errors as shown in this example.

2. LCD Backlight Dimmer Slope generator DAC

Backlighting is a key element in many liquid V CC

crystal display (LCD) applications. Due to the Bright

To Brightness

relatively low overall transmission of a typical

1 = UP Adjust
Dim 0 = DOWN

LCD, the backlight is sometimes required to have 100K

CLK U/D C O UT 200K

extreme brightness. It should also possess a wide UP / DOWN

P3 Q3
100K

dimming range to facilitate use, depending on the Push Button Control 100K
P2 Q2
200K

amount of ambient light. LCD backlight controller 100K

200K
100K
M.S.B

ICs require a brightness adjustment signal in the

P1 Q1
100K

form of a linear control voltage. There are several

UP / DOWN Counter

100K P0
MC14516B

Q0 200K

R PE C IN
ways of generating the Brightness Adjust 200K
100K

Ladder
voltage. The simplest is by using a potentiometer. CLOCK 100K
Network

Another method, shown in this example, is by 100K

CLK U/D C O UT
200K

using a digital UP/DOWN counter. In this method

P3 Q3 100K
200K

two push button switches are used to generate a

100K
P2 Q2
100K

logic level 1 for an UP count and a logic level 0 100K

200K
L.S.B

P1
for a DOWN count. The UP/DOWN counters
Q1
200K
UP / DOWN Counter

provide a digital output signal that is converted into

100K P0
MC14516B

Q0
R PE C IN

an analogue signal using the R2R resistor ladder

network. There are 256 brightness levels and
setting the UP/DOWN counters pre-set inputs
configures the brightness level at turn on.
 3. Sine and DTMF Waveform Generation - Function generator DAC

Many embedded applications require the generation of analogue 3.57945 MHz

signals. For example the generation of multiplexed frequencies 22pF

C2
22pF
C1
X1
(DTMF) for telephone dialling, controlling the speed of a motor,
the generation of sound and complex waveforms as well as the
Analogue Output

OSC 1 OSC 2

generation of variable voltages in power supplies. Although V DD

200K

separate digital to analogue converter ICs exist the extra V DD

RB
7
100K

expense makes them prohibitive in cost sensitive designs. The MCLR RB

6
200K

example shown here demonstrates a DAC design using an R2R RA

200K
100K

RB
ladder and a microcontroller. To generate a single sine wave, the 3 5
100K

PIC16C620
user creates a lookup table with the correct number of sample
200K
RA
2 PIC Microcontroller RB
4

points. The software steps through each sample point and moves
100K
200K Ladder
RA
1 RB Network
this value to the I/O port. The R2R ladder converts the digital 3

200K
100K

signal to an analogue one. It is important that every sample point RA

0 RB
2
100K

uses the same timing interval. Many telecomm applications, TOCLI

RB
1
200K

such as auto diallers, telephone keypads and security systems GND

200K
100K

require DTMF for dialling and data transfer. Using the R2R
RB
0
200K

ladder and seven sine lookup tables an entire 12-key keypad of

DTMF patterns can be generated using a 3.579545 crystal.

4. Non-Linear Digital Dimmer - ADC

The digital dimmer box is intended for stage
illumination in theatres. It is simple and inexpensive Control Voltage
V cc

to implement using a microcontroller and an R2R 0 to 10V

R1 D1 12.0000 MHz

ladder. It is compatible with older analogue dimmer

20k 1N 4148

100nF

boxes and supports 4400-Watt loads. In stage

R6 D2 C3 22pF 22pF
C2 C1
20k 1N 4148 X1
7 6

illumination, dimming of each incandescent lamp is R7

1k
11
XTAL2
15 20K
20K

controlled by an analogue voltage (ranging from 0 to

P 00 P 20
LOAD 10K

LED 16

10 volts) and is supplied by a remote console. To

12 20K
P 01 P 21
V cc 10K
4400 W

achieve linear perception, a dimmer box should R 10

180R
6 1
R 11
330R
13
P 02 P 22
17 20K

10K

exhibit a non-linear response to the control voltage. Q1

U1 P 23
18 20K Resistor
Ladder

Older dimmer boxes employ analogue processing for

MAC 10K
224A10 4 2 Network
1
MO C 3020N 20K
P 24

the task of compensation. The digital approach uses a 6+6V/100mA

R 14
18k
8 P 25
2 20K
10K

simple software look-up table concept to implement

P 31
10K
AC LINE
Z86E0812PSC
Microprocessor

9 3

response compensation. As a result, a dedicated

R 19 20K
230VAC D3 P 26
10k D4
1N 4148
P 32
1N 4148
10K

external analogue circuit is not required. The system D5

D6
1N 4007
10
P 33 P 27
4
20K

78L05
control uses a microcontroller running at 12MHz and
1N 4007

V1 V0

an 8-bit R2R resistor ladder network on port 2 as a 100nF

C5
10uF
C4 G 1000uF
C6

digital to analogue converter. The R2R output

provides a reference voltage (pin 33) for the analogue
comparator on port P3. The analogue control voltage is connected to another comparator input (pin 31) and the
analogue to digital conversion is completed by software using a successive approximation technique. The
counter/timer generates a time delay between the zero crossing of the line voltage and the TRIACs trigger pulse. As a
result, power is delivered to the load. At 12 MHz, it is possible to achieve delays from 0 to 8.33ms with the correct
settings of the counter/timer prescaler, which corresponds to the phase-triggering range for an AC line frequency of
60Hz.
5. R2R Analogue to Digital Converter - ADC

This is an example of an 8-bit analogue to

digital converter built using two cascaded
binary up/down counters an op-amp and an
P0 P1 P2 P3 P0 P1 P2 P3
R2R resistor ladder network. The analogue R CLK R CLK

MC14516B MC14516B
signal that needs to be converted into a digital PE L.S.B U/D PE M.S.B U/D

signal is fed into the inverting input of the op- C IN

UP / DOWN Counter
C O UT C IN
UP / DOWN Counter
C O UT
Q3
amp. The op-amp output drives the up/down or
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q0 Q1 Q2

D0
direction pin of the binary counters until the D1

R2R ladder output on the non-inverting op- Digital

D2
D3
amp input equals the analogue input, at that Output
D4

point the counter state represents the digital D5

D6
Analogue Input

equivalent of the analogue input. Adjusting the D7

clock frequency sets the system resolution.

200K 200K 200K 200K 200K 200K 200K 200K

100K 100K 100K 100K 100K 100K 100K

200K

Resistor Ladder Network