Question 1:

Define Growth & Development and

describe in detail the Physical
Development and its Importance in
Learning?
Answer:

Growth & Development

Growth and development are similar words but different from each other though it is
not possible to separate them totally.

It is a whole process which includes growth of the body as well as growth of various
aspects of child's personality, e.g., the physical, emotional, social and cognitive
development.

Development is a progressive change the child undergoes which increases the physical,
social, mental and emotional capacities of the child.

In the early stages of life these changes are constructive and after middle age there are
destructive changes in the body which lead to old age.Growth

Growth
Growth means an increase in size, height, weight, length, etc. which can be measured.

1. Growth is quantitative.

2. Growth comprises of height, weight, size and shape of body organs like brain, etc.
3. It is due to cell division.

4. Growth is for limited period.

5. Growth can be measured.

6. Growth tells about one aspect of personality but in limited scope.

Development
Development implies changes in shape, form or structure resulting in improved
working. It implies qualitative changes.

1. Development is quantitative as well as qualitative.

2. In this with the physical changes cognitive social and emotional change are also
included.

3. It happen due to motor and adjust mental processes and their interplay.

4. Development takes place till death.

5. It can be observed by matured behavior.

6. Development deals with all the aspect of personality and has a vast scope.

Differences between growth and

development
Growth and development is one of the important studies for the teachers and parents.
Growth is different from development. But both are correlated and one is dependant on
other. We can say that growth is a part of development, which is limited in physical
changes.

Growth is physical changes whereas development is overall development of the

organism. The main differences between both are-
(1) Growth is change of physical aspects of the organism. Development is overall
changes and progressive changes of the organism.

(2) Growth is cellular but development is organizational.

(3) Growth is the change in shape, form, structure, size of the body. Development is
structural change and functional progress of the body.

(4) Growth stops at maturation but development continues till death of the organism.

(5) Development also includes growth. Growth is a part of development.

(6) Growth and development go side by side.

(7) Growth and development is the joint product of heredity and environment.

(8) Growth is quantitative and development is qualitative in nature.

(9) Growth can be measured accurately but development is subjective interpretation of

ones change.

Both growth and development are interrelated aspects of psychology. There are some
basic differences as per their structure but it is difficult to separate them. They have
some basic similarities also. In study of educational psychology study of their
differences and similarities have equal importance for a teacher.

Importance of Physical Development in

learning
There are several factors which directly or indirectly influence the growth and
development of an organism. There are as follows:

(1) Heredity.

(2) Environment.

(3) Sex.

(4) Nutrition.
 (5) Races.

(6) Exercise.

(7) Hormones.

(8) Learning and Reinforcement.

1. Heredity:
Heredity is a biological process through which the transmission of physical and social
characteristics takes place from parents to off-springs. It greatly influences the different
aspects of growth and development i.e. height, weight and structure of the body, colour
of hair and eye, intelligence, aptitudes and instincts.

However environment equally influences the above aspects in many cases. Biologically
speaking heredity is the sum total of traits potentially present in the fertilized ovum
(Combination of sperm cell & egg cell), by which off-springs are resemblance to their
parents and fore parents.

2. Environment:
Environment plays an important role in human life. Psychologically a person's
environment consists of the sum total of the stimulations (physical & Psychological)
which he receives from his conception. There are different types of environment such as
physical, environment, social environment & psychological environment.

Physical environment consists of all outer physical surroundings both in-animate and
animate which have to be manipulated in order to provide food, clothing and shelter.
Geographical conditions i.e. weather and climates are physical environment which has
considerable impact on individual child.

Social environment is constituted by the society-individuals and institutions, social laws,

customs by which human behavior is regulated.

Psychological environment is rooted in individual's reaction with an object. One's love,

affection and fellow feeling attitude will strengthen human bond with one another.

So Growth and Development are regulated by the environment of an individual where

he lives.

3. Sex:
Sex acts as an important factor of growth and development. There is difference in
growth and development of boys and girls. The boys in general taller, courageous than
the girls but Girls show rapid physical growth in adolescence and excel boys. In general
the body constitution and structural growth of girls are different from boys. The
functions of boys and girls are also different in nature.

4. Nutrition:
Growth and Development of the child mainly depend on his food habits & nutrition. The
malnutrition has adverse effect on the structural and functional development of the
child.

5. Races:
The racial factor has a great influence on height, weight, colour, features and body
constitution. A child of white race will be white & tall even hair and eye colour, facial
structure are governed by the same race.

6. Exercise:
This does not mean the physical exercise as a discipline. The functional activities of the
child come in the fold of exercise of the body. We do not mean any law of growth
through use or atrophy (The reverse of growth) through disuse.

The growth of muscles from the normal functioning of the child is a matter of common
knowledge. It is a fact that repeated play and rest build the strength of the muscle. The
increase in muscular strength is mainly dye to better circulation and oxygen supply. The
brain muscles develop by its own activity-play and other activities provide for these
growth and development of various muscles. Deliberately the child does not play or
engages himself in various other functions with the knowledge that they will help him in
growing. This style of functioning of the child is but natural.

7. Hormones:
There are a number of endocrine glands inside the human body. Endocrine glands are
ductless glands. This means there are certain glands situated in some specific parts of

the body. These glands make internal secretions locally. These secretions produce one or
more hormones.

Hormones are physiological substances having the power to raise or lower the activity
level of the body or certain organs of the body. For example, the gland pancreas secretes
pancreatic juice, not into the blood, but into the intestine. Here it acts upon food and
plays an important part in digestion of food. This pancreas also discharges into the
blood, a substance called insulin. This being carried by the blood to the muscles enables
them to use sugar as a fuel to add strength to muscles. It the pancreas fails to produce
the secretions, the organism lapses to the unfavorable conditions of growth and
development.

Similarly, the adrenal glands are very close to kidneys. These make a secretion of
adrenaline, a very powerful hormone, which is responsible for strong and rapid heart-
beat, release of stored sugar from liver and which controls blood pressure. Gonads are
glands, which secrete hormones that have important effects on growth and sex behavior.

A balance of male hormones controls development in the direction of masculinity and

that of female hormones steers it toward feminist. At puberty, these sex hormones
promote the development of genital organs. Lacking the gonads, individuals of either
sex develops into rather a neutral specimen without strong sex characteristics. Pituitary
is called the "master gland". It is attached to the under side of the brain and its
secretions controls the brain function and also the blood pressure. It stimulates other
glands like adrenal and gonads. If this gland is over-active in childhood, the muscles and
bones grow very rapidly and the individual may become a giant of seven to nine feet tall.

8. Learning and Reinforcement:

Learning is the most important and fundamental topic in the whole science of
psychology. Development consists of maturation and learning. Without any learning the
human organism is a structure of various limbs, all other internal organs with muscles
and bones. But it is not human being with maturation.

Learning includes much more than school learning. Learning goes to help the human
child in his physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social and attitudinal
developments. All knowledge and skill, all habits, good and bad, all acquaintances with
people and things, all attitudes built up in your dealing with people and things have
been learned.

Reinforcement is a factor in learning. Exercise or activity is necessary for learning. It

may be a motor activity, as in playing on a musical instrument. Or it may be a sensory
activity as in listening to a piece of music. Whatsoever, there most be activity in some
from. "We learn by doing". It is an old psychological proverb. Now it is that out activity

should be repeated till we get the desired results. So the proverb should be, "We learn by
doing getting results."
Question 2:
Explain in detail the Piagets stages of
intellectual Development?
Answer:

Piagets stages of intellectual

Development
The Swiss Psychologist, Jean Piaget (1970, 1972) took a different approach from that of
the psychometricians to understand human cognition. The psychometricians were
interested in studying individual differences in cognition, but Piaget was interested in
understanding the nature of intellectual development in normal children.

For nearly 50 years, Paiget observed children's intellectual development, and suggested
that all children proceed through a series of four stages in a fixed order. He said that
these stages differ not only in the quantity of information acquired at each stage, but
also in the quality of knowledge and understanding as well.

Cognition refers to all psychological processes used in acquiring knowledge m one's

environment. It includes learning, memory, perception, thinking, reasoning, decision-

making, and problem solving. Piaget's work provides insight into the age-related
cognitive activities from early childhood to adolescence.

Piaget who initially in 1920s worked in Alfred Binet's laboratory help standardize the
early IQ tests came to believe that the standardized intelligence tests ignore the
development of important qualitative aspects of children's thought processes.

In order to examine how children think, Piaget asked children some interesting
questions, such as "Where do dreams come from"? Or "Has the rock life?" He was
interested not with correct answers but with the way children answer a question, even if
their answers were wrong. This gave him tremendous insight about the nature of
children's thought processes, which is very different from that of the adults.

Piaget received his early training in biology and philosophy. During his mage years, his
godfather introduced him into an area of philosophy called epistemology, which is
concerned with analysis of various forms of knowledge only natural that his theory of
cognitive development reflects a distinctively logical flavor. He believed that human
beings are active organisms having a network of mental structures and constantly trying
to make sense of their experiences.

He consistently observed his own three children, two daughters Jaculine, and Lucine
and the son Laurent. His observations were found to be almost same in cases of all his
children. His meticulous studies were put a systematic theory, which continued to be
updated until his death in 1980. His careful work inspired a great deal of research on
children's cognition intelligence. Even today, Piaget's theory of intelligence provides the
most dominant framework in developmental psychology.

According to Piaget (1952), "Intelligence is a particular instance biological adaptation."

For Piaget, intelligence refers to a general me adaptability. Piaget was basically
concerned with three questions: (a) what it that changes with development? (b) How
cognitive changes take place? (c) What is the most systematic way of ordering the stages
of cognitive development?

Important Charactertiscs of Cognitive

Development

(i) Cognitive development is systematic:

First the child starts giving attention to stimulation from the environment, perceives
them, forms concepts and then finally gives response.

(ii) Cognitive development starts from general to

specific:
The children first learn about him and forms concepts, then learn about other people
and environment and make concepts on the basis of reasoning and understanding.
(iii) Individual differences are there in cognitive
development:
Cognitive development takes place differently in different children. Some have a better
thinking capacity, some have better logic and understanding and some are more
imaginative.

(iv) All the developmental aspects and cognitive

development are related:
If a child is physically sick he also becomes mentally sick as tension in the mind affects
his other developments like social and emotional.

(v) Guidance and training affect cognitive

development:
Good guidance and training encourage better cognitive development. If a child doesn't
get training and guidance he can lay behind cognitive development even though he is
intelligent.

(vi) Cognitive development is the s total of past and

present experience:
Cognitive development is based on past present experiences a child receives perceives.
These experiences are the basic concepts formed in the brain.

Many psychologists have worked on cognitive development. Most important w is done

by Jean Piaget. He has described following stages of cognitive development:

1. Sensory motor stage

(Birth to 2 years)
In this stage the child tries to achieve balance between H sense organs and motor
activities. This stage is divided into six stages. They are interrelating where an individual
difference in cogniti development is also found.
Stage 1: 0-1 month:
The infant d many natural reflex activities like crying holding of hand, sucking, closing
of the presence of strong light. Though the infant is unaware of his environment one
month-o child is able to understand these reflex activities to some extent.

Stage 2: 1-4 months:

During this stage the sense organs start receiving stimuli from the environment. The
infant starts learner differentiation. He repeats natural activities e.g., closing and
opening of his fists is done the infant voluntarily. Certain activities this stage are
directed like while throwing arms and legs, he is able to take his fist in' his mouth. When
this activity gives pleasure and repeats it again and again.

The moment mother holds the baby he calms down and that shows understanding and
perceptual development.

Stage 3: 4-8 months:

The stage ii related mainly to infant himself. He repeating the activities, e.g., rattling of
the toy, rub' utensils on the floor, feels happy to listen ii sounds and gets pleasure. Drops
thing to picked up by others and repeat it again. Baby starts understanding th difference
between mother's breast and the soother. Differentiation is quite primitive at this age
but baby becomes conscious of his environment.

Stage 4: 8-12 months:

Baby starts crawling and exploring his environment. He tries to understand and analyse
his environment. The activities of the child are now focused directly. He can now solve
some problems like to reach his toy.

He can remove the obstruction in his way. During this stage the baby takes help of his
past experiences. If a toy is hidden at another place, instead of the first place he will look
for it in the previous place only. It shows object permanence to a certain extent. He
enjoys a game of peek-a-boo.

Object Permanence is an understanding of an object

that continues to exist when out of site.
Stage 5: 12-18 months:
In this stage the child uses his already learned skills in new situations. He becomes more
active and curious. He is ready for toilet training guidance. His activities are goal
oriented. He tries to unveil mystery. That is why he is able to play hide-and-seek with
mother and enjoys it. Here it becomes quite clear that thinking analysing, decision
making abilities are used by the baby to reach his goal.

Stage 6: 18-24 months:

This is the last stage of sensory motor stage. The child starts recognising 'signs'. He
becomes more alert and the mental process develops at a fast speed. He can imagine
new situation and tries to adjust with them. Plays make-belief games, e.g., imitates as a
driver or a teacher, make different sounds from his mouth. He is able to recognise the
product while watching, TV advertisement. By observing the sign 'X' he understands it
to be the clinic or hospital.

2. Pre-operational stage
(2 to 7 years)
During this stage, the child gathers experiences and continuously interacts with the
environment. These experiences form images in the mind of the child. He starts
recognising symbols and tries to perceive their meanings. His memory starts developing
and he becomes imaginative.

He is impressed by the imaginary characters of stories and imagines himself like them.
He is lost in his imaginary world and toys. He holds a stick like a sword and acts as a
king. Girls act like their mother by wearing her 'dupatta' or 'sari'.

He understands the meaning of many symbols. By observing the sign of he can

recognize hospital. When mother gets ready, he understands that she is going out of the
house. He guesses the weight of an object. Acting like a doctor by size. He is self-
centered during this stage.

3. The concrete operational stage

(7 to 11 years)
At this stage, the child becomes quite intelligent and worldly wise. He comes out of his
imaginary world and is more realisticnow. He is able to reason out and make judgment.
He goes to school and learns to cope up with many situations with the help of his
reasoning power. Power of differentiation and analysis also start developing at this
stage. He makes use of his abilities for his friends and their group activities, e.g., any
responsibility if given to him by the teacher in school, he is able to carry out well though
he needs guidance.

4. The formal operational stage

(11 to Onwards)
During this stage intelligence, understanding and other mental capabilities are almost
developed. Child is able to analyse the situations. He has foresight and reasoning
capacity developed by then. He can take advantage of others experiences. He
understands symbols, riddles, similes, poems and their meanings.

Educational Implications of Intellectual

Development:
Intellectual development during childhood period (Early-childhood and late-childhood)
depends on different factors such as heredity, environment (school, home and society.)
Role of teachers and guardians are highly important to give a permanent shape to the
intellectual curiosity of the growing child.

Language and communication skill can be promoted through reading, writing,

recitation, poetry, essay, composition and story relating creative imagination and
rational thinking. Cramming must be replaced by creative practices.

Involvement of students in practical works, experiments to get first hand knowledge

should be encouraged. Picnic, Study tour and fieldtrips are necessary for making
learning pleasant and joyful.

Teachers are required to adopt appropriate methods and techniques of teaching with
due consideration to students age and interest which will support intellectual
development of the child.
Question 3:
Explain in detail the Erik Erickson theory
of Psychosocial psychology?
Answer:

Erik Erickson theory of Psychosocial

psychology

Erik Erikson (1950, 1963) proposed a psychoanalytic theory of psychosocial

development comprising eight stages from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the
person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development. Each stage presents a challenge or a crisis in
which you go in one direction or another. When you reach a personality fork in the road,
your choices have a strong impact on who you are.

According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are
distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others,
developing a sense of identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the
future.

Eriksons stages of psychosocial

development:
Following are the stage of Eriksons Stages of psychosocial development:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust:
(This stage starts from birth to 18 months)

During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To
resolve these feelings of uncertainty, the infant looks towards their primary caregiver
for stability and consistency of care. If the care the infant receives is consistent,
predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them
to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust,
the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other
people will be there as a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will
lead to the development of fear.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt:

(This stage starts from 18 months to 3 years)
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Children begin to
assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to
play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.At this point,
the child has an opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns
new skills and right from wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying
himself or herself with pride rather than shame.

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of
their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased

independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive
in the world. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity
to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may
then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of
shame or doubt in their abilities.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt:

(This stage starts from 3 to 5 years)

In this stage children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly
lively, rapid-developing years in a childs life. The primary feature involves the child
regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it
provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through
initiating activities. Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate
activities with others.It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions
as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the childs questions as trivial,
embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may
have feelings of guilt for being a nuisance.Too much guilt can make the child slow
to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will
lead to the virtue of purpose.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority:

(This stage starts from 6 to 12 years)

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to
do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the childs life as
they teach the child specific skills.

Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals. They
work hard at being responsible, being good and doing it right. They are now more
reasonable to share and cooperate. If children are encouraged and reinforced for
their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to
achieve goals. If this initiative is notencouraged, if it is restricted by parents or

teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and
therefore may not reach his or her potential.If the child cannot develop the specific
skill they feel society is demanding then they may develop a sense of inferiority.
Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion:

(This stage starts from 12 to 18 years)

During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity,
through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs and goals.An adolescent
must struggle to discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and
 struggling with social interactions and fitting in, and developing a sense of morality
and right from wrong.

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will
occupy as an adult.

It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find
out exactly who he or she is. They explore possibilities and begin to form their own
identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of
identity within society ("I dont know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to
role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about
themselves or their place in society. In response to role confusion or identity crisis an
adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or
political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion
in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of
unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation:

(This stage starts from 18 to 35 years)
At this stage people tend to seek companionship and love. Some also begin to settle
down and start families, although seems to have been pushed back farther in recent
years.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing
commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes
depression.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generative vs. Stagnation:

(This stage starts from 35 to 65 years)

At this stage Career and work are the most important things along with family.
Middle adulthood is also the time when people can take on greater responsibilities
and control.
At some point, a person needs to be needed and to feel like shes guiding the next
generation. A desire to leave a legacy and impact younger people develops during
middle adulthood. When people feel that theyve done nothing or can do nothing for
the next generation, they develop a sense of stagnation instead of generative.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair:

(This stage starts from 65 years to death)

As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity
and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or
feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and
develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to
look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept
death without fear.

Critical Evaluation
Eriksons theory has good face validity. Many people find that they can relate to his
theories about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences.

However, Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of
experiences must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and
move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for
crisis resolution.

Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of

human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why
this development occurs. For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the
outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.

However, Erikson stressed his work was a tool to think with rather than a factual
analysis. Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be
considered rather than testable theory.

One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important
psychosocial development across the entire lifespan.

Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams,

1999), critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of
personality development (McCrae & Costa, 1997).
Question 4:
Explain in detail the Social learning
theories?
Answer:

Introduction:
Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura proposed one of the most influential theories
of learning and development the social learning theory.
Bandura stated that
Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing
others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action

Banduras Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge
between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses
attention, memory, and motivation.

Experiment:

Experimenters drew 40 boys and 40 girls from the Stanford University Nursery
School, aged between 38 to 63 months old.The children were organized into 4 groups
and a control group. The 4 groups exposed to the aggressive model and non-
aggressive model belonged to the experimental group. 24 children were exposed to
an aggressive model and 24 children were exposed to a non-aggressive model. The
two groups were then divided into males and females, which ensured that half of
thechildren were exposed to models of their own sex and the other half were exposed
to models of the opposite sex. The remaining 24 children were part of a control
group.
Through a series of experiments, he watched children as they observed adults
attacking Bobo Dolls (a toy that gets up by itself to a standing position when it is
knocked down). Bandura included an adult who is tasked to act aggressively toward
a Bobo Doll while the children observe him. Later, Bandura let the children play
inside a room with the Bobo Doll. He affirmed that these children imitated the
aggressive behavior toward the doll, which they had observed earlier.When hit, the
dolls fell over and then bounced back up again. Then children were then let loose,
and imitated the aggressive behavior of the adults. However, when they observed
adults acting aggressively and then being punished, Bandura noted that the children
were less willing to imitate the aggressive behavior themselves.Children who
observed violent behavior behaved violently toward the doll and vice versa.Children
learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning
- through watching the behavior of another person.
Conclusion:

After his studies, Bandura was able to determine 3 basic models of observational
learning, which include:

1. A Live Model, which includes an actual person performing a behavior.

2. A Verbal Instruction Model, which involves telling of details and descriptions of a
behavior.
3. A Symbolic Model, which includes either a real or fictional character
demonstrating the behavior via movies, books, television, radio, online media and
other media sources.

Social learning theory combines:

1. Cognitive learning theory (which posits that learning is influenced by

psychological factors)
 2. Behavioral learning theory (which assumes that learning is based on responses to
environmental stimuli)

Components for observational

learning:
Albert Bandura integrated these two theories and came up with four requirements for
learning.This helps us in understanding that not all observed behaviors could be learned
effectively, nor learning can necessarily result to behavioral changes.What information
is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of model, as well as a series of
cognitive and behavioral processes, including

Attention(environmental)
Retention (cognitive)
Reproduction (cognitive)
Motivation

Step 1: Attention
Social Cognitive Theory implies that you must pay attention for you to learn. If you want
to learn from the behavior of the model (the person that demonstrates the behavior),
then you should eliminate anything that catches your attention other than him. Also, the
more interesting the model is, the more likely you are to pay full attention to him and
learn.We cannot learn if we are not focused on the task. If we see something as being
novel or different in some way, we are more likely to make it the focus of their attention.
Social contexts help to reinforce these perceptions.

Step 2: Retention
Retention of the newly learned behavior is necessary. Without it, learning of the
behavior would not be established.We learn by internalizing information in our
memories. We recall that information later when we are required to respond to a
situation that is similar the situation within which we first learned the information. And
you might need to get back to observing the model again since you were not able to store
information about the behavior.

Step 3: Production Process

When you are successful in paying attention and retaining relevant information, this
step requires you to demonstrate the behavior. In this phase, practice of the behavior by
repeatedly doing it is important for improvement.

Step 4: Motivation
Feeling motivated to repeat the behavior is what you need in order to keep on
performing it. This is where reinforcement and punishment come in. You can be
rewarded by demonstrating the behavior properly, and punished by displaying it
inappropriately.
How it can be applied to education
Social learning theoryis a very powerful method of education. If children see positive
consequences from a particular type of behavior, they are more likely to repeat that
behavior themselves. Conversely, if negative consequences are the result, they are less
likely to perform that behavior. Novel and unique contexts often capture students
attention, and can stand out in the memory. Students are more motivated to pay
attention if they see others around them also paying attention. Another less obvious
application of this theory is to encourage students to develop their individual Self
efficacy through confidence building and constructive feedback, a concept that is rooted
in social learning theory.

Social learning in neuroscience:

Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a neurophysiology
basis for social learning, observational learning, motor cognition and social cognition.
Mirror neurons have been heavily linked to social learning in humans. Mirror neurons
were first discovered in primates in studies which involved teaching the monkey motor
activity tasks. One such study, focused on teaching primates to crack nuts with a
hammer. When the primate witnessed another individual cracking nuts with a hammer,
the mirror neuron systems became activated as the primate learned to use the hammer
to crack nuts. However, when the primate was not presented with a social learning
opportunity, the mirror neuron systems did not activate and learning did not occur.
Similar studies with humans also show similar evidence to the human mirror neuron
system activating when observing another person perform a physical task. The
activation of the mirror neuron system is thought to be critical for the understanding of
goal directed behaviors and understanding their intention. Although still controversial,
this provides a direct neurological link to understanding social cognition.

Social learning algorithm for computer

optimization:
In modern field of computational intelligence, the social learning theory is adopted to
develop a new computer optimization algorithm, the social learning algorithm.
Emulating the observational learning and reinforcement behaviors, a virtual society
deployed in the algorithm seeks the strongest behavioral patterns with the best
outcome. This corresponds to searching for the best solution in solving optimization
problems. Compared with other bio-inspired global optimization algorithms that mimic
natural evolution or animal behaviours, the social learning algorithm has its prominent
advantages. First, since the self-improvement through learning is more direct and rapid
than the evolution process, the social learning algorithm can improve the efficiency of
the algorithms mimicking natural evolution. Second, compared with the interaction and
learning behaviors in animal groups, the social learning process of human beings
exhibits a higher level of intelligence. By emulating human learning behaviour, it is
possible to arrive at more effective optimizers than existing swarm intelligence
algorithms. Experimental results have demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of
the social learning algorithm, which has in turn also verified through computer
simulations the outcomes of the social learning behavior in human society.
Question No 5:
Explain in detail the reason behind why a
teacher should have the knowledge of
Social and intellectual Development
theories?
Answer:

Introduction:
Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. His
extensive research into social development has lead his theory to be one of the most
important of its kind. He believed that childrens thinking is affected by their social
knowledge, which are communicated by either psychological (language, number, art) or
technical (books, calculator) means.He also suggested that language is the most
important tool for gaining this social knowledge; the child can be taught this from other
people via language.

The intellectual growth begins with rapid sensory and perceptual development in the
early years of life. By this third year the child develops skillful perceptual ability in
exploration of his world. For about 10 years he builds it, reaching his maximum capacity
in adolescence when his senses and perceptions are as sharp and keen as they will not
he again. General ability shows a steady and continuous growth from childhood through
adolescence. The maximum intellectual capacity seems to develop in the period from 15
to 17.
For example, a child tries to chronologically arrange the blocks that contain the letter A
to Z. At first, his performance is poor but when his mother sits beside him and tells him
how to arrange the letters properly, he begins to learn how to do so. The child will then
master the knowledge of arranging the alphabet with the presence of his parent. His
mother, on the other hand, gradually lets the child do the skill on his own, making the
child more competent.

Why a teacher should have the

knowledge of Social and intellectual
Development:

This concept is important becauseteachers can use it as a guide to a child's development.

It allows a teacher toknow what a student is able to achieve through the use of a
mediator and thusenables the teacher to help the child attain that level by themselves.

A second important aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the role of play in histheory.

According to this perspective teachers need to provide children,especially young
children, many opportunities to play. Through play, andimagination a child's conceptual
abilities are stretched. Vygotsky argued thatplay leads to development. "While imitating
their elders in culturallypatterned activities, children generate opportunities for
intellectualdevelopment. Initially, their games are recollections and reenactments of real
situations, but through the dynamics of their imagination and recognition ofimplicit
rules governing the activities they have reproduced in their games,children achieve an
elementary mastery of abstract thought.

Since language holds a central role in Vygotsky's theory, and is essential tothe
development of thinking, the school needs to provide many opportunities thatallow
children to reach the third stage of speech, which is inner speech, sinceit is this stage
which is responsible for all higher levels of functioning.
All classrooms in which instructional strategies compatible with Vygotsky's social
constructivist approach are used don't necessarily look alike. The activities and the
format can vary considerably. However, four principles are applied in any Vygotskian
classroom.

1. Learning and development is a social, collaborative activity.

2. The Zone of Proximal Development can serve as a guide for curricular and
lesson planning.

3. School learning should occur in a meaningful context and not be separated

from learning and knowledge children develop in the "real world.".

4. Out-of-school experiences should be related to the child's school

experience.

THE END