Dejan, Alyssa Colleen M.

February 16, 2016

BIO 30-L N-1L

Exercise 1
The Physical Basis of Heredity

I. Introduction

Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms. During division,
DNA replication and cell growth take place. These processes take place in an
organized sequence of events to ensure correct division and formation of daughter
cells. The cell cycle is the sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome,
synthesizes the other constituents of the cell and divides into two daughter cells. Cell
growth is a continuous process. However, DNA synthesis occurs during one stage in
the cell cycle. The replicated chromosomes undergo through complex stages of the
cell cycle (Schleif, 1986).

This exercise focuses on the behavior of genes and chromosomes during each
stage of mitosis and meiosis and determines which specific events allow inheritance
of trains and generation of genetic variation.

II. Materials and Methods

The following materials have been prepared:

Compound microscope Fixed onion root tips

Glass slide Acetocarmine
Coverslips 45% acetic acid
Straight and bent needles Alcohol lamp
Forceps Filter paper strips
Razor blade Tissue paper
Drawing pencil
A. Microscopic Examination of Dividing Cells

A slide was prepared showing cells of Allum cepa L. in active mitosis. The onion
root was fixed on a slide and its root cap was cut to observe the actively dividing
cells. A drop of acetocarmine was added to the thin root section and was left for
one minute. The stained root section is covered with a coverslip and heated after.
This was followed by the addition of 45% acetic acid. A filter paper was placed
against the opposite side of the coverslip to draw the acetic acid across the
 specimen. It was then heated shortly. The specimen was covered with paraffin
and observed underneath the microscope.

B. The Observation of Prepared Slides of Mitosis and Meiosis

Prepared slides of onion root and grasshopper testes were observed in LPO and
HPO. The different mitotic and meiotic phases were observed.

C. Wire Models of Cell Division

Using prepared wires, the different phases of mitosis and meiosis were depicted.

III. Results and Discussion

The cell cycle is divided into two basic parts: the interphase and the M phase.
The cell spends most of its time in the interphase; it is further divided into three
phases. In the G1 (Gap 1) phase, the cell is metabolically active and grows in size.
During this phase, no replication occurs, but the cell prepares itself for replication. S
(synthesis phase) corresponds to DNA synthesis, by which the initial amount of the
DNA is duplicated. A 2N cell would increase to a 4N. Yet, there is no increase in
chromosome number. In animals, DNA replication occurs in the nucleus and the
centriole duplicates in the cytoplasm. In G2 (Gap 2) phase, proteins are actively
synthesized in preparation for mitosis as cell growth continues.

Some cells, like heart cells, do not appear to undergo division. These cells only
divide occasionally to replace lost cells due to injury or death. These cells exit G 1
phase to the quiescent stage or G0 phase. At this stage, cells remain metabolically
active but no longer proliferate unless required by the organism. Following the
interphase is the M phase. The M phase may either be mitosis or meiosis. Before
cells proceed to M phase, they go through interphase. Mitosis is also known as
equational division since the number of chromosomes in the parent and daughter
cells are the same. It is further divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase (Schleif, 1986; Sutton, 1985).

Prophase, the first stage of mitosis, is distinguished by the condensation of

chromosomal material. These materials untangle in the process of chromatin
condensation. The duplicated centriole moves at opposite poles of the cell.
Chromosomes are composed of two chromatids held together by a centromere; the
centromere surface contains structures called kinetochores. The kinetochores are
sites of attachment of spindle fibers. Cells at the end of prophase no longer show
golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticula and nuclear envelopes.

Metaphase begins when the nuclear envelope has been completely

disintegrated. Due to this, the chromosomes spread throughout the cell. The
kinetochores attach to spindle fibers and are moved into position at the middle of the
cell.

Anaphase is characterized by the splitting of each chromosome. The

simultaneous split separates the two chromatids. These migrate toward opposite
poles of the cell.

In telophase, the chromosomes cluster at different ends of the cell. Their identity
is lost as discrete elements. A nuclear envelope begins to assemble around these
chromosome clusters as the other organelles (nucleolus, golgi complex and
endoplasmic reticulum) reform.

Lastly, the cell undergoes cytokinesis to accomplish the segregation of

duplicated chromosomes. During this, the cell is divided into two new daughter cells
containing the same genetic material as the mother cell. In animals, a furrow appears
in the plasma membrane; plant cells are enclosed by a relatively inextensible cell wall
(Russell, 1997).

Mitosis is usually restricted to diploid cells. However, some lower plants and
haploid insects divide by mitosis. The growth of multicellular organisms is due to
mitosis. Mitosis plays a significant role in cell repair. Meristematic tissues undergo
mitotic divisions to grow continuously throughout the life of organisms.

Another cell division halves the chromosome number in the production of haploid
daughter. Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually
reproducing organisms. Fertilization restores the diploid phase. Meiosis is observed
during gametogenesis in plants and animals.

Meiosis is composed of two different cycles: meiosis I and meiosis II. However,
there is only a single cycle of DNA replication. It involves pairing of homologous
chromosomes and recombination between them. Meiosis I occurs after parental
chromosomes have replicated at the S phase.

Prophase I is longer and more complex compared to mitotic prophase and is

further grouped into leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis. During
leptotene, chromosomes condense and compaction continues throughout this phase.
Zygotene is characterized by synapsis, in which homologous chromosomes pair
together. This is accompanied by the formation of the synaptonemal complex or
tetrad or bivalent. During pachytene, the tetrads are now visible. Pachytene is
distinguished by a phenomena called crossing over. This is an enzyme-mediated
process; it leads to the recombination of genetic material on the two chromosomes.
The regions of crossing over on the chromosome are called chiasmata (sing.
chiasma). Following this is diplotene, by which the synaptonemal complex is no
 longer functional. There is observed longitudinal separation of homologues,
beginning from the centromere. Diakinesis is marked by the terminalisation of
chiasmata. The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

Metaphase I is marked by the alignment of the chromosomes on the equatorial

plate. Microtubules from opposing poles attach to the kinetochores of the
chromosome pairs.

During Anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes separate; sister chromatids

remain attached by the centromeres.

In Telophase I, the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear. This is followed

by cytokinesis, hence two daughter cells are formed. However, meiosis is not yet
finished. Cytokinesis is followed immediately by meiosis II. No interphase occurs.

Meiosis II is similar to mitotic division. In prophase II, the nuclear membrane

disappears. Chromosomes become compact. In metaphase II, the chromosomes are
led by the spindle apparatus to align at the equator. Anaphase II is represented by
the splitting of the centromere of each chromosome. The chromatids are pulled to
opposing poles. These chromatids are enclosed by a nuclear membrane during
telophase II, followed by cytokinesis. By the end of meiosis II, four haploid daughter
cells are formed (Sutton et al., 1985)

Meiosis II increases genetic variability in the population of organisms from one

generation to the next. Variations are essential for the evolutionary process (Sutton et
al., 1985).

IV. Conclusion

The process by which cells come from preexisting cells is called cell division. The
stages of cell division is called the cell cycle, composed of the interphase (G 1 phase,
S phase, G2 phase) and the M phase. The M phase may either be mitosis or meiosis.
Undergone by both germ and somatic cells, mitosis is composed of four basic
phases. These phases are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The
daughter cells have the same genetic material as the mother cell. Undergone by
germ cells only, meiosis is further divided into meiosis I and II. Meiosis I (composed
of prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I) is where genetic
recombination occurs. Division in this phase is between homologous chromosomes.
Meiosis II, which consists of prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II
is more similar to mitosis, as division is between chromatids. The source of genetic
variation in meiosis is in prophase I, in which crossing over occurs. The daughter
cells have half the chromosome number of the mother cell. Cells undergo interphase
 before mitosis and meiosis. Cell division does not stop with the formation of a mature
organism; it continues throughout the life of the organism.

V. References

Schleif, R. 1986. Genetics and Molecular Biology. 2nd ed. London: John Hopkins
University Press. 231 p.

Sutton, H. and R. Wagner. 1985. Genetics: A Human Concern. New York: Prentice Hall
College Div. 480 p.

Russell, P. 1997. Genetics. 5th ed. Harper Collins College. pp 47-61.